Biographies

Welcome to Definitions

Find definitions of various economic & finance terms from A to Z.

A

Aaron Beck: Aaron Beck is a psychiatrist known for pioneering cognitive therapy, a technique focused on changing a patient’s negative beliefs about themselves and their life outcomes.
Expanded Definition
‘Aaron Beck’ is renowned for developing the groundbreaking therapeutic approach known as cognitive therapy. This method aims to reform the patients’ self-defeating attitudes, commonly known as ‘catastrophizing beliefs,’ about themselves and their circumstances, as well as their perception of the future. Through cognitive therapy, patients are aided in identifying and restructuring these harmful thought patterns, leading to a healthier mental state and improved coping mechanisms. This approach emphasizes the significant role of cognitive processes in the formulation and maintenance of emotional disorders, a principle introduced and pioneered by Beck.
Ability Model: The Ability Model is a method of understanding emotional intelligence (EI) as a type of standard intelligence using specific, interrelated mental abilities that correlate with other intelligences and mature over time and through experience.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Ability Model’ is a conceptual framework that considers Emotional Intelligence (EI) as a conventional form of intelligence. This model emphasizes that EI utilizes a unique spectrum of cognitive capabilities. Three primary characteristics define these capabilities: 1. Interrelation: The mental abilities used in this model work in synchronization, meaning they are interconnected and influence each other. 2. Association with Other Intelligences: These distinct mental abilities also maintain definite relationships with other established forms of intelligence, such as cognitive, spatial, or linguistic intelligence. 3. Development Over Time: According to this model, these mental abilities develop and mature over a person’s lifetime, influenced by age and valuable experiences. In essence, the Ability Model underscores that Emotional Intelligence isn’t a static attribute but a dynamic skill set that can evolve and improve over time, highlighting its relation and interaction with other forms of intelligence.
Abnormal Psychology: Abnormal psychology is the study of mental disorders, focusing on understanding their causes, consequences and treatments using psychological principles.
Expanded Definition
‘Abnormal Psychology’ can be comprehensively defined as a specialized subfield within psychology that concerns itself with the study, evaluation, and treatment of mental disorders. This domain applies the principles and theories of psychological science to understand unusual patterns of behavior, emotion, and thought, which can be potentially interpreted as being atypical or dysfunctional. Abnormal psychology seeks to analyze and elucidate the underlying causes of mental disorders, with the end goal of intervention and treatment. This involves studying various aspects, including individual psychopathology, abnormal behavior, and irregular psychological patterns, often employing diagnostic tools like the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). It is crucial to note that ‘abnormal’ in this context does not necessarily denote negative or undesirable characteristics, but simply deviations from the typical or normative psychological patterns.
Absolute Threshold of a Sensation: ‘Absolute Threshold of a Sensation’ refers to the minimal level of stimulus intensity needed for an organism to recognize its presence. It’s essentially the faintest detectable point of sensory input.
Expanded Definition
‘Absolute Threshold of a Sensation’ can be professionally defined as ‘the minimum intensity level of a stimulus at which a particular sensory system can detect its presence or absence at least 50% of the time under controlled conditions.’ This concept plays a significant role in fields such as psychology and neuroscience, where understanding the sensitivity and limitations of human sensory perception is crucial. For instance, the absolute threshold can refer to the faintest sound that humans can hear, the least amount of light that is visible, or the smallest concentration of a scent that can be detected.
Access: ‘Access’ refers to the cognitive act of retrieving past experiences from memory.
Expanded Definition
‘Access’, in the context of cognitive psychology, refers to the process by which memories are retrieved from storage in our minds. This goes beyond mere recall; ‘access’ entails the conscious act of tapping into these memories, bringing past experiences and learned information to the forefront of one’s present awareness. The process allows individuals to establish connections across different occurrences, aiding in comprehension, decision-making, and overall cognitive functionality.
Accommodation (developmental): ‘Accommodation’ in developmental terms refers to the adaptation or modification of mental schemas as a result of new knowledge intake. It’s a process where cognitive structures are reorganized to incorporate fresh information.
Expanded Definition
‘Accommodation’ in the context of developmental psychology refers to the cognitive process by which an individual modifies their existing mental frameworks, also known as schemas, in order to incorporate new information or experiences. This adaptive mechanism enables the individual to continually update their understanding and interpretation of the world around them, facilitating cognitive growth and learning.
Accommodation (visual): Accommodation in vision refers to the lens of the eye adjusting its shape to focus on objects at various distances, assisting in depth perception.
Expanded Definition
‘Accommodation (visual)’ pertains to the process by which the eye adjusts its optical power to maintain clear vision at various distances. This is accomplished by manipulating the curvature of the lens. When viewing distant objects, the lens of the eye flattens; to focus on nearer objects, the lens thickens. This change in shape and thickness is controlled by muscles attached to the lens, known as ciliary muscles. Information transmitted from these muscles, relating to their tension and relaxation, aids us in estimating the distance of the object we are viewing. This is one of the key factors contributing to our perception of depth and three-dimensional space.
Achievement Tests: Achievement tests are evaluations that measure an individual’s acquired knowledge or skills in a certain subject area or field.
Expanded Definition
‘Achievement Tests’ can be defined as specialized assessments that are specifically structured to measure the extent of knowledge and skills a person has acquired or mastered in a particular field or subject area. These tests are typically utilized within educational or professional settings and provide an objective analysis of an individual’s learning or comprehension level. They are designed to reflect the specific curriculum or training material that has been taught, and can range from academic subjects like mathematics, science, and literature to vocational or technical skills.
Acoustic Encoding: Acoustic encoding is the process of transforming auditory stimuli, particularly words, into a form understandable by the brain. It essentially pertains to how our mind remembers and interprets sounds.
Expanded Definition
Acoustic encoding is a cognitive process in which auditory stimuli, particularly spoken language, are transformed into a format that can be retained in memory. It involves the conversion of auditory sensory input into mental constructs that are stored in the brain, using the characteristic features of the sounds or words such as pitch, volume, and rhythm. This complex process allows the human memory to recall and recognize sounds, enhancing comprehension and communication. Its essential role in processing and preserving verbal information establishes it as a key component in the domain of cognitive psychology and neuroscience.
Acquisition: “Acquisition” refers to the phase in classical conditioning where a neutral stimulus gets associated with an unconditioned stimulus to evoke a conditioned response, and in operant conditioning, it’s the reinforcement process that fortifies the response.
Expanded Definition
‘Acquisition’ is a fundamental term applied in the field of psychology, particularly within learning theories such as classical and operant conditioning. In classical conditioning, ‘acquisition’ refers to the initial phase during which an association is established between a previously neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this linkage, the neutral stimulus, now termed as the conditioned stimulus, triggers what is known as a conditioned response, formerly produced only by the unconditioned stimulus. On the other hand, within the context of operant conditioning, ‘acquisition’ is used to describe the process where a response is strengthened due to reinforcement. In other words, when a certain behavior or response is followed by a stimulus that enhances its occurrence or frequency, it is undergoing the process of acquisition. The strength of the response correlates to the frequency or certainty of ensuing reinforcement, thus increasing the likelihood of the behavior’s recurrence in similar future situations. In simpler terms, ‘acquisition’ is the learning stage in which one begins associating a stimulus with a response or a behavior becomes more frequent due to positive consequences.
Action Potential: Action potential is the electrical shift in a neuron that facilitates nerve signal transmission. It’s essentially the neuron’s electrical response to stimulus.
Expanded Definition
An Action Potential is a key process in neurology, referring to the electrochemical event that takes place within a neuron, which enables the transmission of nerve impulses. Starting from a resting state, a neuron is stimulated to trigger a swift, momentary reversal and restoration of its electrical charge. This process, initiated by the influx of positively charged sodium ions, sequentially transitions the neuron from a negative to a positive voltage, and then swiftly back to a negative voltage. It’s essentially a ‘wave’ of electrical activity that travels along the cell’s axon, thereby conveying information within the nervous system. This phenomenon underpins our capacity to think, to move, and to perceive the environment around us.
Activation-Synthesis Theory of Dreaming: The Activation-Synthesis Theory of Dreaming suggests that dreams are insignificant byproducts of brain activity, with narratives formed post-awakening as a way to interpret these arbitrary neural impulses.
Expanded Definition
The Activation-Synthesis Theory of Dreaming is a widely recognized neurobiological proposition concerning dreams. It asserts that dreams are not inherent with any underlying meanings or interpretations. Instead, they are merely brain impulses that appear unstructured and incoherent. According to this theory, upon waking, individuals, in an attempt to bring order and sensible interpretation, unconsciously stitch these impulses together to fabricate fluid and comprehendible dream narratives. The process of merging these unrelated brain activities into a meaningful story is suggested to be a product of human cognitive nature, rather than any meaningful messages conveyed through the dream itself.
Active Imagination: Active imagination is a cognitive process that engages our creative faculties during consciousness to access and decipher unconscious symbolic content.
Expanded Definition
‘Active Imagination’ is a psychological concept denoting the method of engaging our imaginative capacities during our conscious states to access and understand the unconscious significations of our symbolic thoughts or behaviors. It is a purposeful mechanism where conscious mind proactively interacts with unconscious mind, providing insights into unresolved issues, personal advancement and a deeper understanding of the self. This process offers the potential for personal growth by unifying our conscious and unconscious minds, facilitating holistic self-awareness.
Active Listening: Active listening is a communication technique employed in therapeutic settings where the listener systematically echoes, paraphrases, and amplifies the speaker’s message to ensure clear understanding and empathetic engagement.
Expanded Definition
Active Listening is a fundamental communication skill that involves fully focusing, understanding, responding and remembering what is being said in a conversation. It connotes a deep level of engagement and empathy towards the speaker, incorporating feedback mechanisms such as summarizing, restating, or clarifying the information received. It is a technique developed by psychologist Carl Rogers as part of his ‘Client Centered Therapy’. This technique asserts that one must actively engage in the communication process, rather than passively consuming the information being shared. With active listening, the goal is to comprehend the message from the speaker’s perspective, promoting open dialogue and mutual respect.
Adaptation-Level Phenomenon: Adaptation-Level Phenomenon refers to our bias in perception and judgement, which is influenced by our previous experiences, making them our ‘neutral’ reference point. This phenomenon implies that we assess things like sounds, lights, or personal income in relation to what we have previously encountered or perceived as normal.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Adaptation-Level Phenomenon’ is a psychological principle reflecting our inherent inclination to gauge various stimuli or experiences, such as sounds, lights or personal income, in relation to a neutral or ‘baseline’ state determined by our past encounters. Suggesting that our perception of ‘normal’ is adjustable, it illustrates how we habitually adapt and reorient our standards based on previous circumstances or experiences, thereby affecting our judgment and assessments of new situations. This principle forms an essential part of our human perception and cognition, playing a consequential role in how we perceive and react to changes in our environment or lifestyle.
Adaptations: Adaptations are evolutionary solutions, developed through natural selection, that enhance an organism’s survival and reproductive success. They reflect an organism’s internal mechanisms to overcome environmental challenges.
Expanded Definition
‘Adaptations’ refers to inherent biological mechanisms or traits that organisms have evolved over time through the process of natural selection. These characteristics offered significant survival benefits to our ancestors, enabling them to effectively navigate the environment, endure various conditions, and ensure successful procreation. Essentially, adaptations are strategic evolutionary solutions to distinct challenges that have historically optimized an organism’s reproductive success and, thus, the propagation of its genetic traits.
Addiction: Addiction is an uncontrollable compulsion to pursue a substance or activity regardless of its adverse consequences, often marked by persistent cravings and recurring usage.
Expanded Definition
‘Addiction’ is defined as a chronic, complex condition characterized by an overpowering urge or compulsion for substance use or certain behaviors, despite being aware of the detrimental implications. This compulsion can be so intense that individuals will persistently seek out these substances or behaviors, irrespective of the accompanying physical harm, social isolation, financial burdens, and legal ramifications. Addiction typically involves a sense of loss of control and is usually associated with dependence, where cessation can lead to withdrawal symptoms. It is deemed a brain disease due to its profound effect on the organ’s structure and functioning.
Adherence: Adherence refers to the consistent and precise execution of medical guidelines and prescriptions.
Expanded Definition
‘Adherence’, within the context of healthcare, pertains to the extent to which a patient correctly follows and consistently executes the medical treatment strategies, guidelines, or prescriptions provided by their healthcare provider. This includes taking prescribed medications appropriately, adhering to dietary restrictions, attending scheduled health appointments, and implementing lifestyle changes as recommended by medical professionals. High level of adherence contributes significantly to the effectiveness of treatment plans and overall health outcomes.
Adolescence: Adolescence is the transition period between puberty and adulthood, characterized by physical, psychological, and social changes.
Expanded Definition
Adolescence is a distinct, significant phase of human development that occurs after childhood and before adulthood. This period is typically marked by the advent of biological and physiological changes known as puberty, during which the individual starts to mature sexually. While the starting point of adolescence is generally associated with the start of puberty, the ending point is less distinct and is often linked to the assumption of adult roles and responsibilities. The age range for this stage can vary significantly between cultures and eras, but it is commonly recognized to span from around 10-12 years to the early twenties. During this phase, individuals experience key cognitive, emotional, social, and physical changes that contribute to their identity formation and personal growth.
Adoption Study: An adoption study is a research approach in genetics that compares behavioral similarities between biologically related individuals, like twins or adoptees, raised under varying environments to examine the interactive effects of nature and nurture.
Expanded Definition
An ‘Adoption Study’ is a specialized research approach within the field of behavioral genetics. This technique predominantly examines the similarities and differences in behavior and traits among biological relatives (commonly twins) who have been raised in different environments, ie. separately or apart. It typically includes a comparative analysis between adopted children and their adoptive parents, as well as their biological parents. This type of study is commonly utilized to understand the relative contributions of inherited traits (nature) and environmental influences (nurture) to individual behaviors and characteristics.
Adrenal Glands: Adrenal glands are two glandular organs atop each kidney that produce hormones to regulate key bodily functions, including metabolism, hydration, immune response, stress reactions, and sexual development.
Expanded Definition
The adrenal glands are two small, structurally distinct, triangular-shaped glands situated on top of each kidney. Their primary function is the synthesis and release of hormones that control various bodily functions. They play a crucial role in maintaining the body’s salt and water equilibrium, thus impacting blood pressure and fluid and electrolyte balance. In response to periods of excitement, danger, or stress, these glands produce and secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine, commonly known as adrenaline and noradrenaline, respectively. These hormones trigger rapid physiological responses that prepare the body for a ‘fight or flight’ response, enhancing alertness and physical readiness. The adrenal glands also contribute significantly to metabolic processes by influencing the rate at which the body metabolizes fats and carbohydrates, and they help in regulating blood sugar levels. Additionally, they play a vital role in enhancing immune system responses and are involved in sexual development and functionality. Essentially, the adrenal glands function as a command center for numerous critical bodily functions, contributing to overall body regulation and response to various conditions and stimuli.
Adrenaline: Adrenaline is a hormone that catalyzes the body’s fight-or-flight response, stimulating increased heart rate, higher blood pressure and enhanced energy levels.
Expanded Definition
Adrenaline, also known as epinephrine, is a naturally occurring hormone and neurotransmitter responsible for regulating fundamental bodily functions. When released into the body, typically during stress or perceived danger, it triggers various physiological changes to prepare the body’s ‘fight or flight’ response. Adrenaline’s primary function is to enhance the heart rate, causing the heart to pump more blood. This increases oxygen flow to the muscles, effectively preparing the body for immediate action. Concurrently, adrenaline prompts an elevation in blood pressure by inducing contraction in the arterial walls. It also prompts the breakdown of glycogen, a secondary source of energy for the body, into glucose, thereby increasing energy availability. By these means, adrenaline allows the human body to respond promptly and physically to threatening situations, essentially facilitating survival.
Affect: ‘Affect’ refers to the experience or manifestation of an emotion or feeling.
Expanded Definition
‘Affect’ is defined as the subjective and internal response or experience of an individual to specific stimuli, scenarios, or events. Typically used in contexts of psychology and emotion theories, it encompasses feelings or emotions, concerning their intensity, duration, and fluctuations. These could include various states such as joy, sadness, anger, or fear. This term is crucial in shedding light on an individual’s emotional landscape and understanding how immediate responses can influence behavior and interpersonal interactions.
Affective Forecasting: Affective forecasting is the process of forecasting or predicting one’s emotional reactions to future events.
Expanded Definition
‘Affective Forecasting’ is a psychological concept that refers to an individual’s ability to anticipate and predict their emotional states or responses in the future. This process often involves considerations about how they might feel after certain events, experiences, or outcomes. These forecasts may significantly impact the decision-making process, guiding behavior, and planning for future events. Despite its importance, the accuracy of affective forecasting is subject to error, with individuals often overestimating the intensity and duration of their emotional reactions.
Aggression: Aggression is an action, either verbal or physical, purposely designed to cause harm or damage.
Expanded Definition
‘Aggression’ is commonly defined as a range of behaviors that can result in both physical and psychological harm to oneself, others, or objects in the environment. This behavior is often characterized by a deliberate intent to cause harm or damage. It can take various forms such as verbal abuse, physical assault, or passive acts and can be directed towards multiple targets including individuals, groups, or one’s self. The complexities of aggression, its causes, and its impacts are widely studied within the fields of psychology, sociology, and neuroscience.
Agonist: An agonist is a substance that imitates the effects of a specific neurotransmitter by mimicking its chemical properties.
Expanded Definition
An ‘Agonist’ is a type of pharmacological agent, often utilized as a drug, that shares or mirrors chemical similarities with a specific neurotransmitter in the brain. A neurotransmitter is a substance that transmits nerve impulses across a synapse, which is a junction between two nerve cells. By imitating the properties of this neurotransmitter, the agonist can initiate a physiological response similar to the naturally occurring process. This makes it possible for the agonist to produce effects in the body that are equivalent to those of the neurotransmitter it mimics, thus influencing our body’s responses and potentially aiding in treatment of various medical conditions.
Agoraphobia: Agoraphobia is a psychological disorder where individuals experience severe anxiety in environments that might restrict escape or lack immediate help.
Expanded Definition
Agoraphobia is a form of anxiety disorder characterized by a significant fear of being in certain places or circumstances that the individual perceives as unsafe. These are typically environments from which escape may prove difficult, induce embarrassment or in situations where immediate assistance may not be readily available should panic symptoms arise. It often leads to the individual avoiding these situations, which could range from crowded areas such as shopping malls or public transportation, to more wide-ranging scenarios like simply being outside of their home. The nature of this fear varies greatly among individuals and its severity can impact daily activities, personal life, and overall well-being. It is important to understand that agoraphobia is not a choice, but a mental health condition that can be effectively managed with appropriate treatment.
Agreeableness: Agreeableness refers to a personality trait characterized by empathy, kindness, and a non-confrontational behavior, exhibiting a propensity towards cooperative, social harmony and a preference for consensus over personal opinion assertion.
Expanded Definition
‘Agreeableness’ is a fundamental personality trait that encompasses a range of characteristics pertaining to an individual’s interpersonal behavior. This trait is often linked with attributes such as sympathy, generosity, magnanimity, and helpfulness, which contribute to a person’s overall congeniality and likeability. These traits often guide the individual’s aptitude in fostering harmonious social relationships. Moreover, the trait of agreeableness indicates a usual inclination towards acquiescence and consensus building, often downplaying one’s own opinions and choices in favor of unity and cordiality. It’s a central building block of a person’s temperament, displaying their approach to interaction and negotiation within their social environment.
Alcohol: Alcohol is a colorless substance, derived from fermenting sugar or starch, serving as the intoxicating element in fermented beverages.
Expanded Definition
‘Alcohol’ is defined as a transparent, volatile substance yielded through the process of fermentation of sugars or starches. It is the primary component in a variety of fermented beverages which generates the state of inebriation or intoxication upon consumption. The chemical structure of alcohols typically includes one or more hydroxyl (-OH) groups attached to a carbon atom, and they can exist in simple forms like ethanol, found in alcoholic drinks, or more complex forms like those used in industry and manufacturing.
Algorithm: An algorithm is a structured, logical set of guidelines designed to deliver a guaranteed solution to a specific problem, as opposed to the quicker but more fallible process of heuristics.
Expanded Definition
An ‘Algorithm’ is a well-ordered, unambiguous set of rules or instructions designed to achieve a specific outcome or solve a specific problem. It presents a step-by-step procedure where each step is definitive and precisely performed. This systematic approach ensures error-minimization and uniformity in problem-solving, albeit not always the fastest. This contrasts with heuristics, which can expedite solutions but carries a higher risk of errors due to its nature of using more generalized rules or ‘educated guesses’.
Alpha Waves: Alpha waves are brainwave patterns typically observed when a person is awake but in a relaxed and calm state. They represent reduced cognitive activity linked to tranquility and peacefulness.
Expanded Definition
“Alpha Waves” refers to a type of brainwave pattern that often occurs during heightened states of relaxation while being awake. The frequency of these waves typically lies between 8 to 13 Hertz. They are known as ‘slow’ brainwaves as their speed is slower compared to other types of brainwaves, such as beta waves, which occur during active thinking or focus. Detected commonly via electroencephalography (EEG) in the posterior parts of the brain when the eyes are closed, alpha waves are indicative of a mind that is in a calm and tranquil state. They are associated with various states of consciousness, mindfulness, and can be elicited through practices such as meditation and biofeedback.
Altruism: Altruism is the selfless act of aiding others to boost their welfare, without expecting anything in return.
Expanded Definition
Altruism is a philosophical and social concept referring to selfless acts of assistance or behaviors undertaken with the primary intent of promoting the welfare or well-being of another individual or group. In essence, it emphasizes the voluntary provision of aid, typically at a cost to oneself, without any expectation of reciprocation or personal benefit. Altruistic behaviors often stem from an inherent sense of empathy or compassion and demonstrate a commitment towards promoting collective good and fostering a sense of shared humanity.
Alzheimer’s Disease: Alzheimer’s Disease is a progressive, fatal form of dementia resulting in severe impairment of emotional, cognitive, and physical functions over time.
Expanded Definition
Alzheimer’s Disease is a progressive neurodegenerative condition characterized by a gradual, yet severe impairment in cognitive functions – such as memory, reasoning, and judgment — over the course of several years. It is a specific subtype of dementia, with unique pathological and clinical features. The disease can cause significant changes in personality and behavior, including a diminishing capacity for understanding, emotional stability, and physical abilities. It leads to a progressive decline in functional abilities, eventually leading to death. This degenerative process is mainly associated with the accumulation of plaques and tangles in the brain, which cause neuronal damage. Lack of effective treatment options makes this disease a significant public health concern, globally. Even though there is currently no cure, medication and management strategies can temporarily alleviate some symptoms and improve the quality of life for individuals with Alzheimer’s and their caregivers.
Ambivalent Attachment Style: Ambivalent Attachment Style is a form of attachment where a child exhibits uncertainty and apprehension, often sticking close to the caregiver, demonstrating a reluctance to independently explore their surroundings.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Ambivalent Attachment Style’ is a term used in developmental psychology to describe a specific attachment pattern observed in children. Typically, children exhibiting this attachment style display unease, caution, or skepticism towards unfamiliar scenarios or individuals, commonly manifesting an obvious preference for their primary caregiver, usually the mother. They may demonstrate this preference through behaviors such as maintaining physical proximity, clinging, or refraining from engaging in independent activities, like exploring new toys. This style can often suggest inconsistent caregiver responses, going back and forth between responsive and unresponsive, leading to the child’s uncertainty and resulting in their heightened dependence on the caregiver for security and comfort.
Ambivalent Sexism: Ambivalent sexism refers to the paradoxical set of attitudes towards women, embodying both positive and negative stereotypes, reflecting the intricate nature of gender perspectives.
Expanded Definition
‘Ambivalent Sexism’ is a multifaceted psychological concept that acknowledges the intricate nature of gender-related attitudes. This approach identifies that women, in particular, are often simultaneously attributed with both favorable and unfavorable traits. It scrutinizes the contradictory attitudes wherein women are paradoxically idealized for some attributes (referred to as ‘benevolent sexism’ – like being viewed as caring or nurturing) and unfavorably stereotyped or discriminated against for others (known as ‘hostile sexism’ – for instance, perceiving women as inferior or weak). This ambivalence contributes to an ongoing societal challenge where the equality and empowerment of women are concerned, making ambivalent sexism a critical concept to address in promoting equal gender relations.
Amnesia: Amnesia is a cognitive condition characterized by the loss of memory or inability to recall past information.
Expanded Definition
‘Amnesia’ is clinically defined as a neurocognitive disorder characterized by an individual’s impaired ability to recall past experiences or previously learned information. This memory impairment can manifest in several ways, such as difficulty remembering past events (retrograde amnesia), trouble forming new memories (anterograde amnesia), or both. Often arising due to brain injury, diseases, or psychological trauma, amnesia disrupts the process of information retrieval from the memory storage, thereby hindering an individual’s personal, social, or occupational functioning. It is key to note, however, that intelligence, consciousness, and sensory perception typically remain unaffected, making amnesia exclusively a memory-related deficit.
Amniotic Sac: The Amniotic Sac is a liquid-filled space where the embryo resides until birth, serving as a buffer for external pressures and a thermostat for regulating temperature.
Expanded Definition
The Amniotic Sac, often referred to as the ‘waters’, is a vital component of the gestational system, wherein the developing embryo or fetus resides until birth. This sac, formed primarily from maternal tissues, is filled with a substance known as amniotic fluid. The fluid serves multiple integral roles, including acting as a buoyant, protective buffer against potential harm from external forces, stresses, or shocks. Moreover, it assists in regulating the internal temperature of the fetus and maintaining a consistent and suitable environment. This stability supports vital developmental phases and sustains life in utero. The amniotic sac also facilitates mobility, enabling the unborn baby to move, which contributes to the development of the musculoskeletal system.
Amphetamine: Amphetamine is a potent central nervous system stimulant that enhances alertness and focus, while reducing exhaustion and hunger.
Expanded Definition
Amphetamine is a type of synthetic psychoactive substance classified as a central nervous system stimulant. Its primary function involves enhancing brain activity leading to effects such as heightened alertness, enhanced concentration, and amplified energy levels. It is also noted to cause a decrease in the feelings of fatigue and suppress appetite. Used medically for conditions such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy, it should be administered carefully and under thorough medical supervision due to its high potential for addiction and misuse.
Amplitude: Amplitude refers to the peak level of a sound wave’s fluctuation, directly governing its corresponding energy level.
Expanded Definition
Amplitude, a fundamental concept in waveform analysis, often associated with sound waves, describes the maximum extent of a fluctuation in a periodic variable such as a wave. It provides a quantitative measurement of the wave’s height from its mean position, which reflects its strength or intensity. In the context of sound waves, amplitude determines the energy contained within these waves. High amplitude signifies greater energy, resulting in louder sounds, while low amplitude corresponds to less energy, producing softer sounds. In essence, amplitude serves as a critical factor in defining the loudness or intensity of a sound in acoustics.
Amygdala: The amygdala, two almond-shaped clusters within the limbic system, primarily manages our responses to fear and aggression.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Amygdala’ is a small, almond-shaped formation integral to the limbic system, a complex system of nerves and networks in the brain. It is comprised of two clusters situated deep within the brain’s medial temporal lobe. The primary function of the amygdala is to process and interpret emotional responses, particularly those related to fear and aggression. By assessing potential threats in the environment, the amygdala aids in determining appropriate reactive behaviors to secure survival. It also plays a substantive role in memory formation, particularly emotional memories, enhancing the cognitive recall of events that elicited strong emotional responses.
Anchoring: ‘Anchoring’ is a cognitive bias that involves base decisions or estimates on an initial, often unrelated, value or ‘anchor’ and inadequately mandating changes from that reference point.
Expanded Definition
‘Anchoring’ refers to a cognitive bias where initial information or impressions — even if they are not sufficiently relevant — significantly influence our subsequent decisions or assessments. Our judgments become ‘anchored’ or tethered to these initial inputs, and we often fail to adjust or deviate significantly from these ‘anchors’, even when presented with new information that should rationally alter our conclusions. The ‘anchor’ can be arbitrary, lacking basis in logic or facts, yet it still holds a substantial impact on our decision-making process. This concept is prominent in the fields of psychology and behavioral economics.
Anima: Anima is the archetype representing the hidden feminine aspect in the male subconscious.
Expanded Definition
“Anima” is a concept arising from analytical psychology, particularly from the work of Carl Jung. It is viewed as the embodiment of the feminine traits or qualities existing latently in every man’s subconscious mind. Often conceptualized as an archetype, the Anima represents characteristics traditionally associated with femininity, such as intuition, emotionality, and caring nature, that are part of a man’s psychic framework but may not be externally expressed. Understanding the Anima concept can prove helpful in psychological assessment or psychotherapy by providing insights into a man’s emotional and behavioral development.
Animus: ‘Animus’ is the symbolic representation of the hidden masculine elements present in the subconscious mind of a woman.
Expanded Definition
“Animus” pertains to a concept in Carl Jung’s theory of psychology, which represents the unconscious masculine aspect present within the female subconscious. According to Jung, as a psychological archetype, the Animus can influence a woman’s thinking and behavior by integrating masculine characteristics into her personality. It is a complex notion that suggests every individual embodies both traditionally male and female qualities, regardless of their biological sex. Thus, the Animus plays a crucial role in balancing these aspects and contributing to the holistic development of an individual’s psyche.
Anonymity: Anonymity is the safeguarding of a person’s identity by refraining from gathering or revealing any personally identifiable data.
Expanded Definition
‘Anonymity’ is conventionally defined as the safeguarding of an individual’s identity through the deliberate avoidance of gathering or revealing any data that could personally identify the individual. This approach is commonly utilized in research studies, surveys, and online interactions, to ensure participant privacy and data security. The method ensures that the individual’s personal information, such as name, address, contact details or any unique identifiers, remains undisclosed, fostering an environment of trust and confidentiality. Maintaining anonymity is a critical element in many fields, offering protections to the individual’s identity while also adhering to ethical standards and privacy regulations.
Anorexia Nervosa: Anorexia Nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by extreme calorie-restriction leading to significant weight loss, coupled with a distorted body image causing the individual to still perceive themselves as overweight.
Expanded Definition
Anorexia Nervosa is a severe psychological disorder prevalent primarily, but not exclusively, in adolescent females. It is characterized by a distorted self-perception of being overweight, which persists despite significant weight loss. Typically, individuals suffering from Anorexia Nervosa restrict their food intake to the point where they become at least 15% below the average weight for a person of their age and height. This intense fear of gaining weight and obsession with being thin can lead to extreme starvation, often accompanied by severe physical and mental health complications. However, it’s vital to note that Anorexia Nervosa is a complex condition that goes beyond food and weight issues and may stem from a combination of biological, psychological, and socio-cultural factors.
Antagonist: An antagonist is a substance that inhibits or diminishes the biological response of a neurotransmitter, ultimately reducing its normal function.
Expanded Definition
An antagonist is a type of pharmaceutical substance that inhibits or mitigates the typical actions of a neurotransmitter– chemical messengers which transmit signals between nerve cells in the brain. Antagonists work either by blocking the receptors where neurotransmitters would typically bind, or by reducing the production or release of the neurotransmitters themselves. Consequently, they can serve as powerful tools in the treatment of various neurological and psychological conditions, and in exploring the complex functions of the brain.
Anterograde Amnesia: Anterograde amnesia is a condition where new experiences don’t transform into lasting memories post-amnesia onset, due to disrupted information transfer from short-term to long-term memory.
Expanded Definition
Anterograde Amnesia refers to a neurological condition in which the individual affected is unable to convert short-term experiences into long-term memory storage, creating a cognitive barrier against the formation of new memories from the point at which the amnesia starts. Essentially, this means the person can remember information and events occurred prior to the onset of this condition, but struggles with retaining or creating new memory data post-onset. This form of amnesia, therefore, disrupts the memory consolidation process, where the brain does not adequately transition the immediate and potentially fleeting memory recall into a more stable and permanently accessible memory.
Antianxiety Drugs: Antianxiety drugs are medications employed to mitigate anxiety and restlessness, streamlining emotional stability.
Expanded Definition
‘Antianxiety Drugs’, also known as anxiolytics, are a category of pharmacological agents specifically formulated to combat symptoms associated with anxiety and agitation. These drugs work predominantly by interacting with and modulating the activity of certain neurotransmitters in the brain, thereby influencing the balance of chemicals responsible for maintaining mental and emotional stability. Their primary objective is to reduce heightened levels of stress and worry, induce calmness, and regulate surplus unease in individuals suffering from conditions such as generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder among others. It’s fundamental to note that these medications should be administered under a healthcare provider’s supervision due to potential side effects and the risk of dependency.
Antidepressant Medications: Antidepressant medications are pharmaceutical substances formulated to moderate or correct chemical imbalances in the brain affecting mood regulation, primarily used for treating depression and related conditions.
Expanded Definition
‘Antidepressant Medications’ can be more accurately defined as pharmaceutical compounds specifically formulated to alleviate symptoms of depression. These medical interventions work primarily by adjusting the chemical imbalances in the brain’s neurotransmitter system, thereby improving mood, energy level, sleep, appetite, and overall cognitive function. Antidepressant medications are a key component in the broader treatment of mood disorders, which may also include psychotherapy and lifestyle modifications. While these medications primarily target depression, they may also be utilized for other mental health conditions. As with any medication, they should be administered under the careful guidance of a healthcare professional due to potential side effects and the requirement for appropriate dosing and monitoring.
Antipsychotic Drugs (Neuroleptics): Antipsychotic drugs, or Neuroleptics, are medications used to manage and alleviate psychotic disorders, such as schizophrenia.
Expanded Definition
‘Antipsychotic Drugs’, also known as ‘Neuroleptics’, are a class of medications primarily designed to manage and mitigate the symptoms related to schizophrenia and other conditions involving psychosis. These drugs function by regulating the levels and activities of certain chemicals in the brain, such as dopamine and serotonin, which play a pivotal role in mood and perception of reality. Administered under professional supervision, they can help patients better navigate their daily lives by reducing hallucinations, delusions, and thought disorders. However, they do not cure the underlying condition but rather, manage its symptoms. It’s crucial to note that these medications should be used as part of a comprehensive treatment plan that may also encompass psychotherapy and social support.
Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD): Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) is a chronic condition marked by persistent disrespect for, and violation of, others’ rights starting from childhood or early adolescence and persisting into adulthood.
Expanded Definition
Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) is a chronic mental health condition characterized by an enduring pattern of behavior wherein the rights, feelings, and safety of others are consistently violated. This pattern usually emerges during childhood or early adolescence, and if not addressed, persists into adulthood. Individuals with APD often demonstrate an apparent lack of regard for both social norms and the rights of others, exhibiting traits such as deceitfulness, manipulation, impulsivity, reckless disregard for their own and others’ safety, and a failure to feel guilt or remorse. While the term ‘antisocial’ may imply aversion to social interaction, in the context of APD, it refers more to behavior that is harmful or hostile towards others within society.
Anxiety: Anxiety is a state of unease or apprehension, commonly triggered by anticipated events or uncertainties.
Expanded Definition
Anxiety is a psychological and physiological state that is predominantly characterized by feelings of unease, apprehension, and worry. It often concerns an upcoming or uncertain event, though it may not always be associated with an explicit or known cause. These feelings may manifest in both emotional and physical symptoms, including restlessness, difficulty concentrating, rapid heartbeat, and insomnia, among others. It’s important to note that while periodic anxiety is a natural human response to stressors, chronic or persistent anxiety could indicate an anxiety disorder that might require professional intervention.
Anxiety Disorders: Anxiety disorders are mental health conditions characterized by excessive, persistent fears or worries, frequently related to commonplace circumstances or items.
Expanded Definition
Anxiety Disorders are a broad category of mental health conditions, characterized by excessive, persistent fear, anxiety, or related behavioral disturbances that interfere with daily functioning. These psychological disorders are not just everyday nervousness or stress, but involve more intense, irrational dread or panic, often triggered by common objects or situations. Symptoms can range from physical (like rapid heart rate and nausea) to cognitive (such as intrusive thoughts or repetitive worries). It’s crucial to note that anxiety disorders are not a result of personal weakness or poor upbringing but are legitimate medical conditions that respond well to treatment.
APA Ethical Code: The ‘APA Ethical Code’ is a comprehensive set of prescribed standards, encompassing 150 points, to guide psychologists and psychology students in all facets such as clinical practice, pedagogy, and research.
Expanded Definition
The ‘APA Ethical Code’ is formally defined as a comprehensive guideline composed of approximately 150 individual ethics principles. These principles are meticulously developed and maintained by the American Psychological Association (APA) to govern the professional conduct of psychologists, psychology students, and other professionals operating within the field of psychology. Encompassing a wide variety of professional situations, these standards apply to a range of activities such as clinical practice, educational instruction, and scientific research. The goal is to ensure consistent ethical behavior, protect the well-being of all parties involved, promote objectivity, foster trust, maintain professionalism, and uphold the integrity of the psychology discipline. This code serves as a crucial reference point for ethical decision-making and conflict resolution in all professional encounters within the purview of psychology.
Aphasia: Aphasia is a neurological disorder causing significant disruption to language abilities.
Expanded Definition
Aphasia is a neurological disorder that significantly hampers an individual’s language capabilities. This condition, typically resulting from a stroke or brain damage, interferes with one’s ability to express and understand both spoken and written language. Affected individuals may struggle with speech, reading, writing, or comprehending language, although the specific symptoms can vary depending on the severity and location of the brain damage. Despite these cognitive impairments, aphasia does not generally affect an individual’s intelligence or cognitive capabilities outside of language function.
Applied Research: Applied research refers to the exploration of practical problems to yield actionable solutions, integrating scientific principles with real-world applications.
Expanded Definition
‘Applied Research’ is an intricate field of academic exploration that is primarily focused on pragmatic applications. Instead of expanding the boundaries of general knowledge like basic research, it is squarely aimed at confronting and addressing real-world challenges. Its main objective revolves around applying scientific theories, principles, and methodologies to comprehend and provide solutions to daily life issues. The outcomes from this type of research typically guide policy formulation, inform practical action or support decision-making in sectors such as healthcare, technology, education, and business. End results often have immediate relevance and an explicit goal of contributing to the advancement of human welfare and societal progress.
Appreciation Effects: Appreciation Effects refers to the positive emotional impact and self-perception experienced when surrounded by social interaction or others’ company.
Expanded Definition
“Appreciation Effects” is a psychological concept referring to the positive impact on an individual’s self-perception and emotional wellbeing when they are in the company of others. This phenomenon recognises the human necessity for social interaction, suggesting that the presence of others can enhance our self-esteem, validate our existence, and contribute to our sense of fulfillment and satisfaction. This not only increases our positive emotional state, but also has potential long-term effects on our mental health and personal development.
Aptitude Tests: Aptitude tests are evaluations utilized to ascertain an individual’s capacity to carry out specific tasks.
Expanded Definition
‘Aptitude Tests’ can be defined as systematic evaluations constructed to quantify and assess an individual’s capacity or innate potential to excel in a particular field or task. They are structured to gauge one’s cognitive abilities, technical skills, problem-solving capabilities, or specific talents, usually correlating with predicted success in job roles, academic pursuits, or specialized activities. These tests enable informed decision-making in areas such as career guidance, academic placement, job recruitment, or talent identification. They are often standardized to ensure impartiality and reliability of results.
Archetypes: Archetypes are fundamental images or themes universally present across cultures, reflecting shared human experiences and patterns.
Expanded Definition
“Archetypes” refers to ubiquitous symbols or motifs that depict fundamental human experiences, present across diverse cultures and throughout history. These are intrinsic and typically unconscious templates that govern human behavior and perception. They represent the basic patterns, structures, or recurring motifs that embody universal themes reflective of the human condition. Stemming from the Greek words ‘archein,’ meaning original or old, and ‘typos,’ meaning pattern or model, archetypes are the foundational forms or concepts that drive narratives, characters, or symbols in various expressions of human culture, such as literature, art, mythology, and psychology.
Arithmetic Mean (M): The Arithmetic Mean (M), often recognized as the average, is calculated by summing all values in a set and dividing by the count of those values. It’s the most fundamental measure of central tendency.
Expanded Definition
The Arithmetic Mean (M), also commonly referred to as the “Average,” is a central tendency measure used in statistics to present a numeric representation of the central position within a data set or distribution. It is calculated by adding up all individual values or scores within a dataset and then dividing that total sum by the count of the individual elements or participants. This method provides a valuable, accessible snapshot of the overall distribution, enabling a simplified understanding of a typically complex number range.
Arousal: Arousal refers to the physiological reactions triggered by the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. It’s essentially our body’s response to stimuli, often associated with alertness and readiness to respond.
Expanded Definition
“Arousal” refers to our perception of physiological responses triggered by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. This system functions involuntarily and plays a crucial role in preparing the body to respond to stressful or exciting stimuli by stimulating processes like heart rate increase, pupil dilation, and adrenaline release. Thus, ‘arousal’ effectively describes the state of being physically alert or awake, ready to respond to various triggers in our environment. It’s a fundamental aspect of our emotional, cognitive, and behavioral states.
Arousal Cost–Reward Model: The Arousal Cost-Reward Model theorizes that the discomfort experienced when observing someone in distress compels us to assist, while weighing the potential rewards and costs of the response. It posits that our help-giving behavior is driven by a motivation to reduce these unpleasant feelings.
Expanded Definition
The Arousal Cost–Reward Model is a psychological framework that examines the interplay between the emotional discomfort experienced when observing someone else in distress, and the potential benefits and costs associated with taking action to alleviate that distress. This model suggests that witnessing another individual in need triggers an emotional response, typically discomfort or distress (the arousal). This emotional response can then motivate us to help, aiming to reduce our own distress. However, deciding whether to help or not is also influenced by the perceived costs (e.g., time, resources, safety) and rewards (e.g., social approval, self-satisfaction) related to intervening. Thus, this model provides a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing prosocial behavior, or the willingness to help others.
Assimilation: Assimilation is the cognitive process where new information is integrated into existing mental frameworks, or schemas.
Expanded Definition
Assimilation is a cognitive process, usually associated with learning theories and specifically with the theory of cognitive development of the Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget. It involves the integration of new knowledge into existing mental frameworks, also known as schemas. These schemas are pre-established models or structures of understanding that help us perceive and decipher the world. When we encounter new information, we try to fit it into these pre-existing schemas to make sense of it. Thus, assimilation is a process of modifying or augmenting the new information to fit into our current schemas, without altering the schemas themselves, thereby enhancing our understanding and learning.
Association Areas: Association areas are regions within the brain’s cortex where sensory and motor data merge with existing knowledge, thereby facilitating higher cognitive functions like learning, judgment, planning, and spatial reasoning.
Expanded Definition
‘Association Areas’ refer to specific regions within the cerebral cortex where sensory and motor stimuli are synthesized alongside pre-existing knowledge. Serving as the epicenter for our most human-like characteristics and complex mental abilities, these areas play a critical role in orchestrating higher-level cognitive tasks. This includes learning, problem-solving, planning, judgment, ethical reflection, abstract thought, and spatial reasoning. By integrating sensory, motor, and stored information, association areas enable nuanced perception and purposeful interaction with our surrounding world. They are integral to shaping our responses and behaviors, contributing significantly to our individuality and unique human experience.
Associative Learning: Associative learning refers to understanding the connections between two concurrent events, encompassed by stimulus-stimulus pairing in classical conditioning, or action-consequence linkages in operant conditioning.
Expanded Definition
‘Associative Learning’ is a fundamental aspect of cognitive processing, keenly defined as the mental capacity to understand and internalize the relationship between two distinct events or elements observed in the surrounding environment. These events may manifest either as two stimuli, exemplified in classical conditioning theories where a neutral stimulus eventually elicits a reflexive response after being repeatedly paired with another stimulus that naturally generates the same response. Conversely, an event could be a behavior and its outcome, as represented in operant conditioning where the likelihood of executing a specific behavior increases or decreases based on the consequences. In the broader field of psychology, the underpinnings of associative learning contribute significantly to our understanding of human behavior, habits formation, and cognitive decision-making processes.
Associative Shifting: Associative shifting is the process of transferring a reaction from one input to another. It’s essentially redirecting a response from its initial trigger to a different one.
Expanded Definition
‘Associative Shifting’ refers to the psychological process through which an individual’s response can gradually be redirected or migrated from one stimulus to another. It is an aspect of associative learning, where a relationship or connection is formed between different stimuli or behaviors. This concept suggests that our responses are not intrinsically tied to specific stimuli but can be transferred or ‘shifted’ to new stimuli via conditioning processes or experience. The mechanism of associative shifting demonstrates the adaptability and fluidity of cognitive responses in varying scenarios or environments.
At-Risk Research: ‘At-Risk Research’ is a study involving participant exposure to harm exceeding the risks encountered in daily living, necessitating a comprehensive review by the Institutional Review Board committee.
Expanded Definition
At-Risk Research refers to any form of study wherein the participants are subjected to possible risks or harm, greater than those they might ordinarily encounter in their daily lives. These risks could be physical, psychological, social, or legal, among others. This definition is construed as “greater than minimal risk” guide. Due to the nature of these associated risks, these research undertakings require thorough assessment and eventual approval from a complete Institutional Review Board (IRB) committee. This body, comprised of scientific and non-scientific members, ensures that all research is conducted ethically and adheres strictly to all regulations, thereby safeguarding the rights, safety and wellbeing of the participants.
Attachment: Attachment is the emotional connection formed between an individual, often an infant, and their primary caregiver, rooted in feelings of closeness and security.
Expanded Definition
‘Attachment’ refers to the profound and enduring emotional connection that cultivates between individuals, playing a crucial role in human relationships. This term is often used to describe the strong bond formed between an infant and their primary caregiver, typically the mother, which is pivotal in their psychological development. In a broader sense, it doesn’t solely pertain to infants but extends to any deep emotions shared amongst closely associated individuals. This bond, nurtured over time through consistent interaction and care, forms a vital aspect of social and emotional growth, influencing one’s ability to establish trusting and meaningful relationships throughout life.
Attention: Attention is the act of consciously directing awareness and focus towards specific information within our perception, excluding other distractions.
Expanded Definition
‘Attention’ can be defined as the cognitive state or mental activity wherein an individual intentionally concentrates or focuses on specific elements or details within the broader range of their perceptual capabilities. This could involve information derived from the senses, thoughts, or emotional experiences. Essentially, among the multitude of information available to us through our various senses, attention allows us to strategically prioritize and process a select portion for a given period.
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): ADHD is a psychological condition often identified by age 7, recognized by three primary symptoms: severe inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
Expanded Definition
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder typically diagnosed during childhood, although it can persist into adulthood. While the symptoms must be present before the age of 12, not 7 as previously required, the disorder is typified by persistent patterns of three primary behaviors: inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. 1. ‘Inattention’ refers to the individual’s difficulty in maintaining focus, often leading to careless mistakes, forgetfulness, and difficulty organizing tasks and activities. 2. ‘Hyperactivity’ is often marked by excessive movement or talkativeness, restlessness, and an inability to sit still, even when appropriate to the situation. 3. ‘Impulsivity’ is characterized by a propensity to make hasty, unconsidered decisions, and exhibits in behavior like interrupting conversations, difficulty waiting one’s turn, and acting without considering consequences. It’s important to appreciate that these symptoms must be more excessive than what is typical for a person’s age and developmental level, should arise in more than one context (like at both home and school), and cause significant impairment in daily functioning to warrant a diagnosis of ADHD.
Attitude: Attitude refers to our preconceived emotions and viewpoints, guided by our beliefs, which shape our responses towards people, objects, or situations.
Expanded Definition
‘Attitude’ is a psychological construct that encapsulates an individual’s emotional responses, often shaped by personal beliefs, which predetermine his or her reactions towards specific entities — including objects, individuals, and occurrences. This concept embodies nuanced feelings and perspectives that can profoundly influence our behaviors and interactions, and thus, significantly contribute to how we perceive and navigate the world around us.
Attitudes: Attitudes are subjective evaluations that form our views or predispositions towards individuals, concepts, or groups, shaping our reactions to them.
Expanded Definition
‘Attitudes’ refers to the preconceived notions or perspectives that an individual holds towards a person, concept, or group. These are shaped by one’s subjective feelings, thoughts, and beliefs which form the basis of their judgments or evaluations. Attitudes carry significant weight because they can potentially influence or bias an individual’s behavior or reaction towards a particular entity or situation. It is critical to understand that attitudes are complex constructs that are derived from personal experiences, socio-cultural influences, and cognitive dispositions. Therefore, they can vary greatly among individuals and can considerably impact interpersonal interactions, decision-making processes, and societal dynamics. The study of attitudes forms a significant part of cognitive and social psychology.
Attraction: “Attraction” refers to the sexual interest one person has towards another.
Expanded Definition
‘Attraction’ is a multifaceted psychological experience that involves an individual’s recognition or acknowledgement of a psychological, emotional, physical, or sexual interest in another person. This interest is often, but not always, connected to a desire for a romantic or sexual relationship. Attraction can encompass a range of factors including personality traits, physical appearances, intellectual compatibility, and more. It is a fundamental aspect of human social interactions that extends beyond mere sexual desire.
Attribution Theory: Attribution theory is a psychological concept concerned with discerning whether an individual’s actions are influenced by internal, personal factors or external, situational circumstances. It examines our tendency to attribute behavior to either personal traits or environmental conditions.
Expanded Definition
‘Attribution Theory’ pertains to a psychological concept that investigates the methods individuals use to interpret and make sense of observed behaviors. This theory suggests that we tend to attribute or credit people’s behaviors either to their inherent personality traits (dispositional attribution) or to the influences of their surrounding circumstances (situational attribution). In essence, it seeks to understand how and why people tend to associate observed actions with particular root causes, with these root causes characterized as either internal to the individual or externally inflicted by their environment.
Audience Design: Audience Design is the strategic crafting of speech or messages tailored to the comprehension level of the specific audience.
Expanded Definition
“Audience Design” is a specialized concept closely associated with the communicative act. It refers to the deliberate tailoring or structuring of statements, messages, or utterances with a specific audience in mind, considering their existing knowledge, experiences, preferences, and cultural background. This approach assumes the speaker has an awareness of the audience’s perspective and shapes their communication to promote understanding, engagement, and optimal response. It stands as a vital tool in fields like mass communication, marketing, teaching, and public speaking, constructing context-appropriate and effective communication.
Auditory Cortex: The Auditory Cortex is a region in the temporal cortex dedicated to processing auditory stimuli and facilitating language comprehension.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Auditory Cortex’ is a central region of the brain found within the temporal lobes, typically on both sides of the human brain. This key area, characterized by its central location in the superior temporal gyrus, is primarily accountable for the reception and processing of auditory information. It plays an instrumental role in the interpretation and perception of sounds, as well as in the complex processing of language and speech. By decoding acoustic signals, it enables us to recognize, differentiate and understand various sounds, noise patterns, speech elements including words, phrases and sentences, which is integral to our communication abilities.
Autoethnography: Autoethnography is a method where researchers examine their own cultural experiences as a means to gain an inward understanding, narrating it like a story.
Expanded Definition
‘Autoethnography’ is a methodological approach within social sciences and humanities characterized by the focus on the researcher’s own personal experience in relation to the cultural, political, and social contexts they are investigating. This approach intersects elements of autobiography and ethnography, permitting an introspective analysis. Through narrating personal experiences, it aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the cultural experience being researched. It allows the researcher’s personal story to take center stage, offering unique insights typically unattainable through traditional research methods. The goal is not generalizability but rather in-depth understanding of specific experiences, situated within broader sociocultural contexts.
Authoritarian Parents: Authoritarian parents are those who enforce strict rules and high expectations, but lack responsiveness or sensitivity towards their child’s needs or feelings.
Expanded Definition
‘Authoritarian Parents’ can be defined as individuals who adopt highly controlling and strict parenting methods, characterized by high behavioral expectations and minimal parental responsiveness. These parents enforce strict rules, demand absolute obedience, and often employ a top-down communication style, where minimal feedback or nurturing interaction is provided to their children. While they focus on discipline and order, they may lack the element of emotional warmth, understanding, and receptivity typically associated with other parenting styles.
Authoritative Parents: ‘Authoritative Parents’ refers to those who enforce guidelines while also acknowledging and respecting their child’s perspectives and requirements.
Expanded Definition
‘Authoritarian Parents’ are often characterized by their high expectations and strict rules, yet maintain an open line of communication and display sensitivity towards their child’s needs and perspectives. These parents set clear boundaries while also promoting an environment of mutual respect, fostering a balanced and positive development for the child. Although they enforce discipline, they equally give importance to their child’s emotions, opinions, and provide explanations for the rules they establish, creating an environment of understanding and responsiveness.
Autism: Autism is a developmental disorder, noticeable from early childhood, characterized by impaired social interaction, communication, and difficulty in understanding others’ mental states.
Expanded Definition
Autism, often referred to as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), is a developmental condition that typically manifests during early childhood. It is characterized by distinct challenges in communication, social interaction, and the ability to comprehend the emotional and mental perspectives of others. Individuals with autism may exhibit a wide array of behaviors, thereby making it a ‘spectrum’ condition. It’s vital to remember that people with autism are a diverse group with unique strengths and challenges. Severity and symptom presentations can differ remarkably, ranging from individuals with severe disabilities to those who are highly skilled or gifted, and each person has a unique set of abilities and experiences. Despite the challenges they face, with support and understanding, individuals with autism can lead fulfilled lives and contribute meaningfully to society.
Autobiographical Memory: Autobiographical memory refers to an individual’s recall of personal life events. It’s essentially our personal history archive, encompassing episodic memories and personal experiences.
Expanded Definition
Autobiographical Memory can be described as an individual’s personal recollection system encompassing episodic memories of specific instances, experiences, and events throughout their life. These memories, often imbued with emotional significance, form an integral part of one’s identity. It can include a broad spectrum of memories, from major life events like marriage or childbirth to trivial daily happenings. This cognitive function not only preserves personal history for future recall, but also aids in shaping the individual’s present actions, outlook, and overall understanding of themselves within the world around them.
Automatic: ‘Automatic’ refers to any process or behavior that occurs spontaneously, without conscious control or awareness, often optimizing cognitive efficiency.
Expanded Definition
“Automatic” describes a behavior or process that operates independently of conscious thought or control. It often happens without deliberate intention or awareness and is typically characterized by high efficiency, performing its task swiftly and effectively with minimal cognitive engagement. Such automaticity can be observed in various systems, devices, or human behaviors where tasks are executed seemingly effortlessly, due to either natural instinct, practiced skill, or advanced programming.
Automatic Behavior: Automatic behavior is an instinctive, spontaneous action that bypasses conscious thought- often referred to as ‘auto-pilot’.
Expanded Definition
‘Automatic Behavior’ refers to a certain set of actions or responses that are performed unconsciously, without the individual’s active contemplation or decision-making process. These behaviors generally arise spontaneously, without premeditation or self-restraint. They are typically developed over time, ingrained through repetition or habit, and can be physiological, like breathing, or learned, like driving. They are automatic in the sense that they do not require conscious thought or effort to execute. They are innate or conditioned responses that an individual carries out in response to specific triggers or situations.
Automatic Empathy: ‘Automatic Empathy’ refers to the subliminal process where an observer unintentionally replicates and experiences another individual’s emotional state through mimicking their expressive actions.
Expanded Definition
‘Automatic Empathy’ can be expertly defined as an subconscious process where an individual, known as the social perceiver, unintentionally absorbs and mirrors the emotional state of another person. This typically occurs through the imitation of the other person’s expressive actions or behaviours, resulting in the perceiver experiencing the same emotion as the one being expressed. This phenomenon allows for a deeper understanding and emotional synchronisation between individuals within a social context.
Automatic Processing: Automatic processing is the subconscious absorption of incidental details like space, time, and frequency, in addition to the effortless understanding of ingrained knowledge like word meanings.
Expanded Definition
‘Automatic Processing’ refers to the subconscious mechanism by which we absorb and catalogue information that we encounter frequently or regularly, without any conscious effort. This encompasses incidental data like spatial locations, temporal intervals, and occurrence rates, along with thoroughly ingrained information (for instance, the connotations of words). By conducting these cognitive tasks effortlessly and without requiring cognitive resources, automatic processing allows our minds to perform more complex tasks with the available mental bandwidth.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is a component of the Peripheral Nervous System, responsible for controlling involuntary body functions like heart rate, digestion, and perspiration.
Expanded Definition
The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is a crucial component of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), which operates predominantly below the level of consciousness. ANS plays an instrumental role in managing and maintaining the body’s homeostasis by overseeing and controlling various involuntary bodily functions. These functions include, but are not limited to, regulation of the heartbeat, control of respiration, facilitation of digestive processes, and management of bodily fluids through salivary and sweat gland activation and urinary system control. In addition, the ANS also takes part in the physiological reactions related to sexual arousal. The inherent complexity of the ANS ensures that the human body can respond and adapt to environmental changes without conscious effort, thereby underscoring its importance for survival and well-being.
Autonomy: ‘Autonomy’ is the individual right to freely make one’s own decisions without external pressure or coercion.
Expanded Definition
‘Autonomy’ is a cornerstone principle in social conduct and ethics, representing an individual’s inherent right to exercise personal judgment and make choices independently. This right safeguards freedom from external pressures or undue influences, enabling one to act based on personal beliefs, principles, and desires. It encapsulates the premise that every person has the right to decide for themselves, reflecting respect for individual agency and personal liberty. Autonomy lays the groundwork for free will, making it a vital component in discussions of moral, legal, and political philosophy.
Availability: Availability refers to the likelihood or readiness of obtaining a desired outcome. It indicates how effectively a particular response can be accessed or delivered.
Expanded Definition
‘Availability’ refers to the degree of accessibility or readiness at which a specific resource, response, or service can be obtained or accessed. It denotes the reliability and dependability of a system, individual, or network to provide expected outcomes or fulfill requests on demand and within an acceptable span of time. The term can be applied in a variety of contexts, from the fields of IT and business to services and products in general. The concept is often related to effectiveness and efficiency in ensuring continuous provision or minimum disruption.
Availability Heuristic: The Availability Heuristic is a cognitive bias where individuals base their prediction of an event’s probability on the ease of recalling similar instances from memory.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Availability Heuristic’ is a cognitive bias or psychological principle that refers to our natural inclination to make predictions or judgments about the probability or frequency of an event based on how easily specific instances or examples come to mind. In other words, the more readily something can be recalled or remembered, the more likely we are to perceive it as being common or probable. However, this can often lead to inaccurate perceptions and biases, as memory recall is influenced by various factors including exposure, experience, emotion, and media representation, and does not always represent objective reality.
Aversion Therapy: Aversion Therapy is a behavioral treatment approach that uses negative stimuli to discourage unwanted behaviors, essentially punishing these actions to decrease their occurrence.
Expanded Definition
“Aversion Therapy” is a specialized form of behavior modification therapy that employs principles of learning theory to alter unwanted behavior patterns. This approach hinges on the technique called ‘positive punishment’ – an approach in which an unpleasant stimulus is introduced or a desirable one is taken away each time the unwanted behavior occurs. The goal of Aversion Therapy is to create a strong association between the unwanted behavior and a negative outcome, thereby discouraging the individual from engaging in this behavior due to the undesirable consequences, and ultimately reducing the frequency of the maladaptive behavior in their everyday life.
Aversive Conditioning: Aversive conditioning is a behavioral training method where a negative stimulus is linked to an undesired behavior, aiming to discourage it. For example, causing a sense of sickness when alcohol is consumed to deter drinking.
Expanded Definition
Aversive Conditioning is a specialized form of behavior modification therapy, often used within the broader field of psychology. It operates on the fundamental principles of counterconditioning, where an undesired behavior is deconditioned by associating it with a negative or unpleasant stimulus. This negative stimuli can vary widely, from physical discomforts (like nausea) to impactful emotional reactions (like fear or guilt). The goal is to foster a powerful psychological association that discourages the repetition of behaviors that are harmful, unwanted, or addictive ― such as consuming alcohol, taking drugs, or engaging in unhealthy eating habits. Essentially, aversive conditioning is used as a tool to rewire the brain’s response to certain actions, effectively creating a strong psychological deterrent against them.
Aversive Racism: Aversive racism refers to individuals’ subconscious racial biases that they may be unwilling to acknowledge or admit. It is a subtle form of discrimination hidden behind the veil of conscious egalitarian beliefs.
Expanded Definition
Aversive Racism is a contemporary form of racial bias that is often unconscious or subtle. This framework is characterized by individuals’ reluctance or refusal to acknowledge their own racist attitudes or behaviors, often due to an inward or outward desire to maintain a self-perception of fairness and impartiality. This bias may manifest in indirect, subtle, or rationalized ways, making it difficult for individuals to recognize it within themselves. This contrasts with explicit forms of racism, where prejudices are consciously recognized and expressed. As such, aversive racism is a critical concept for understanding contemporary racial dynamics, societal bias, and their impactful consequences.
Avoidance Learning: Avoidance learning is a behavioral process where an entity learns to evade an aversive situation or input. It’s essentially the conditioned learning to prevent discomforting experiences.
Expanded Definition
Avoidance Learning is a type of behavioral psychology concept wherein an individual develops a behavior to elude or prevent situations, stimuli, or experiences that may lead to a negative or uncomfortable result. This is not just a simple act of avoidance; rather, it involves a sophisticated learning process where the individual understands, often through unpleasant past experiences, that certain actions can prevent distress or discomfort. Thus, their future behavior is shaped to avoid those situations. This learning process is instrumental in both animal studies and human psychology for understanding how experiences can significantly shape behavior patterns over time.
Avoidant: Avoidant is an attachment style where a child demonstrates indifference or disregard towards their primary caregiver, typically displaying minimal emotional reaction to their departures or returns.
Expanded Definition
‘Avoidant’ is a term used predominantly in psychology, specifically in the context of Attachment Theory. It describes an attachment style wherein a child consistently displays a certain level of indifference or disregard towards their primary caregiver, usually the mother, by avoiding or ignoring her presence or absence. This peculiar behavioral pattern is distinctly characterized by the child’s minimal emotional response when the caregiver leaves or returns. This attachment style can serve as an important indicator of the child’s emotional development and relationship-building potential.
Axon: An axon is a neuron component that carries electrical signals from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
Expanded Definition
‘Axon’ is a specialized structure within a neuron, a type of cell within the nervous system. This elongated filament extends away from the neuron’s cell body and serves as the primary transmission line for conveying electrical and chemical signals to other neurons or directly to the body’s muscle and glandular cells. Consisting of multiple sections called segments, each axon facilitates the process of information flow away from the neuron’s cell body. This thus keeps the body’s systems in sync by ensuring the efficient communication crucial for smooth coordination and response.

B

Babbling: Babbling refers to the initial phase of speech development in seven-month-old babies, where they intentionally make sounds without any specific semantic value.
Expanded Definition
“Babbling” refers to the early phase in a child’s speech and language development, typically observed around seven months of age. This term describes intentional, yet non-referential, vocalizations made by infants, characterized by repetitive patterns of syllables. While these vocalizations lack specific or established linguistic meaning, they are a crucial part of language acquisition, serving as a precursor to meaningful speech. Despite the absence of coherent words, babbling indicates that a child is experimenting with sounds, gaining control over vocalization mechanics, and developing necessary cognitive abilities for future speech comprehension and production.
Balance: “Balance” refers to distributing focus and effort across multiple goals, rather than focusing primarily on a single objective.
Expanded Definition
‘Balance’ can be defined as the principle of allocating one’s time, energy, or resources equitably among various objectives. Rather than primarily focusing on a single goal, balance involves diversifying efforts across multiple goals to ensure comprehensive growth and prevent overemphasis on a singular area. It is the harmonious management of tasks and objectives to promote overall well-being and productivity.
Barbiturates: Barbiturates are a class of drugs used primarily as sedatives and analgesics, known for their sleep-inducing and pain-relieving properties.
Expanded Definition
Barbiturates are a class of drugs that act as central nervous system depressants, primarily used to induce effects that range from mild sedation to complete anesthesia. Often prescribed by medical professionals as sleep-aids, these drugs work by slowing down the activity of various parts of the brain. In addition to promoting sleep, they can also function as effective pain relievers due to their ability to decrease nerve impulses. It should, however, be noted that while their potency makes them effective in medical use, it also leads to a strong potential for misuse and dependence. Barbiturates must therefore be used under the careful direction of a healthcare provider.
Basal Metabolic Rate: Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) is the amount of energy expended by the body while at rest to maintain essential functions, such as breathing and circulation. It represents the minimum energy necessary for sustaining life in a waking state.
Expanded Definition
The Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) refers to the quantity of energy, expressed in calories, that a person’s body needs to maintain its most basic, essential functions while at rest. These basic functions include breathing, circulating blood, regulating body temperature, and cell growth, among others. Essentially, BMR is the minimum level of energy required to keep the body functioning in a state of complete rest, making it a crucial component in understanding one’s overall metabolic health and energy needs.
Basic Research: Basic Research is the exploration that targets understanding fundamental aspects of behavior, often to increase scientific knowledge.
Expanded Definition
‘Basic Research’ is a scientific inquiry aimed at enhancing the theoretical understanding and knowledge base concerning various aspects of behavior. It addresses fundamental, often abstract, questions about behavioral mechanisms, principles, and processes, without an immediate practical application or specific use in mind. The primary intent of basic research is to extend the boundaries of knowledge and provide deeper comprehension that can lay groundwork for future applied investigations. This type of research is foundational to the scientific process, often leading to the mustering of novel theories and breakthroughs.
Basic Trust: ‘Basic Trust’ is Erik Erikson’s term for the confidence, formed in infancy, that the world is reliable and consistent, cultivated through positive interactions with caregivers.
Expanded Definition
‘Basic Trust’ is a term coined by renowned developmental psychologist Erik Erikson to signify the fundamental belief, established during infancy, that the world is a dependable, reliable place. This concept is thought to develop when a child’s early life experiences involve caregivers who consistently respond to their needs in a prompt and thoughtful manner. As such, Basic Trust posits that the world operates in predictable ways, and thus it can be trusted. This essential principle profoundly shapes an individual’s perception of their environment and their relationships throughout their lifetime.
Basic-Level Category: A Basic-Level Category is the default and most commonly used classification for an object, falling between broad and specific classifications. It represents an optimal balance between informativeness and cognitive efficiency.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Basic-Level Category’ refers to the primary classification level that most naturally and effectively identifies an object or concept. It strikes a balance between being overly general and excessively specific. This level tends to be the first one that comes to mind when categorizing or naming an object, providing an optimal level of detail where the members of the category share many common features while remaining distinct from members of other categories. It sits between the superordinate and subordinate levels in a classification hierarchy.
Behavioral Genetics: Behavioral Genetics is a field in science that uses multiple methodologies to understand the impact of genetics and environment on human behavior by contrasting traits between biological and non-biological relatives.
Expanded Definition
‘Behavioral Genetics’ is the interdisciplinary field of study that explores and examines the intertwined roles of genetic and environmental variables in influencing human behaviors. It leverages a wide range of research methods to dissect the complex nature-nurture interplay. These techniques often involve comparative analyses of biologically related individuals (such as twins or immediate family members), and those who are not biologically related, in order to isolate and discern the contribution of genetic inheritance and environmental factors on behavioral traits and patterns. Therefore, Behavioral Genetics helps in comprehending why people behave the way they do, by unraveling the genetic and environmental blueprint of individual behaviors.
Behavioral Medicine: Behavioral Medicine is a field that applies research on health predictors and potential threats to develop preventative measures and treatment methods for illnesses.
Expanded Definition
Behavioral Medicine is a specialized field that centers on the practical application of research on health risk factors and predictors. Essentially, it seeks to understand how behavior and lifestyle choices can contribute to the onset, prevention or treatment of illness. This multidisciplinary domain combines elements of psychology, sociology, and medicine. It explores how people’s behaviors, such as eating habits, exercise routines, sleep patterns, stress management, and substance use can affect their health and well-being. By harnessing this knowledge, behavioral medicine proposes interventions that aim to modify these behaviors, thereby preventing diseases, assisting in their treatment, or better managing existing medical conditions for improved health outcomes.
Behavioral Psychology: Behavioral psychology is a subset of psychology focusing on observable behavior, explained through learning principles.
Expanded Definition
Behavioral Psychology, in its most sophisticated definition, refers to a sub-discipline of psychology that centers on systematically studying and interpreting observable behavior. This discipline posits that an individual’s behavior is largely shaped by their interaction with the environment, a concept explored through empirical research and experimentation. It hinges on principles of learning, primarily classical and operant conditioning, to elucidate why individuals behave the way they do. Its approaches and methods aim to be objective, focusing on measurable and overt behavior rather than internal mental states. This field has significant contributions to various areas such as behavior modification, therapy, and education. It seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of human behavior to ultimately promote positive behavioral change.
Behavior Therapy: Behavior therapy is a type of psychological treatment grounded in learning principles, focusing on altering unhelpful behaviors through conditioning and reinforcement.
Expanded Definition
Behavior Therapy, in its professional context, refers to a form of psychological intervention that operates on the basis of learning principles to foster positive behavioral changes. Derived from various psychological theories, primarily conditioning theories proposed by Pavlov and Skinner, this type of therapy deploys techniques that enable individuals to unlearn harmful habits and learn healthier behaviors. It seeks to replace maladaptive behavior patterns with constructive coping methods through structured interventions that might involve gradual exposure to feared situations (systematic desensitization), reward-based motivation (positive reinforcement), and more. Consequently, Behavior Therapy provides invaluable tools to manage a range of conditions, including anxiety, phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorders, and other mental health disorders.
Behaviorism: Behaviorism is a psychological approach that emphasizes the study of observable behavior over subjective mental states, suggesting psychologists need to focus on actions rather than speculate the intricacies of the mind.
Expanded Definition
Behaviorism is a distinct approach within psychology that posits the most effective and valid methods for understanding human behavior are through observable and measurable actions, rather than introspective or subjective methods such as introspection or thought analysis. This school of thought asserts that since one’s internal mental state cannot be quantifiably studied or objectively evaluated, it is more pragmatic to focus exclusively on behavior, which can be witnessed, recorded, and analyzed systematically. The ultimate goal of behaviorism is to identify patterns in behavior and explain it in terms of environmental factors, thereby promoting a more empirical understanding of the human psyche.
Belief Perseverance: Belief perseverance is the persistence of one’s initial ideas or assumptions, even when the evidence that formed these ideas is proven invalid. It’s essentially adhering to one’s established views despite conflicting information.
Expanded Definition
Belief Perseverance is a psychological phenomenon that refers to the tendency of individuals to hold steadfastly to their original ideas or beliefs even after the evidential foundation for those beliefs has been proven invalid or untrue. This typically occurs when individuals dismiss, disregard, or downplay conflicting information that challenges their pre-existing beliefs, showcasing an inherent bias towards information that reinforces their original viewpoint. This cognitive bias can lead to distorted decision making, misjudgment, and resistance to change or adapt to novel evidence. It underlines the difficulty often encountered in efforts to update or alter deeply entrenched beliefs.
Belmont Report: The Belmont Report, established in 1978, offers federal directives outlining ethical norms for conducting scientific research.
Expanded Definition
The Belmont Report, established in 1978 by the U.S Federal government, represents a cornerstone document addressing the ethical considerations surrounding human research. It was developed in response to significant ethical oversights revealed during the Tuskegee Study. The report provides a framework that highlights three fundamental principles – respect for persons, beneficence, and justice – as the foundation of ethically conducted research. It is intended to guide researchers in ensuring the design and execution of their research respects the rights, well-being, and personal autonomy of participant individuals.
Beneficence: Beneficence is an ethical principle demanding the optimization of welfare while minimizing harm towards research subjects and broader society.
Expanded Definition
‘Beneficence’ is a fundamental ethical principle, highlighted in the Belmont Report, that underscores the obligation to secure the maximal benefits and minimal harm for individuals participating in a research study and the broader community. Rooted in the premise of ‘doing good,’ beneficence advocates for deliberate actions aimed at promoting positive outcomes, curbing potential negative impacts, and, whenever possible, enhancing the overall welfare of the subjects involved, fostering an inclusive and ethically-sound research milieu.
Benevolent Sexism: Benevolent sexism is the ingrained belief that women require protection, patronage, and veneration from men, subtly reinforcing traditional gender roles.
Expanded Definition
‘Benevolent Sexism’ is a term utilized within the domain of social psychology to delineate a specific form of gender-biased belief system. It encompasses ostensibly positive, yet subtly patronizing views about women, perpetuating the stereotype that they are in constant need of protection, assistance, and adulation from men. Despite the seemingly positive undertone, benevolent sexism inadvertently fosters gender inequality by positioning women as inherently weak, dependent, and less competent than men. The concept draws attention to how sexism isn’t always manifest in overtly negative or hostile attitudes, but can also be expressed through paternalistic affection and care, contributing to the maintenance of traditional gender roles.
Benzodiazepines: Benzodiazepines are a class of psychoactive drugs used predominantly for conditions like anxiety, insomnia, seizures, and muscle relaxation, due to their tranquilizing and sedative effects.
Expanded Definition
“Benzodiazepines represent a category of pharmaceutical compounds that primarily function as Central Nervous System depressants. They are used extensively in medical practice for their sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant properties. Benzodiazepines can effectively alleviate symptoms associated with conditions such as anxiety disorders, insomnia, epileptic seizures, and muscle spasms, as they work by enhancing the effect of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain, which in turn reduces neuron excitability and promotes a calming effect. This group of medications includes familiar names like diazepam, lorazepam, and alprazolam, among others.”
Beta Effect: The Beta Effect refers to the illusion of movement created when static images are displayed sequentially. It’s a fundamental principle in animation and film, where series of still frames appear to move due to this perceptual phenomenon.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Beta Effect’ is a term used in visual perception studies that refers to the illusion of motion created by the successive presentation of static images placed closely together. This phenomenon occurs when our brain interprets the rapid transition between stationary images as a singular moving picture. It’s the principle underlying traditional animations, motion pictures, and some optical illusions. In human cognition, it evidences our brain’s capacity to fill in gaps with logical continuity, providing a smooth and comprehensive understanding of our visual environment.
Bias (i.e., test bias): Bias in testing, or test bias, refers to a test’s unequal predictive validity across different groups, resulting favorably for one group over another.
Expanded Definition
Bias, particularly in the context of ‘test bias’, refers to the occurrence when a test consistently delivers more advantageous or favorable results for a certain group compared to another. It underscores a discrepancy in the test’s validity, wherein the test incorrectly assesses the abilities, characteristics, or outcomes for different groups. Such bias can lead to misleading conclusions about the individuals taking the test, as it does not reflect potential differences in their abilities, but rather an inherent unfairness in the test method or design. Moreover, test bias can have significant implications on employment, education, and other areas where standardized tests play a crucial role in decision-making processes.
Biases: Biases are consistent, often subconscious deviations in judgement that steer our decisions and perceptions away from objectivity. They are flaws in our decision-making process that lead us to make irrational choices.
Expanded Definition
‘Biases’ can be comprehensively defined as the consistent and forecastable errors that affect the decision-making process of individuals, regardless of their level of expertise or talent. These biases often manifest in subconscious attachment to specific viewpoints or belief systems, effectively leading to a deviation in judgment from what is objectively true or equitable. These cognitive distortions may significantly influence the interpretation, recall, or decision-making of an individual, even when presented with contrary evidence. Biases thus affect anyone and can adversely impact credibility and objectivity. They are structural flaws in human reasoning, which require conscious effort to recognize and mitigate.
Bilingualism: Bilingualism is the proficiency in communicating in two distinct languages.
Expanded Definition
Bilingualism is a linguistic competence that encapsulates the capability to effectively communicate, both in written and spoken form, in two distinct languages. This proficiency encompasses not merely the basic conversational ability, but also a comprehensive understanding of the grammatical structures, nuances, and cultural contexts of both languages. Bilingual individuals are often adept at switching between these two languages seamlessly, accommodating to their social and situational environments. This linguistic phenomenon may be achieved through various pathways including childhood simultaneous acquisition or sequential learning at later stages of life.
Binge-Eating Disorder: Binge-Eating Disorder is a condition characterized by frequent episodes of excessive food consumption accompanied by feelings of distress, disgust, or guilt, but lacks the purging, fasting, or excessive exercise typically associated with bulimia nervosa.
Expanded Definition
‘Binge-Eating Disorder’ is a serious mental health condition characterized by recurring instances of consuming large amounts of food, often quickly and to the point of discomfort. A significant aspect of this disorder is the experience of unwanted feelings such as distress, revulsion, or guilt following the binge-eating episodes. However, unlike another eating disorder known as bulimia nervosa, individuals suffering from Binge-Eating Disorder do not commit to compensatory behaviors such as intentional vomiting (purging), abstaining from food (fasting), or excessive physical activity to counterbalance the binge episodes. This absence of compensatory actions is a notable distinction in the diagnostic criteria between these two disorders. The mentioned symptoms and cycling stages can lead to various health risks and significantly affect a person’s quality of life, necessitating professional intervention and treatment.
Binocular Cues: Binocular cues are visual indicators of depth, reliant on the simultaneous use of both eyes, primarily involving retinal disparity and convergence.
Expanded Definition
‘Binocular Cues’ refer to the visual indicators of depth or distance that require the coordinated use of both eyes. They play a crucial role in our perception of three-dimensional space and depth. The two primary types of binocular cues are retinal disparity and convergence. Retinal disparity involves the slight difference in the two dimensional images captured by each eye due to their different viewpoints. Our brain integrates these different images to create a three-dimensional perspective. Convergence, on the other hand, pertains to the inward turning of the eyes when we endeavor to focus on objects that are nearer. The degree of eye rotation serves as an indication of the object’s distance, aiding in depth perception. These binocular cues significantly contribute to our ability to navigate through and interact with our physical environment, from simple tasks such as picking up a cup to more complex activities like driving a car.
Binocular Depth Cues: Binocular depth cues are perceptual signals used for depth perception, arising from the slight difference in images between our two eyes, requiring their synchronized function.
Expanded Definition
‘Binocular Depth Cues’ refers to the visual signals or indicators used to perceive three-dimensional depth and distance, which rely on the combined input of both eyes. These cues principally arise from the slight discrepancy or disparity of two-dimensional images formed on each eye’s retina. Our brain processes these two slightly different images and amalgamates them into one, enabling depth perception. This physiological phenomenon is essential for accurately judging distances or the spatial positioning of an object in our three-dimensional world.
Bio-Psycho-Social Model of Illness: The Bio-Psycho-Social Model of Illness is a comprehensive approach recognizing that biological, psychological, and social factors collectively influence an individual’s health condition.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Bio-Psycho-Social Model of Illness’ refers to a multidimensional, interdisciplinary framework that views disease, disorder, or illness as a function of the intricate interplay between a myriad of biological, psychological, and social influences. This model posits that biological factors such as genetics or biochemistry, psychological factors including mood and personality, along with societal elements such as socio-economic status or cultural context, all contribute synergistically to human health and illness. This comprehensive approach facilitates a holistic understanding and thus contributes to an integrated methodology for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of a variety of pathological conditions.
Biofeedback: Biofeedback is a method used to reduce stress by providing individuals with typically inaccessible physiological information, and then instructing them on ways to modify these signals.
Expanded Definition
Biofeedback is a scientifically-based therapeutic technique designed to help individualsreduce stress and improve overall health by making them aware of specific physiological functions that are typically not consciously perceivable. By using equipment that creates precise, real-time feedback on these functions such as heart rate, skin temperature, muscle tension, and brainwave patterns, individuals are trained to control and alter these physical responses. The process allows people to gain an increased awareness, understanding, and control over their body’s physiological responses to stress, thereby promoting relaxation and improving overall health and wellbeing.
Biological Drive: A biological drive is an innate impulse dictating human actions, such as the needs for food, water, and sexual interaction.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Biological Drive’ is an inherent, instinctual motivation that influences human behavior, acting as a catalyst for certain essential actions such as eating, drinking, and intimate relationships. These drives are fundamental to human survival and reproduction, responding to specific physiological deficits or needs within the body. As such, biological drives play a critical role in decision-making, steering people towards behaviors necessary to maintain physical health and well-being. They can be influenced by internal factors like hormones and neurotransmitters, and external factors such as environmental cues, ultimately ensuring an individual’s biological needs are met.
Biological Psychology: Biological Psychology is the branch of psychology that studies the interplay between biological functions, such as genetics and physiology, and psychological behaviors. It uses empirical methods to investigate the biological basis of behavior and cognition.
Expanded Definition
Biological Psychology, also referred to as biopsychology or physiological psychology, is a specialized branch of psychology that studies the interplay between biology and behavior. It seeks to comprehensively understand human behavior and psychological processes by examining their biological, physiological, or genetic foundations. This discipline primarily involves measuring various biological and physiological factors such as hormonal secretions, genetic make-up, neurological activity, and so forth, investigating how they influence or correlate with psychological patterns and behavior. By doing so, this field contributes to a more profound understanding of human cognition, emotion, perception, and mental health, thereby enhancing the broader domain of psychological research.
Biological Rhythms: Biological rhythms are recurring patterns in biological activities or functions within an organism, often in sync with natural environmental cycles.
Expanded Definition
‘Biological Rhythms’ are naturally occurring and consistent oscillations in physiological, behavioral or cognitive processes within living organisms, including humans. These patterns repeat in precise time cycles such as daily, monthly, or annually, and are governed by internal biological clocks. They play a vital role in regulating crucial biological functions such as sleep-wake cycles, hormone release, body temperature, and metabolism, thereby substantially influencing the organism’s health and functioning.
Biomedical Approach to Reducing Disorders: The Biomedical Approach to Reducing Disorders is a method employing pharmaceutical treatments and brain intervention techniques to manage mental conditions.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Biomedical Approach to Reducing Disorders’ is a methodology employed in the healthcare sector, specifically in the realm of mental health. The essence of this approach lies in its utilization of pharmacological treatments – the prescribing of specific medicines – to effectively manage or alleviate different mental health conditions. Furthermore, this approach also involves the application of neurointerventional procedures. These procedures are designed to diagnose, manage, and treat disorders of the nervous system, predominantly those related to the brain, through minimally invasive targeted treatments and technologies. It’s important to note that this biomedical approach is typically employed alongside other treatments, such as psychosocial interventions, to holistically address mental health disorders.
Biomedical Model of Health: The Biomedical Model of Health is a framework that primarily attributes disease or illness to physical or pathogenic aspects, such as biological abnormalities or genetic defects. Essentially, it emphasizes the physical processes of disease including biochemistry, physiology, and pathology.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Biomedical Model of Health’ is a paradigm used within the healthcare field that postulates that diseases or illnesses are primarily the result of physical or pathogenic factors. These factors can include harmful microorganisms, genetic malfunctions, or biochemical imbalances. In other words, this model views health as the absence of diseases or disorders and centers around the diagnosis, treatment, and eradication of these conditions based on biological sciences. It primarily emphasizes a direct, singular relationship between cause (pathogen) and effect (symptoms or illness). Its focus is on objective diagnosis, often through physical examination and laboratory tests, and clinically supported treatments such as medication or surgery.
Biomedical Therapies: Biomedical therapies are interventions aimed at alleviating mental disorders by directly affecting the central nervous system’s functions. These therapies often involve medical procedures or medications.
Expanded Definition
‘Biomedical Therapies’ can be defined as a collection of medical interventions or treatments aimed at alleviating symptoms of psychological disorders through direct physiological alteration of the central nervous system. These treatments focus on the biological underpinnings of disorders, emphasizing on the brain’s structure, chemical composition, or functional processes, to help restore normal functioning. These can include medication, electroconvulsive therapy, or neurosurgery, among others. It is important to note that these therapies are typically utilized based on a comprehensive evaluation by a trained healthcare professional, and often in conjunction with other treatment modalities such as psychotherapy.
Biopsychosocial Model of Health: The Biopsychosocial Model of Health asserts that biological, psychological, and sociocultural dimensions equally contribute to the onset of disease, moving beyond purely biological causes.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Biopsychosocial Model of Health’ is an integrative framework postulated for understanding health and disease processes. It advocates that the interplay between biological circumstances (like genetics or biochemical phenomena), psychological conditions (such as behavior, emotions, and cognitive functions), and social factors (encompassing societal and environmental influences) holds an equally significant role as bio-medical causes in the evolution of an individual’s health status and disease manifestations. This model underscores the need to consider the intricate interactions of these multidimensional elements for a comprehensive health evaluation and management.
Bipolar Disorder: Bipolar Disorder is a psychiatric condition marked by dramatic shifts in mood, energy, and activity levels, alternating between manic periods of extreme euphoria and depressive episodes of profound sadness.
Expanded Definition
Bipolar Disorder is a complex mental health condition characterized by distinct episodes of significant mood fluctuation. An individual with this disorder experiences alternating phases of elevated mood, referred to as ‘manic episodes’, and low mood or ‘depressive episodes’. During a manic episode, the individual may feel extraordinarily energetic, irritable, or overly elated. On the opposite spectrum, during a depressive episode, they may feel intense sadness, despair, or a lack of interest in daily life. There are also periods of relatively stable mood that intervene these episodes. It’s critical to note that these mood states are significantly different from the individual’s normal mood, greatly affecting their day-to-day function and quality of life. The disorder requires careful medical diagnosis and treatment.
Black Box Model: The Black Box Model is a framework that explains consumer behaviors and decision-making processes, encapsulating the interaction of external stimuli, individual characteristics, and responses, without detailing the underlying complexities.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Black Box Model’ in marketing is a conceptual framework that explains the complex interactions between an individual’s cognitive processes and external stimuli within the context of buying behavior. It is termed a ‘Black Box’ because the precise workings within the consumer’s mind are unclear or unknown. The model consists of four main components: 1. External stimuli: These are the marketing efforts, such as advertisements, promotions, packaging, price, etc., and the environmental factors like social culture, family, situations, etc., that could influence the consumer’s decision to purchase a product or service. 2. Consumer characteristics: These refer to individual aspects such as personal, psychological, and social attributes which vary from consumer to consumer and affect their interpretation of the stimuli. 3. Decision process: This represents the intricate psychological processes, that are largely unknown and thus constitutes the ‘black box’, where consumers make a decision. These include how consumers recognize their needs, gather and handle information, evaluate alternatives and finally make their purchase decision. 4. Consumer responses: These are the outcomes of the decision process, typically represented by the consumer’s purchase decision, but it may also reflect other responses like the consumer’s feelings, feedback, or post-purchase behavior toward a product or service. Thus, the Black Box Model provides an overview of the consumer’s decision-making journey from being exposed to external stimuli to producing a response.
Blatant Biases: ‘Blatant biases’ refer to open, acknowledged preferences or prejudices towards one’s own group and against others, underpinned by conscious feelings and behaviors.
Expanded Definition
‘Blatant Biases’ refers to the overt and explicit attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that an individual acknowledges and expresses openly. These biases, driven by conscious thought, typically manifest as a preferential inclination towards one’s own group, often paired with a discernible discrimination or hostility towards other groups. They are not subtle or unintentional, but rather represent clear, deliberate favoritism or prejudice.
Blind Spot: A blind spot is a region in the visual field where vision is absent, arising where the optic nerve connects to the retina without any photoreceptor cells.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Blind Spot’, in the context of vision science, is defined as a specific location within an individual’s field of view where visual perception is absent. This physiological phenomenon is primarily attributable to the absence of photoreceptor cells, which are vital for converting light into neural signals, in a certain part of the retina. Essentially, this area occurs where the optic nerve, which is the nerve responsible for transmitting visual signals to the brain, attaches to the retina. Therefore, the brain does not receive any visual data from this particular area, resulting in a blind spot in our visual field. However, under normal circumstances, this blind spot is not perceived as an actual gap in vision due to the remarkable ability of our visual system to fill in these gaps based on surrounding visual information.
Blind to Condition: “Blind to Condition” is a research setting where the investigator or subjects are unaware of the specific treatment group that participants are placed in. It’s a method used to prevent bias in experimental studies.
Expanded Definition
‘Blind to Condition’ refers to the practice in experimental studies where either the conductors of the experiment or the study participants themselves are intentionally kept unaware of the specific conditions or groups to which the participants are assigned. This is done to prevent any potential bias that might impact the results. In other words, it is a methodological control measure whereby the experimenter or the study subjects do not know the exact arrangement of the experimental groups, thereby ensuring the impartiality and integrity of the observations or results. This practice lends objectivity to the study, mitigating any influence that knowledge of conditions might have on participant behaviour or experimenter analysis.
Blind to the Research Hypothesis: ‘Blind to the Research Hypothesis’ refers to a research scenario in which study participants are kept uninformed about the objective or subject of the investigation to mitigate potential bias.
Expanded Definition
‘Blind to the Research Hypothesis’ refers to a particular setup in empirical studies where research participants are kept uninformed about the specific details or objectives of the study they are part of. This approach is aimed at minimizing potential bias or influence over participant behavior, thereby ensuring greater reliability and validity of the collected data and the results derived from it. Essentially, by not knowing the true purpose, hypothesis or expected results, the participants are less likely to alter their natural responses consciously or subconsciously, resulting in more authentic and accurate outcomes.
Blindsight: ‘Blindsight’ is a neurological phenomenon where an individual cannot consciously acknowledge visual stimuli, yet can respond accurately to queries about their visual environment.
Expanded Definition
‘Blindsight’ is defined as a unique neurological condition where individuals, despite having impairments in their conscious visual recognition abilities caused by damage to the primary visual cortex, can still respond accurately to visual stimuli. These individuals may report that they are not visually aware of an object, yet they can correctly identify or interact with the said object guided by their ‘unseen’ sight. The condition intrigues experts as it presents a paradoxical situation wherein visual perception occurs without the individual’s conscious awareness, hence lending insight into the complex workings of the human brain and visual system.
Blocking: Blocking in classical conditioning refers to the lack of new learning when a conditioned stimulus is presented in conjunction with an already learned stimulus, emphasizing the crucial role of surprise or prediction error in conditioning.
Expanded Definition
‘Blocking’ refers to a phenomenon observed in classical conditioning, a learning process where an organism associates two stimuli. According to the blocking effect, no new learning or conditioning happens to a particular stimulus if it is paired with a stimulus that has previously undergone the conditioning process during conditioning trials. This suggests that the role of information, the surprise factor, or the discrepancies between expected and actual outcomes — termed as ‘prediction errors’ — are crucial components of the conditioning process. In simpler terms, this suggests that familiarity with a certain stimulus can ‘block’ or hinder the conditioning of another stimulus when they are presented together. The blocking effect provides insights about how learning and memory processes prioritize new, unpredicted information over known, predictable stimuli.
Blood Alcohol Content (BAC): Blood Alcohol Content (BAC) is the quantifiable percentage of alcohol in an individual’s blood, commonly used to gauge their level of intoxication for legal and medical purposes.
Expanded Definition
Blood Alcohol Content (BAC) refers to a quantitative metric assessing the concentration of alcohol present in an individual’s bloodstream. It is generally denoted as a percentage. This parameter is pivotal in ascertaining an individual’s level of alcohol-induced impairment, such as in legal and medical contexts where it is essential to analyze if the person is excessively inebriated, notably in relation to determining the capability to operate vehicles safely. The BAC benchmark varies globally as per respective legal standards, but it universally aids in identifying intoxication, thus preventing potential harm or reckless endeavors induced by alcohol consumption.
Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD): Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is a psychological condition marked by persistent personality disruptions, featuring emotional instability, impaired self-identity, unstable relationships, self-harm threats, abandonment fears, and impulsiveness.
Expanded Definition
Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is a complex mental health condition that significantly impacts one’s self-perception and manner of interacting with the world. Typically evident from late adolescence, this disorder is marked by severe, long-lasting fluctuations in mood and intense bouts of anger, depression, or anxiety. These emotional instabilities often lead to turbulence in personal relationships and can substantially disrupt daily life. People with BPD often grapple with self-identity issues, leading to frequent shifts in self-image, goals, and personal values. They also have a tendency for impulsive behavior, which may result in reckless and harmful activities. Furthermore, individuals with BPD commonly exhibit patterns of unstable interpersonal relationships, as their fear of abandonment can cause oscillating feelings of idealization and devaluation towards others. Substance abuse, eating disorders, self-harming actions, or suicidal threats and attempts are also common signs, arising due to their self-destructive behaviour tendencies. It’s crucial to note that each person with BPD may experience these symptoms to varying degrees and not all individuals will present every symptom.
Bottom-Up Processing: Bottom-up processing is a perceptual approach involving the construction of experiences from elemental sensory inputs, which are then sent to the brain for integration and interpretation.
Expanded Definition
Bottom-Up Processing is a cognitive approach that involves the progression of understanding starting from the most basic sensory input. In this process, the brain initiates comprehension by first receiving raw sensory data like visual cues or sounds. It then progressively analyses and combines this data to build up to more complex interpretations. This type of processing assumes that we start our perception by examining small, detail-oriented pieces of information and gradually compose them into a more cohesive understanding. Hence, the term “bottom-up,” signifying the progression of comprehension from simpler sensory inputs towards more intricate and integrated perceptions shaped by the brain.
Bounded Awareness: “Bounded Awareness” is a concept referring to our systemic oversights in recognizing conspicuous and essential data that is readily accessible to us.
Expanded Definition
“Bounded Awareness” is an established concept in cognitive psychology and decision-making research, referring to the intrinsic limitations in human cognitive processing which cause us to overlook or miss readily accessible, pertinent and critical information. This phenomenon can interfere with our perceptions, judgement, and decision-making abilities. Despite being surrounded by a wealth of salient data, our selective focus, fueled by factors like information overload, cognitive biases, or simple distraction, often leads to only a portion of that information being utilized. This unconscious negligence of information outside our immediate focus is known as “Bounded Awareness”.
Bounded Ethicality: Bounded Ethicality refers to the subconscious restrictions on our ethical judgement or decisions. It’s the unconscious biases that influence our moral behavior without our awareness.
Expanded Definition
“Bounded Ethicality” refers to the systematic constraints on our ethical decision-making capacity that often operate below our level of consciousness. It explores the inherent limitations in our cognitive framework, which can subtly influence our moral judgments and behavior without our explicit knowledge or intent. This concept challenges the traditional notion of ethical decision-making as a fully rational and conscious process, highlighting the role of unconscious biases, social conditioning, and situational pressures in shaping our ethical choices.
Bounded Rationality: Bounded rationality is a behavioral model asserting that while people aim for rational decision-making, their capacity to do so is restricted by their cognitive boundaries.
Expanded Definition
‘Bounded Rationality’ is a theoretical framework in behavioral economics and cognitive psychology that posits humans strive to make logically optimal choices, but their decision-making capabilities are hampered by inherently limiting cognitive factors. These restrictions can include insufficient information, limited processing capabilities of the human brain, and time constraints, which prevent perfect rationality. Consequently, individuals often resort to simpler, heuristic methods, rules of thumb, or satisficing strategies—settling for solutions that are ‘good enough’ rather than optimal—to guide their decision-making processes.
Bounded Self-Interest: “Bounded Self-Interest” refers to the consistent and anticipatable patterns in which individuals show concern for others’ results, implying a limit to personal gain for the benefit of others.
Expanded Definition
“Bounded Self-Interest” is a concept in behavioral science and economics that refers to the consistent and foreseeable patterns in which individuals show concern for the interests of others. Under this concept, while individuals naturally prioritize their own interests, those interests are “bounded” or limited, allowing for acts of altruism, generosity, or cooperation. This shared interest stems from an understanding that others’ wellbeing can indirectly influence one’s own outcomes. In simple terms, “Bounded Self-Interest” suggests that people care about others not just for altruistic reasons but also because it can positively impact their own life in a direct or indirect manner.
Bounded Willpower: ‘Bounded Willpower’ refers to the human bias towards valuing immediate rewards over future benefits, often leading to irrational decision-making.
Expanded Definition
‘Bounded Willpower’ is a term derived from behavioural economics, referring to the human propensity to prioritize immediate benefits over long-term gains. This concept acknowledges our limits in self-control, where immediate gratifications are often chosen over future rewards, even when it may be more rational or beneficial to delay instant gratification. Essentially, it illustrates our psychological struggle with time inconsistency, where our present selves often negotiate against our future selves. It is integral in discussions relating to personal habits, finance, healthcare, and any scenarios where delayed rewards are involved.
Brain Lateralization: Brain lateralization refers to the distinct, functional specialization of the left and right hemispheres of the brain.
Expanded Definition
‘Brain Lateralization’ refers to the recognized scientific concept indicating that two halves, known as the left and right hemispheres of the brain, exhibit functional specializations. This implies that each hemisphere of the brain, though interconnected, is distinctively proficient in conducting certain mental operations or cognitive tasks better than the other. For instance, the left hemisphere is generally responsible for logical reasoning, analytical tasks, and language processing, while the right hemisphere excels in spatial perception, face recognition, visual imagery, and music interpretation. It’s crucial to note that the extent of this functional asymmetry may vary among individuals due to factors like handedness, genetic predispositions, and developmental aspects.
Brain Stem: The brain stem is the primitive part of the brain responsible for regulating vital life processes such as breathing and motor control.
Expanded Definition
The Brain Stem is a fundamental and integral part of the brain, often considered the most ancient region in terms of evolutionary development. Located deep within the brain, it links the cerebrum (the large part of the brain responsible for higher functions) with the spinal cord. Its primary function is to regulate the most essential and autonomous life processes such as respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure. Additionally, it plays a pivotal role in basic attention processes and in the initiation and regulation of motor responses, thus acting as a conduit for motor and sensory information between the body and the more sophisticated areas of the brain. Due to its critically important functions, the brain stem is absolutely vital for sustaining life.
Broca’s Area: Broca’s Area is a region in the left hemisphere of the brain crucial for speech production.
Expanded Definition
‘Broca’s Area’ is defined as a specific region located in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere of the human brain, in close proximity to the motor cortex. This region plays a cardinal role in the production of language. It is particularly pivotal in the formation of sentences, the expression of grammar and syntax, and the physical process of speech production. Damage to this area can lead to Broca’s aphasia, a condition characterized by notable difficulties in speech production, while comprehension remains largely intact. It was named after Paul Broca, a 19th-century French physician who contributed significantly to our understanding of this area through his medical research.
Bruxism: Bruxism is a sleep-related condition characterized by involuntary nocturnal teeth grinding.
Expanded Definition
‘Bruxism’ is a medical condition characterized by involuntarily or unconsciously clenching or grinding one’s teeth, particularly when sleeping. This condition, while often categorized amongst sleep disorders due to its prevalent occurrence during sleep, can also manifest during periods of wakefulness, often as a response to stress or anxiety. Prolonged bruxism can lead to various dental health issues such as tooth wear and breakage, as well as broader health concerns including jaw pain and headaches. Recognition and management of bruxism can significantly help limit these potential negative consequences.
Bulimia Nervosa: Bulimia Nervosa is an eating disorder typified by cycles of binge eating, predominantly high-calorie foods, counteracted by compensatory behaviors like vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or intensive exercise.
Expanded Definition
‘Bulimia Nervosa’ is a psychiatric condition classified under eating disorders, often abbreviated as ‘bulimia’. This illness is typically manifested through recurrent instances of consuming unusually large quantities of food in a short amount of time, typically high-caloric or ‘comfort’ foods. These episodes are defined as ‘binges’. The individual affected by bulimia feels a lack of control over their eating during these binges. Following this, they engage in behaviors to prevent weight gain, which are known as ‘compensatory behaviors’. These may include inducing vomiting, using laxatives or diuretics, excessive exercising, or periods of severe calorie restriction or fasting. It is essential to note that Bulimia Nervosa is not just about diet or food, it is often about coping with emotional distress and striving for perfection. Like many other psychiatric conditions, it is frequently the result of a combination of genetic, psychological, environmental, and sociocultural factors. It also often co-occurs with conditions such as depressive and anxiety disorders, substance abuse, and self-harming behaviors. Thus, Bulimia Nervosa, when diagnosed, must be managed through a comprehensive treatment plan, generally incorporating psychotherapy, nutrition counseling, and, where appropriate, medication.
Bystander Intervention: Bystander Intervention refers to the act of stepping in to assist others, often unknown, when they are in need or in a harmful scenario.
Expanded Definition
“Bystander Intervention” refers to the social psychology concept where individuals actively engage in preventing or reducing harm to another person, often a stranger or someone outside their immediate social circle. This state of action occurs when a person recognizes a potentially harmful situation or interaction and chooses to respond in a way that could positively influence the outcome. It is a critical method in a variety of situations ranging from emergencies to instances of bullying, harassment, or other forms of violence. Bystander intervention requires awareness, courage, and a sense of personal responsibility towards communal well-being. It is often used in educational programs that aim at preventing sexual assault, bullying, discrimination, and promoting a culture of respect and intervention.

C

Caffeine: Caffeine is a stimulant compound present in plant sources like beans, leaves, and fruits, known for its brain-activating properties.
Expanded Definition
‘Caffeine’ is defined as a naturally occurring stimulant, primarily found in plant species such as coffee beans, tea leaves, and cacao pods. This bitter compound is classified as a psychoactive drug due to its effect on the central nervous system, where it works to block the neurotransmitters that promote sleep and relaxation, thereby promoting alertness and reducing fatigue. It is globally recognized and consumed through popular beverages like coffee, tea, and energy drinks. Despite being classified as a drug, it is generally considered safe for consumption in moderate amounts.
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion: The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion postulates that feelings and bodily responses occur simultaneously during an emotional experience.
Expanded Definition
The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion, proposed by esteemed psychologists Walter Cannon and Philip Bard, posits that the physical reactions and conscious emotional experiences during an emotional state occur simultaneously, yet independently from each other. This theory challenges the traditional view that our physical responses precede and induce our emotional experiences. In other words, according to Cannon-Bard’s theory, when you encounter a fear-inducing situation, your feeling of fear and your body’s physical reactions—like a racing heart or sweaty palms—occur at the same time, neither triggering the other. It underscores the significance of the brain’s role in interpreting and processing emotions, highlighting the complexity and multi-faceted nature of our emotional responses.
Cartesian Catastrophe: ‘Cartesian Catastrophe’ refers to the belief that unconscious mental operations cannot occur, that all cognitive processes happen within our conscious awareness.
Expanded Definition
‘Cartesian Catastrophe’ refers to the complex philosophical proposition that any form of mental activity or cognition, happening beyond the realm of our conscious understanding or active awareness, simply can’t occur. The notion derives from Cartesian Dualism, the philosophy of Rene Descartes, asserting a clear segregation between the mind and body. This ‘catastrophe’ arises due to the inherent paradox in trying to comprehend unconscious thoughts using conscious reasoning, potentially eliminating the existence of any subconscious or unconscious process outside the ambit of our immediate cognition.
Case Studies: Case studies are detailed analyses of an individual’s or group’s behavior or experiences, utilized for in-depth understanding in various academic fields.
Expanded Definition
‘Case Studies’ can be professionally defined as comprehensive, in-depth explorations and analyses of specific instances, individuals, or events within a real-world context. They often comprise qualitative research methods to investigate and provide detailed insights into behaviour, experience, or interaction over a certain period. Case studies aim to generate a deep understanding of complex situations beyond statistical analysis, enabling researchers to explain the nuances and complexities of real-life situations.
Cataplexy: Cataplexy is a narcolepsy-associated condition characterized by sudden and temporary muscle weakness or paralysis, often triggered by intense emotions, leading to potential collapse.
Expanded Definition
Cataplexy is a medical condition commonly associated with narcolepsy, which is a chronic neurological disorder that impacts the brain’s ability to regulate sleep-wake cycles. The main characteristic of cataplexy is sudden, uncontrollable loss of muscle strength or tone, leading to physical collapse. Though consciousness remains intact during these episodes, the individual might experience a slack jaw, broken speech, buckling knees, or a complete body collapse, depending on the severity. These episodes are primarily triggered by intense emotions such as laughter, surprise, or anger, and can last from a few seconds to several minutes. Despite its seriousness, cataplexy can be managed effectively with medications and lifestyle adjustments.
Categories: ‘Categories’ are clusters of interrelated memories sharing common attributes, which are intrinsic to human cognition.
Expanded Definition
‘Categories’ refer to a systematic organization of memories, thematically linked based on their shared characteristics or attributes. These cognitive groupings serve as an intrinsic mechanism in human cognition, allowing for efficient memory retrieval and helping us make sense of the world around us by classifying our experiences, objects, and concepts into meaningful clusters. Our ability to categorize reflects an essential aspect of our cognitive function, facilitating learning and comprehension by providing a structured framework for storing and recalling information.
Categorize: “Categorize” refers to the process of classifying various elements into specific groups based on their common characteristics or properties.
Expanded Definition
“Categorize” refers to the systematic process of organizing or ordering various elements, objects, ideas, or information into distinct groups, classes, or “categories”. This sorting or classification is often based on shared properties, characteristics, or criteria. The action of categorizing allows for more effective analysis, comparison, or management of the segregated items, facilitating better understanding and decision-making.
Category: A category refers to a group of subjects or items sharing common traits or attributes, making them comparable in some respect.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Category’ is a specific classification or grouping characterized by shared attributes or similarities among the elements within it. In a broader context, it represents a collection of entities that exhibit commonalities based on predefined rules or characteristics. These equivalences could range from shared physical traits, conceptual notions, functions, or any relevant criteria. The primary purpose of categorization is to simplify, organize, and streamline the understanding and analysis of complex sets by focusing on shared attributes, which essentially implies that the entities in a particular category bear more resemblance to each other compared to those in different groups.
Category Prototype: A category prototype is the most representative or typical element within a category. It’s a standard example of a category that best embodies its key attributes.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Category Prototype’ refers to an exemplar or standard representation within a category that encapsulates the most common or typical attributes of that category. In other words, it’s an idealized model against which other members of the same category are compared or identified. These attributes can encompass characteristics, behaviors, or concepts that are generally associated with, or most representative of, the particular category. The concept of a ‘Category Prototype’ is widely used in cognitive psychology to explain how individuals classify or categorize objects, ideas, or experiences by comparing them to these standard models.
Catharsis: Catharsis refers to the act of venting or expressing deep emotions or aggression, either through action or imagination, to alleviate pent-up feelings. It’s essentially the process of emotional cleansing or release.
Expanded Definition
‘Catharsis’ is a term often used within psychological discourse, originating from the Greek language, meaning ‘purification’ or ‘cleansing’. In psychological terms, it refers to the process of freeing oneself from the burden of accumulated emotional tensions by expressing them or releasing them in some manner. The catharsis theory, particularly in relation to aggression, suggests that expressing aggressive feelings, whether it be through actions or imaginative fantasies, serves to diminish or mitigate these aggressive impulses. Essentially, this acts as a safety valve, allowing for the controlled release of these emotions, thereby reducing their potential for erupting in more harmful expressions or behaviors. However, this theory continues to be debated within the scientific community.
Central Executive: The Central Executive is the component of working memory that manages attention and processing tasks.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Central Executive’ can be elaborately defined as a crucial component of the working memory model. It is primarily responsible for controlling and managing cognitive tasks. These tasks include attention direction, processing and coordinating information from different sources, and managing mental operations. It plays a pivotal role in skills such as problem-solving, decision-making, and strategizing by regulating the flow of information to and from the short-term memory storages. The Central Executive does not store information, but it controls and manipulates the information held in other areas of the working memory.
Central Nervous System (CNS): The Central Nervous System (CNS) comprises of the brain and the spinal cord, functioning as the primary processor and regulator of the body’s sensory data and responses.
Expanded Definition
The Central Nervous System (CNS) is a crucial component of the body’s nervous system, encompassing the brain and the spinal cord. It serves as the primary processing center and command hub for the entire nervous system. Its function is to receive, interpret, and respond to stimuli from the body and external environment. This is achieved through coordinating the activities of various parts of the body, thereby regulating bodily functions and maintaining homeostasis. The CNS plays an essential role in our cognitive abilities, sensory perception, motor function, self-awareness, and other critical functions. Thus, it’s the central pillar on which the body’s capacity to function, react, and interact intelligently with the world rests.
Central Route Of Persuasion: The Central Route of Persuasion is a process of attitude change where individuals actively engage with the core message and form positive responses based on the merit of the argument itself.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Central Route of Persuasion’ refers to a method of attitude modification where individuals, who are genuinely interested or motivated, pay careful attention to the key facts and logic of an argument. By analyzing the strength and validity of the presented information, they formulate their responses. This cognitive process involves in-depth information processing, leading to the formation of opinions that are more enduring, and highly likely to influence their attitudes and behaviour in the long run. Consequently, it results in a pervasive change in their standpoint, especially when they find the argument compelling and persuasive.
Central Tendency: Central tendency is a statistical value representing the “middle” or “average” in a dataset, often calculated as the arithmetic mean.
Expanded Definition
‘Central Tendency’ represents a statistical measure that identifies a single value as representative of an entire distribution. It aims to describe the key or focal point of a set of data. Most commonly, this value is determined by calculating the arithmetic mean, however, other methods such as median and mode are also used, depending on the data structure. This measure gives a concise summary of the data, offering a quick snapshot of the information contained in the distribution.
Cerebellum: The cerebellum, referred to as the “little brain,” is a complex structure located posterior to the brain stem that regulates and fine-tunes motor control and coordination.
Expanded Definition
The cerebellum, colloquially referred to as the ‘little brain,’ is a complex neurological structure located behind the brain stem. It is composed of two intricately wrinkled oval sections which significantly expand the surface area of the cerebellum, allowing for a higher number of neurons to be contained within the structure. The primary role of the cerebellum is to fine-tune and coordinate voluntary movements initiated by other regions of the brain, enhancing precision, accuracy, and timely execution. This critical function aids in maintaining balance and posture, and in the performance of motor activities requiring a significant degree of skill and coordination.
Cerebral Cortex: The cerebral cortex is the external layer of the brain playing a critical role in functions including language, complex skill acquisition, tool creation, and social behavior, distinguishing human cognitive abilities from other species.
Expanded Definition
The Cerebral Cortex is the outermost layer of the human brain, often compared to the bark on a tree due to its function as a protective cover. Composed of folded and convoluted gray matter, the Cerebral Cortex plays a pivotal role in differentiating humans from other species. It is responsible for higher cognitive functions including the delegation of complex skill acquisition; the development, understanding, and use of language; the creation and usage of tools; and the capability to engage and establish social relationships within groups. Hence, the Cerebral Cortex is typically seen as the epicenter for human intellect, creativity, and sociability.
Challenge: A challenge is the act of embracing change and novel situations as thrilling prospects for learning and personal growth.
Expanded Definition
“Challenge” refers to the perception of changes and new experiences not as daunting obstacles but as invigorating opportunities for personal growth and development. This perspective entails a sense of enthusiasm and zeal for embracing unfamiliar situations, using them as a stepping stone to accrue knowledge, enhance skills, and broaden one’s perspective. Recognizing a challenge in this light nurtures resilience, adaptability, and a continuous learning mindset.
Chameleon Effect: The ‘Chameleon Effect’ is a subconscious mimicry where individuals inadvertently replicate the physical behaviors and expressions of those they interact with.
Expanded Definition
The “Chameleon Effect” is a social phenomenon in which individuals, often without their conscious awareness, adopt the physical behaviors or attributes of individuals they are interacting with. These behavior include body postures, facial expressions, hand gestures, speech patterns, and even emotions. Essentially, like a chameleon blending into its environment, these individuals blend into their social environment by mirroring the behavioral cues of others. The effect often facilitates rapport, bonding, and understanding within a social context and may indicate a human’s intrinsic desire to connect with others empathetically.
Change Blindness: ‘Change blindness’ is an oversight in human perception where unnoticed alterations occur in a sight because of lack of focus. It demonstrates our limited ability to comprehend all visual aspects simultaneously.
Expanded Definition
‘Change Blindness’ is a well-documented psychological phenomenon where an individual may not notice substantial visual alterations in a distinct component of their field of view if their attention is not specifically concentrated on that area. It is predicated on the concept that our visual perception heavily relies on the focus of our attention. Hence, we often overlook significant changes to the non-focal elements of a scene, despite them being in our line of sight. This phenomenon indicates the limitations of our attentional resources and our selective attention’s role in determining our visual reality. It serves as an important concept in cognitive psychology, illuminating our understanding of human perception.
Character Strengths: Character strengths are mental traits often acknowledged as desirable, such as courage, fairness, or wisdom, which contribute positively to our psychological and intellectual development.
Expanded Definition
‘Character Strengths’ are defined as inherent qualities or traits linked to one’s psychological and intellectual aspects that positively reinforce virtuous behaviors, values, and attitudes. These traits significantly contribute to an individual’s personal development and their ability to handle situations effectively. Character strengths, encompassing aspects such as resilience, empathy, integrity, and courage, are key elements deemed beneficial in various personal and professional scenarios, fostering ethical decision-making, problem-solving skills, and overall wellbeing.
Childhood: Childhood is the stage in an individual’s life from birth until the beginning of adolescence.
Expanded Definition
“Childhood” is a term representing the stage of life extending from infancy – typically the end of the newborn phase around one year of age – until the commencement of adolescence, which is generally marked by the biological changes associated with puberty. During this phase, a person experiences significant cognitive, emotional, social, and physical development, influenced by family, education, peer interactions, and cultural context. It is a crucial period for learning, exploring, and understanding the world around them.
Chromosomes: Chromosomes are bundled structures of DNA, serving as the primary units for genetic inheritance.
Expanded Definition
‘Chromosomes’ are structured entities found within the cell nucleus, primarily composed of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and protein. These entities play a vital role in the biological inheritance and functionality of an organism. DNA within each chromosome is intricately wrapped around proteins, creating a compact structure which allows storage and transmission of genetic information. Each chromosome could be visualized as a single, highly organized and coiled strand of DNA, housing thousands of genes that serve as the blueprint for specific traits and characteristics. The number of chromosomes varies across different species, humans, for example, have 46 (23 pairs).
Chronic Disease: A chronic disease is a long-lasting medical condition that can be controlled but not cured.
Expanded Definition
Chronic disease is typically defined as a long-standing health condition that progresses over a long period of time, typically greater than three months. These diseases generally share common characteristics such as being persistent and long-lasting in their effects, often non-communicable, and typically managed rather than completely cured. They include conditions such as heart disease, diabetes, arthritis, and certain respiratory and mental health disorders. Managing chronic diseases often involves a multidimensional approach with various treatments, lifestyle modifications, and sustained healthcare interventions.
Chunking: “Chunking” is a cognitive strategy that enhances memory efficiency by grouping related information into smaller, manageable units.
Expanded Definition
“Chunking” is a proficient cognitive strategy that simplifies the learning process. It involves the breakdown of complex information into smaller, manageable units (often referred to as ‘chunks’). The strategy significantly amplifies the capability of our short-term memory to retain more items. Essentially, by reducing vast quantities of data into discernible sets or ‘chunks’, the human mind can more effectively process, understand, and recall the information later. This can be especially helpful in fields where large data absorption is necessary, like studying, reading, and learning new skills.
Cilia: Cilia are fibrous protrusions found on cochlear hair cells.
Expanded Definition
‘Cilia’ is a term predominantly used in biology, typically referring to minuscule, hair-like structures occurring on the surface of certain cellular organisms. In the specific context of human anatomy, ‘cilia’ are integral components of hair cells situated in the cochlea, which is the auditory portion of the inner ear. These microscopic protrusions aid in the process of translating physical auditory stimuli into electrical signals, thus contributing to our sense of hearing. This complex network of fibres embodies a fundamental aspect of the body’s sensory functions.
Circadian Rhythm: Circadian rhythm is the primary biorhythm that regulates daily sleep-wake cycles, influenced by sunlight and daily activities, and it encompasses biological changes such as fluctuations in body temperature, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Circadian Rhythm’ is essentially a biological clock that operates on a 24-hour cycle, regulating numerous physiological and behavioral processes in a variety of organisms including humans and animals. This chief biorhythm governs our recurring sleep-wake pattern and responds primarily to light and darkness within an organism’s environment, facilitating adaption to external cues. Not limited to sleep behavior, the Circadian Rhythm also regulates various internal body functions like fluctuations in body temperature, blood pressure, and glucose levels. As such, it plays a critical role in maintaining the healthy function of the body and is foundational to understanding various aspects of health and disease.
Classical Conditioning: Classical conditioning is a learning process where a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally triggers a response, leading to the former eliciting the same response. Synonymous with Pavlovian conditioning, it’s key to understanding stimulus-stimulus associative learning.
Expanded Definition
‘Classical Conditioning’ is a well-established theory of learning that centers around the concept of association. It explains how we, as individuals, form connections or associations between certain environmental stimuli that do not naturally incite a particular reaction. The process involves an initially irrelevant or neutral stimulus, termed as the ‘Conditioned Stimulus’ (CS), being paired with a stimulus that naturally and autonomously leads to a response, called the ‘Unconditioned Stimulus’ (US). Over a period of consistent pairing, the previously neutral stimulus starts to evoke a learned response, now referred to as the ‘Conditioned Response’ (CR), even in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. This type of learning came to prominence with the famous experiment conducted by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, hence it is also known as ‘Pavlovian Conditioning’. The significance of classical conditioning extends beyond the understanding of behavioral patterns; it is also a crucial tool in studying simple associative learning, where responses are learned based on the relationship between different stimuli. This fundamental psychological concept has far-reaching implications in various fields such as behavior therapy, education, and marketing.
Classical Conditioning Effects: Classical conditioning effects refer to the process where a neutral stimulus becomes capable of triggering a response because it has been associated repeatedly with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response. It’s an unconscious, automatic form of learning.
Expanded Definition
‘Classical Conditioning Effects’ refer to the psychological process where a person or an animal implicitly learns to link a previously neutral stimuli with another significant stimulus, leading to an instinctual response. This learning occurs passively, often without conscious realization. Consequently, the formerly neutral stimulus elicits a response previously associated only with the significant stimulus. This foundational concept in behavioral psychology illustrates our ability to adapt and learn through association.
Client- or Person-Centered Therapy: Client or Person-Centered Therapy is a therapeutic approach that fosters individual growth through self-guidance, empathy, and self-acceptance, banking on the client’s intrinsic capacity for self-improvement.
Expanded Definition
‘Client- or Person-Centered Therapy’ is a therapeutic approach that profoundly trusts in a client’s inherent capacity for self-understanding, personal growth, and altering their own attitudes, behaviors, and views. In this model, the therapist non-judgmentally fosters a safe, empathetic, and accepting environment, which empowers clients to freely explore and articulate their emotions, thoughts, and experiences. This open environment is instrumental in facilitating personal development and transformation. The therapist does not direct the therapeutic journey but collaboratively accompanies the client on their self-directed path towards healing and growth.
Clinical Psychology: Clinical psychology is the psychology sector focused on diagnosing, evaluating, and treating mental health conditions.
Expanded Definition
Clinical Psychology is a specialized discipline within the broader field of psychology focused on the understanding, diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of psychological disorders. It incorporates both scientific research and applied practice to address a wide range of mental health issues and psychological distress. Clinical psychologists engage in a variety of tasks including conducting psychological assessments, delivering therapeutic interventions, conducting clinical research, and providing consultancy to other health professionals. They work with individuals across the lifespan and with diverse clinical conditions, utilizing evidence-based techniques to enhance mental wellbeing and improve quality of life.
Clock Time: Clock time refers to the specific hours indicated by a timepiece, used to schedule and structure activities.
Expanded Definition
‘Clock Time’ is a term that is traditionally defined as the specific hour or moment as indicated by a timekeeping device, such as a clock or watch. This concept plays a crucial role in regulating and scheduling activities, defining when they should commence and when they should conclude. This universally accepted system ensures synchronicity in daily routines, public services, and business operations, enabling a structured, orderly, and efficient management of time across all spheres of life.
Cocaine: Cocaine is a habit-forming substance derived from coca plant’s foliage.
Expanded Definition
Cocaine is a powerful stimulant drug that is primarily derived from the leaves of the Erythroxylon coca plant, native to South America. It is known for its addictive properties and the intense euphoric effects it induces in users. While its recreational use can result in serious health risks, including heart attack, stroke, and seizure, cocaine also has potential medical applications, such as usage as a topical anesthetic in certain surgical procedures. Owing to its potential for abuse and dependency, its use is heavily regulated globally.
Cochlea: The cochlea is a spiral, fluid-filled structure in the inner ear, housing the cilia responsible for sound signal conversion.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Cochlea’ is an intricate, spiral-structured component situated within the inner ear. Resembling the shape of a snail’s shell, this tube is filled with a fluid that plays an essential role in human hearing. It houses numerous microscopic, hair-like structures known as ‘cilia’. As sound waves enter the ear, they cause the fluid in the cochlea to vibrate, which in turn stimulates the cilia. These delicate cilia then transmit the sound information as electrical signals to the brain, contributing significantly to our ability to perceive and interpret various types of sounds.
Cochlear Implant: A cochlear implant is a surgically implanted device composed of numerous electrode arrays, inserted into the cochlea, intended to stimulate the auditory nerve to restore hearing.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Cochlear Implant’ is a technologically advanced, surgically inserted device designed to produce hearing sensations by electrically stimulating the auditory nerves. It comprises a complex assembly of components including an electrode array. This array is surgically implanted into the cochlea, a spiral-shaped hollow in the inner ear. Once implanted, the device bypasses the damaged portions of the auditory system and directly stimulates the auditory nerve. This enables conversion of sound signals into electrical signals that the brain can interpret, thereby aiding individuals with severe to profound sensorineural hearing loss in auditory perception.
Cocktail Party Phenomenon: The Cocktail Party Phenomenon refers to the selective attention ability to concentrate on a particular sound in a noisy environment. It’s essentially the brain’s way of tuning into a single conversation despite background noise.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Cocktail Party Phenomenon’ is an intriguing aspect of cognitive psychology that refers to the individual’s capacity to concentrate their auditory attention on a single source of sound or stimulus, typically in a noisy environment. This ability allows an individual to tune into, for example, a particular conversation at a bustling event, such as a cocktail party, while effectively filtering out or ignoring the background noise or other competing auditory stimuli. This selectivity in attention demonstrates our mind’s intricate ability to focus amid distraction, thereby aiding our social interactions and overall situational awareness.
Codeine: Codeine is a less potent and habit-forming opiate analgesic, mainly used for pain relief.
Expanded Definition
Codeine is a narcotic drug that belongs to the opioid family, constituting a relatively less potent and minimally addictive analgesic compared to morphine and heroin. Predominantly used in medicine, it helps relieve moderate to severe pain and can also be employed in the treatment of cough and diarrhea. Its lower propensity for addiction, alongside its pharmacological effectiveness, makes it a preferred alternative in specific health scenarios. However, like all opioids, care must be taken with its usage due to potential risk of dependence and adverse effects.
Cognition: Cognition refers to the mechanisms of understanding through thought, experience, and the senses, effectively the acquisition and utilization of knowledge.
Expanded Definition
‘Cognition’ refers to the comprehensive set of mental activities related to acquiring, processing, storing, and applying information. This broad term encompasses several processes such as perception, learning, memory, reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, and language use. Essentially, cognition is the mechanism that enables individuals to understand the world, create mental concepts of their surroundings, and respond intelligently to various situations. Therefore, cognition is critical in the absorption and application of knowledge in both mundane and complex circumstances. These processes are fundamental to our daily lives as they drive our interaction, comprehension, and engagement with our environment.
Cognitive Accessibility: Cognitive Accessibility refers to how readily information is retrieved from memory for use in thought processes and actions. It gauges the ease of activating stored knowledge for application.
Expanded Definition
“Cognitive Accessibility” refers to the level of readiness or ease with which information or knowledge is recalled from one’s memory, thereby influencing a person’s cognitive processes and behavioral responses. This concept underscores how immediately and effectively our brain can retrieve stored information to understand, react, and engage in various situations. The degree of cognitive accessibility can impact decision-making, problem-solving, and interactive capabilities. It indicates the significant role our memory plays not only in storing knowledge but also in determining how and when we use it in our cognitive operations and behaviors.
Cognitive Appraisal: Cognitive appraisal is the mental process of interpreting and assigning meaning to emotions and situations.
Expanded Definition
“Cognitive appraisal” refers to the evaluative process through which an individual interprets and assesses their environment, experiences, and stimuli, and determines the implications or significance they may hold. This process is influential in eliciting emotions within the individual and determining their emotional response. It’s a critical component in the psychological theory of emotions, underlining that our emotional reactions are largely dependent on how we comprehend or ‘appraise’ the situation at hand, not just on the situation or event itself.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a structured therapeutic technique aimed at addressing psychological disorders via systematic methods anchored in cognitive and behavioural theories.
Expanded Definition
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a well-established and structured therapeutic approach that targets the alleviation of psychological disorders. Using a refined and systematic set of procedures, it is grounded in the principles of cognitive and behavioral sciences. This therapy focuses on identifying the maladaptive thought patterns that engender unproductive behaviors and negative emotions. The ultimate goal of CBT is to replace these with more objective, rational thoughts, thereby promoting healthier emotional reactions and improved behaviors. This method requires active participation from the patient, with the therapist serving as a guide for the process. Being a solution-focused therapy, it’s typically time-limited and goal-oriented. CBT is widely recognized as an effective form of treatment for a variety of psychological disorders, including depression, anxiety, eating disorders and PTSD among others.
Cognitive Biases: Cognitive biases are distortions in our thought process, originating from errors in memory or judgement. These biases typically occur when we misuse cognitive abilities, leading to faulty reasoning or decision-making.
Expanded Definition
‘Cognitive Biases’ can be defined as systematic deviations or distortions in human thought processes that lead to perceptual inaccuracies, inaccurate judgments, or illogical interpretations. These biases can affect our memory recall or decision-making processes by causing us to depart from the objective standards of facts, rational evaluations, or evidence-based considerations. Fundamentally, cognitive biases are due to the brain’s tendency to simplify information processing, which can occasionally lead to flawed perceptions or reasoning.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Cognitive Dissonance Theory is the principle that suggests we modify our beliefs to alleviate the stress caused by conflicting ideas, typically prioritizing attitude adjustments over behavior changes.
Expanded Definition
Cognitive Dissonance Theory is a psychological construct positing a state of tension that occurs when an individual holds two inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes. This internal inconsistency is known to stimulate discomfort or dissonance, leading to an inclination to reduce or eliminate the dissonance through altering one’s attitudes or beliefs rather than changing behaviors. This theory suggests that we have an inherent desire for internal cognitive consistency that influences our attitudes, thoughts, and behaviors, and we will adjust these elements to lessen any discomfort arising from inconsistency.
Cognitive Map: A cognitive map is a psychological concept of one’s mental schematic for physical spaces, akin to an internal navigation system formed through personal experiences, much like a rat creating a mental map after maze exploration.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Cognitive Map’ is a term employed in the field of cognitive psychology to describe an individual’s mental model of their personal spatial environment. This construct refers to the mind’s ability to visualize and comprehend the physical surroundings, geographical locations, or even the layout of a specific area, such as a building. Cognitive maps enable individuals, and many animals, to understand, process, and recollect spatial information, forming a mental blueprint of one’s environment. An example of its application can be seen in certain rodents like rats, which, after navigating through a maze, create and retain a cognitive map; thereby, demonstrating their ability to recall the path or routes taken within the maze.
Cognitive Neuroscience: Cognitive Neuroscience is the multidisciplinary analysis of how brain activity influences cognitive functions such as perception, thought, memory, and language.
Expanded Definition
Cognitive Neuroscience is a multidisciplinary field of research that combines the study of the human brain and cognition. It aims to investigate and understand how neurophysiological activities within the brain correspond with cognitive processes such as perception, thought, memory, and language. This field brings together elements from diverse scientific disciplines, such as psychology, neurobiology, neurology, and computer science. Cognitive neuroscientists employ a range of methodologies, from brain scans to mental agility tests, to deepen our understanding of how the brain activity underpins our cognitive capabilities and can influence our actions, decisions, and interactions.
Cognitive Psychology: Cognitive Psychology is the psychological branch that analyzes how the brain processes information, specifically studying areas like perception, thinking, memory, and decision-making.
Expanded Definition
Cognitive Psychology is a specialized branch of psychology that focuses on the examination of internal mental states such as problem-solving, memory, perception, and language usage. It fundamentally investigates how individuals understand, diagnose, remember, and learn, serving as the psychological science of how people process information. This field employs numerous methods including psychophysical experiments and cognitive models to scientifically study how individuals perceive, process, and interpret their environment, thereby influencing their responses and behaviors. Ultimately, cognitive psychology aims to enhance our understanding of the human mind, offering insights into decision-making, attention span, problem-solving capabilities, and how memory operates.
Cognitive Therapy: Cognitive Therapy is a psychotherapeutic approach that helps clients pinpoint and correct distorted or inaccurate beliefs influencing dysfunction.
Expanded Definition
Cognitive Therapy, often termed as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), is a specialized form of psychological treatment grounded in the understanding that an individual’s thoughts and perceptions heavily influence how they feel and behave. The primary goal of this therapeutic approach is to assist patients in recognizing and rectifying erroneous or skewed beliefs, assumptions, and thought patterns that may be exacerbating their psychological distress or disorder. By modifying these cognitive distortions and fostering healthier thinking habits, cognitive therapy aims to improve the individual’s overall mental well-being and daily functioning. It’s widely used in addressing various conditions, including depression, anxiety, phobias, and other types of psychiatric disorders.
Cohort Effects: ‘Cohort effects’ refer to the potential variances in cognition or behavior due to extraneous factors other than age across different time points.
Expanded Definition
“Cohort Effects” are identified as potential influences or variances in individual or group behavioral characteristics or cognitive functions that are observed at two different points in time, which may not necessarily be attributed to the natural process of aging. Rather, these variations could be the result of unique experiences, environmental factors, or historical events shared by the individuals or groups (referred to as cohorts) under consideration. To put it simply, these effects underscore the importance of considering context and shared experiences when evaluating developmental changes over time.
Collective Unconscious: The ‘Collective Unconscious’ is a concept of shared, deeper layers of unconsciousness prevalent across humans, reflecting universal patterns or archetypes.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Collective Unconscious’ is a theoretical construct posited by renowned psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, Carl Jung. It is hypothesized as a layer of individual unconsciousness that is shared among all humans. This common stratum is thought to contain universal archetypes, motifs, and symbols, known as ‘universal themes’, which are innate to all of us. These themes provide a common backdrop and can appear in cultural phenomena like folklore, art, and dreams, illustrating their influence across all human lives, irrespective of cultural and geographical differences. Therefore, collective unconscious forms an intrinsic paradigm contributing to psychological and behavioral commonalities among humans, despite distinct individual experiences.
Collectivism: Collectivism refers to a societal approach that prioritizes group goals and values interdependent relationships, often prevalent in East Asian cultures. It underscores harmony and interconnection among individuals.
Expanded Definition
Collectivism is a philosophical, sociocultural ideology that prioritizes the group, community, or society over individual interests. Underpinning many East Asian cultures, it underscores the mutual interdependence among individuals, emphasizing the importance of collaboration and cooperation to achieve common goals. Central to collectivism is the establishment and preservation of harmonious social relationships, which are viewed as essential for maintaining group cohesion and social stability. It promotes values such as group harmony, interpersonal connectivity, shared responsibility, and collective welfare, both promoting and emerging from a belief in the interconnectedness of all people within a certain social context.
Color Blindness: Color blindness refers to a visual condition where the perception of red and/or green hues is compromised or completely absent.
Expanded Definition
‘Color Blindness’, in a professional and precise terminology, refers to a visual impairment characterized by the inability to discern or differentiate between certain colors, specifically red and green. This condition, often inherited, results from an abnormality or lack of certain color-sensitive cells in the retina, the portion of the eye that transmits visual data to the brain. The severity and range of color perception limitations can vary among individuals, potentially impacting activities requiring accurate color interpretation. Please note that color blindness can sometimes affect the perception of other colors beyond just red and green.
Color Constancy: Color constancy is the visual perception phenomenon that ensures the colors of objects appear consistent under varied lighting conditions. Essentially, it’s our brain’s way of adjusting for light changes to keep colors constant.
Expanded Definition
Color constancy refers to the psychological phenomenon whereby we perceive the colors of familiar objects as being constant, irrespective of changes in lighting conditions that may affect the actual wavelengths of light reflected by the objects. In simpler terms, our brain adjusts the way we see colors based on the surrounding light, allowing us to consistently perceive the color of an object regardless of whether it’s viewed under sunlight, artificial light, or in shadow. This is a key aspect of our visual perception system, enabling us to interact seamlessly with our environment.
Commitment: Commitment refers to the motivation derived from assessing a goal’s worth and feasibility, coupled with an inclination to view the world with intrigue and significance.
Expanded Definition
‘Commitment’ is a psychological state that can be defined as the determination or dedication to achieve a particular goal, driven by the perceived importance and attainability of that goal. It typically involves the investment of time, resources, and effort. Furthermore, it reflects an individual’s inclination to perceive the world around them as intriguing and meaningful. This inclination motivates consistent engagement and effort, fostering the persistence necessary to overcome challenges and sustain focus towards achieving the set goal.
Common Ground: Common ground refers to the mutual knowledge, assumptions, and understandings shared between individuals during a dialogue.
Expanded Definition
‘Common Ground’ refers to the collective knowledge, understanding, or contextual information that is mutually recognized and acknowledged by all participants within a conversational exchange. This shared background enables clear communication, facilitates comprehension, aids in building connections and fosters collaborative dialogue. It serves as the foundational basis upon which effective and meaningful conversations can take place.
Common-Causal Variable: A Common-Causal Variable is an external factor that influences both the predictor and outcome variables, creating a perceived correlation between them, even though it’s not part of the original research hypothesis.
Expanded Definition
A “Common-Causal Variable,” also known as a “Confounding Variable,” refers to an external factor that is not specifically accounted for in a research hypothesis. However, it has an influence on both the independent (predictor) and dependent (outcome) variables, leading to the visible correlation observed between them. This variable can potentially impact the accuracy and reliability of the research findings because it can create a false impression that a direct causal relationship exists between the predictor and outcome variables. Hence it’s crucial to identify and control these common-causal variables to ensure the validity of the research outcomes.
Community Learning: Community Learning is an educational approach where children fulfill dual roles as both instructors and students, facilitating shared knowledge acquisition.
Expanded Definition
‘Community Learning’ can be expertly defined as a pedagogical approach where individuals, specifically children in this context, participate actively in a collaborative learning environment. In this approach, they function in dual roles as both educators and students. They engage in sharing knowledge, as well as receiving information from their peers. This process fosters a sense of ownership and responsibility in their learning journey, encourages cooperative learning, and harnesses the collective knowledge of the group, enhancing the overall learning experience for all participants.
Community Mental Health Services: Community Mental Health Services are localized mental health treatments and strategies, available at a community level for mental health management and support.
Expanded Definition
‘Community Mental Health Services’ can be comprehensively defined as a range of therapeutic and supportive services targeted towards individuals with mental health concerns. Delivered within the communal environment of the intended recipients rather than in institutional settings, these services are designed to improve mental health, boost resilience, and enhance overall quality of life. They might include treatments such as counseling, psychotherapy, crisis intervention, skill training, and case management, often provided by a diverse team of mental health professionals. By being rooted in the community, these services are more accessible and aim to minimize the stigma associated with mental health, hence fostering a more inclusive society.
Comorbidity: Comorbidity refers to the simultaneous occurrence of multiple disorders in an individual.
Expanded Definition
‘Comorbidity’ refers to the simultaneous presence of two or more illnesses or disorders in an individual. In other words, it is a medical condition wherein a person is afflicted by multiple disorders at the same time. These disorders may be independent of each other, or they may interact in complex ways, potentially exacerbating the progression or impact of each condition. Comorbidity is a critical aspect of healthcare as it influences diagnostic procedures, treatment plans, prognosis, and the overall management of patient care.
Competence: Competence refers to an individual’s self-awareness about their skills when compared to their peers. It’s the understanding and acknowledgement of one’s own capabilities in relation to others.
Expanded Definition
‘Competence’ can be professionally defined as an individual’s cognizance and acknowledgment of their own skills, capabilities, and proficiency level, usually in comparison to their peers. It involves the self-assessment of one’s competence within a specific field or general life abilities, often scrutinized against the competencies exhibited by others. It’s noteworthy that while this term is occasionally associated with comparing oneself to others, true competence tends to focus more on the improvement and development of one’s own abilities.
Complexes: Complexes are typically unconscious, emotionally-charged symbolic content that conflict with conscious thoughts, and are often repressed due to their psychological discomfort.
Expanded Definition
‘Complexes’ can be understood as emotionally charged ideas or sets of thoughts that have been deeply engrained in the unconscious part of the mind, often as a result of past experiences or traumas. These complexes are typically incompatible with conscious thought because they may trigger emotional discomfort or conflict, and are therefore often repressed or kept hidden from conscious awareness. These psychologically complex structures drive perceptions, emotions, behaviors, and even self-reputation, although individuals may not be fully aware of their influence. This definition is present especially in the field of psychology, specifically in psychoanalysis and theories of Carl Jung.
Compulsions: Compulsions are recurrent actions or rituals performed relentlessly, often as a response to irrational fears or obsessions.
Expanded Definition
‘Compulsions’ is a term most often used in psychological contexts, referring to repetitive behaviors or mental acts that an individual feels driven to perform, usually in response to an obsession or according to certain rigid rules. These are not simply habits, but are actions often carried out to alleviate distress or prevent a feared event or situation, even though these actions are not logically connected to what they are intended to prevent. To simply define as ‘repetitive behaviors’ might not capture the full weight of the concept, as it includes both the repetitive act and the psychological reasoning or urge driving it. This behavior generally interferes significantly with a person’s normal routine, social functioning, or overall quality of life.
Concept: A concept is an intellectual mental construct that categorizes or classifies ideas or objects.
Expanded Definition
A ‘concept’ is an intellectual construct or cognitive framework that serves as a mental embodiment of a particular class or category of items, ideas, conditions, or phenomena. This abstract representation serves to cluster or organize related elements or characteristics together, thereby aiding in understanding, interpretation, and communication. Essentially, it encapsulates commonalities and distinctive qualities of objects or ideas allowing our minds to identify, associate or differentiate them effectively.
Conception: Conception is the process when a sperm fertilizes an egg, initiating pregnancy.
Expanded Definition
‘Conception’ is a term used in reproductive biology to represent the initiating stage of embryonic development where a mature ovum, released from a female’s ovaries during her menstrual cycle, is fertilized by a male’s spermatozoon after ejaculation. This process typically occurs within the Fallopian tubes and leads to the formation of a zygote, marking the onset of pregnancy, provided the zygote then successfully implants into the uterus. Thus, conception is the vital prerequisite for the propagation of genetic material, ultimately leading to the birth of a new offspring.
Conceptual Replication: Conceptual replication is the process of reaffirming the generalizability of a scientific hypothesis by testing it across various samples, times, or situations, and observing consistent results.
Expanded Definition
‘Conceptual Replication’ is a method utilized within scientific research under which the original hypothesis from a preceding study is replicated, but within different contextual parameters. The aim is to ascertain the robustness and generalizability of the initial findings by testing them under varying conditions, different sample sets, distinct time frames, or alternate situations. The replication of the same or equivalent results offers reinforcement of the initial findings, suggesting that they may be universally applicable rather than being constrained by specific circumstances or conditions. In essence, conceptual replication seeks to affirm the broader relevance and applicability of a scientific hypothesis beyond its original context.
Conceptual Variables: Conceptual variables are theoretical constructs or abstract notions that underpin research hypotheses, simplifying complex phenomena for investigational purposes.
Expanded Definition
‘Conceptual Variables’ is a term used to indicate abstract or theoretical constructs or ideas that are integral in the formation of research hypotheses. These variables are not directly observable but are inferred from other empirical and observable variables or indicators. Often encompassing broad concepts or ideas, such as happiness, intelligence, motivation, or culture, they serve as the backbone for many research studies across various disciplines. They help to form a framework or direction for the research, from which specific research questions and hypotheses can be deduced, contributing to our understanding of complex phenomena.
Concrete Operational Stage: The ‘Concrete Operational Stage’ refers to a developmental phase where a person increasingly utilizes logical thinking, operations, and abstract ideas, with improved accuracy and continuity.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Concrete Operational Stage’ is a term coined by renowned child development psychologist, Jean Piaget, referring to a critical phase in a child’s cognitive development, typically between the ages of 7 and 12. During this stage, children increasingly employ logic and reasoning in their thinking, but it is still concrete, i.e., tied directly to experiences and objects that they can see, touch, or visualize, rather than abstract ideas. Here, children are better able to understand transitions and operations, which include understanding and processing changes and actions in their environment with increased accuracy. They also begin to grasp more complex concepts like cause-and-effect, conservation (the understanding that quantity does not change despite changes in appearance), and categorization. However, their reasoning is primarily restricted to tangible, concrete concepts and situations. This is a significant leap from the ‘preoperational stage’ that precedes it, where thinking is largely based on intuition and perception.
Conditioned Compensatory Response: A Conditioned Compensatory Response is a learned reaction in classical conditioning that counteracts, rather than mirrors, the natural response – usually seen when drugs are the initial stimuli, aiming to diminish the unconditioned response’s intensity.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Conditioned Compensatory Response’ is a psychological term used in the study of classical conditioning, a learning process in which an automatic response is developed to a previously neutral stimulus. This response works in opposition or counter to an unconditioned response, which is the natural, instinctive reaction to an unconditioned stimulus. The purpose of the conditioned compensatory response is to attenuate or weaken the impact of the unconditioned response. This phenomenon often appears in associative learning related to drug usage, where substances of abuse act as unconditioned stimuli. For example, if a drug naturally reduces heart rate (the unconditioned response), a conditioned compensatory response may increase heart rate to counterbalance that effect when drug-related cues are present, thus maintaining the body’s equilibrium.
Conditioned Response (CR): A Conditioned Response (CR) is a learned reaction triggered by a conditioned stimulus following the process of classical conditioning.
Expanded Definition
A Conditioned Response (CR) is a learned behavior or reaction that is produced when an individual is exposed to a conditioned stimulus. This process occurs through the technique of classical conditioning, a type of associative learning initially described by Ivan Pavlov. The individual doesn’t inherently respond to the conditioned stimulus, but through consistent association with an unconditioned stimulus (i.e., a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a reaction), the conditioned stimulus begins to evoke the same response. For instance, if a bell ring (conditioned stimulus) is consistently paired with the serving of food (unconditioned stimulus), a dog may eventually start to salivate (conditioned response) just at the sound of the bell ring, even if no food is present. In psychology, a Conditioned Response represents our capacity to learn and adapt to environmental cues based on experiences.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is a neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a learned response.
Expanded Definition
A Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is a term used in psychology that refers to a previously neutral stimulus, such as a sound, image, or cue, that does not initially trigger a reaction or response. However, after this neutral stimulus is repeatedly linked or paired with an Unconditioned Stimulus – one that naturally and automatically triggers a response – it eventually evokes a similar, but learned, reaction on its own. This developed response is known as the Conditioned Response. Through this process, often called classical conditioning, organisms learn to associate different environmental stimuli, reacting in anticipation of ensuing events. Conditioned Stimuli thus play a crucial role in associative learning and behavior formation.
Conduction Hearing Loss: Conduction hearing loss is a type of auditory impairment caused by damage to the sound wave transmission system leading to the cochlea.
Expanded Definition
‘Conductive Hearing Loss’ can be professionally defined as ‘an impairment in auditory function, precipitated by structural or physiological abnormalities within the sound transmission apparatus of the ear. This encompasses the outer ear, the ear canal, the eardrum, and the bones of the middle ear, all of which collaboratively direct acoustic vibrations to the cochlea. Any damage or disruption to this mechanical conveying pathway can compromise the effective relay of sound waves, leading to a diminished capacity for hearing.’
Cones: Cones are neural cells in the eyes tuned to perceive color and fine details.
Expanded Definition
‘Cones’ can be more comprehensively defined as a type of specialized photoreceptor neuron found in the retina of the eye. Their primary function is to respond to and perceive an array of light wavelengths, enabling the human visual system to discern fine details and distinguish varying colors. Unlike their counterpart, rod cells, which are more responsive in lower light conditions, cone cells excel in well-lit conditions, making them crucial for activities like reading or distinguishing the subtleties of color variations in art.
Confederate: A confederate is someone who collaborates with a researcher, typically used to mislead study participants for research purposes.
Expanded Definition
“A ‘Confederate’ within a research context refers to an individual who collaboratively works with a researcher, typically acting out specific roles or behaviors as part of the research design. Their primary purpose is usually to subtly manipulate or influence the actions or responses of unknowing research participants, creating specific conditions necessary for the study. However, they are not malicious in intent; rather, they serve as a strategic tool to maintain the integrity and validity of the research. Participants are generally informed of the confederate’s role in the experiment during the debriefing process.”
Confidentiality: Confidentiality is a commitment by researchers to withhold personal data of participants without their explicit consent or legal mandate.
Expanded Definition
‘Confidentiality’ is a critical principle primarily used in research, legal, and medical contexts. It refers to a binding agreement or understanding between researchers and participants that protects the privacy of the participants’ personally identifiable information. Under this principle, researchers pledge to not disclose any personal information such as names, addresses, ethnicity, health records, or any other data that may expose the identity or sensitive details of the participants without obtaining their explicit consent or unless legally mandated. Confidentiality ensures the safeguarding of private information, promoting integrity in research practices and protecting participants from potential harm, thereby fostering a trust relationship between participants and researchers.
Confirmation Bias: Confirmation bias refers to the inherent human propensity to seek and interpret new data in a way that validates our pre-existing beliefs and memories, often resulting in skewed recall favoring confirmatory information.
Expanded Definition
Confirmation bias is a cognitive phenomenon where individuals tend to favor information that corroborates their pre-existing beliefs or values, rather than objectively examining or challenging these ideas. This bias often shapes our cognitive processes, from the way we gather information to how we interpret and recall it. In essence, information that aligns with our pre-established views or schemas is more likely to be remembered, while information that contradicts them may be overlooked or forgotten. This can sometimes lead us to skewed understandings, as we may unconsciously filter out critical information that could challenge or broaden our perspectives.
Conflict: Conflict refers to the clash or disagreement arising due to opposing actions, objectives, or ideologies.
Expanded Definition
‘Conflict’ is a term that signifies a state of discordance which arises from the perception of incompatible objectives, activities, or concepts. It often materializes when individuals or groups perceive that their actions, ambitions, or principles are at odds with each other, thereby causing an apparent disparity in approaches or viewpoints. This disharmony can stem from a range of factors, including differences in beliefs, values, or needs, and can result in various levels of discord, from minor disagreements to major confrontations. The elements of conflict can manifest in diverse settings, encompassing personal relationships, professional environments, or societal issues.
Conformity: Conformity refers to the behavior of aligning one’s actions and beliefs with those of the surrounding group.
Expanded Definition
‘Conformity’ can be comprehensively defined as ‘a psychological and social phenomenon wherein individuals choose to align their behavior, beliefs, and attitudes closely with the prevailing standards, norms, and attitudes of a specific group or society at large. This adaptive tendency to adjust and assimilate one’s thinking and actions can stem from either explicit societal pressure, or be influenced subtly by the desire for social acceptance and avoidance of conflict.’
Confounding Variables: Confounding variables are extra factors in an experiment that can impact the dependent variable and thus skew the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable, causing systematic differences among groups.
Expanded Definition
‘Confounding Variables’ can be defined as factors other than the primary independent variable of an experimental study, which may potentially have an influence on the results. They differ systematically among different experimental groups, thus presenting a challenge in clearly identifying the true relationship between the independent and dependent variables. These variables, if left uncontrolled, can generate ambiguity or inaccuracies in interpreting the specific effects of the independent variable’s alterations on the experiment’s outcome. They are especially crucial to identify and manage in experimental designs to maintain the integrity and validity of the research findings.
Conscientiousness: Conscientiousness is a personality trait characterized by precision, punctuality, rule adherence, and work ethic.
Expanded Definition
‘Conscientiousness’ is a psychological trait typically characterized by an individual’s propensity to act in an organized, diligent, and meticulous manner. This trait often manifests as meticulousness in job performance, punctuality for appointments, adherence to established rules and conventions, and a consistent commitment to hard work. A conscientious person is likely to display a high degree of responsibility, dependability, and attention to detail. This psychological characteristic is instrumental in our daily lives as it influences our behaviors, actions, and overall work ethic.
Conscious: Consciousness refers to an entity’s awareness and perception of its external and internal environments, coupled with the ability to consistently identify and respond to stimuli.
Expanded Definition
‘Consciousness’ refers to an individual’s mental state where they possess awareness or comprehension of both their internal cognitive processes and their external environment, enabling them to respond to situations accordingly. It involves the consistent ability, transcending mere chance, to correctly perceive and communicate the presence or absence of stimuli around them. This reflective awareness encompasses not just physical surroundings, but emotional states, thoughts, sensory stimuli, and abstract concepts.
Consciousness: Consciousness refers to our individual awareness and perception of both ourselves and our surroundings.
Expanded Definition
‘Consciousness’ is a complex and multifaceted concept often identified as an individual’s state of understanding and perception, marked by an individual’s awareness and cognitive engagement with their surroundings or stimuli. It involves the ability of an individual to explicitly and intentionally recognize and process a stimulus within their environment, which could be bearing significance to their senses, emotions, or thoughts in a non-uniform manner. Further, this concept incorporates our subjective awareness of our individual self and the broader environment, thus functioning as an interface between our internal world of thoughts and feelings with the external world of stimuli and interactions. Simply put, consciousness is the mental tapestry weaving together our individual experiences, thoughts, sensations, and perceived reality.
Consent Form: A consent form is a written agreement that clearly states the nature of participants’ involvement, ensuring they understand and willingly agree to participate.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Consent Form’ is a meticulously drafted legal document that explicitly describes the nature, benefits, risks, and overall context of an activity or procedure. It is presented to the clients or participants for review. It is an essential measure to ensure that the individuals involved are thoroughly informed about the details and potential implications of their planned participation or involvement. After this detailed orientation, if the individual agrees to proceed understanding all revealed facts, they sign the document to indicate their voluntary agreement, and hence, their informed consent is obtained. The primary purpose of this form is to uphold ethical considerations, maintain transparency, and safeguard the rights, safety, and autonomy of clients or participants.
Conservation: Conservation is a cognitive concept stating that certain properties, like mass, volume or number, remain unchanged despite alterations in an object’s form.
Expanded Definition
Conservation, as defined within the realm of cognitive developmental psychology and specifically attributed to Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development, refers to the understanding that certain fundamental properties of objects or quantities—such as their number, mass, or volume—remain invariant or unchanged, even when their physical presentation may alter or transform. Key to the phase of concrete operational reasoning, usually developing between the ages of 7 and 12, this principle of conservation signifies a pivotal moment in a child’s cognitive development, allowing for an enhanced understanding of the surrounding world. In essence, it refers to the mental ability to comprehend that materially altering an object or group of objects does not change its basic attributes. For example, a child would understand that a pizza is still the same amount whether it is whole or sliced.
Consolidation: Consolidation is the post-encoding process believed to secure memory imprints. It aids in the immutability and durability of these memories over time.
Expanded Definition
“Consolidation” can be comprehensively defined as the neurological process that ensues after the initial encoding phase of memory formation. Post-encoding, consolidation plays a critical function in strengthening the forming memory traces, turning short-term memories into more durable, long-term memory. This mechanism is believed to involve various patterns of neuronal connectivity and synaptic strengthening that occurs after learning, to create a stable memory representation. Hence, the process of consolidation is a key component in how our brains retain and retrieve information over time.
Construct Validity: Construct validity is the degree to which a test accurately measures the theoretical trait it purports to assess, ensuring the test focuses solely on the intended construct rather than other unrelated factors.
Expanded Definition
‘Construct Validity’ refers to the degree to which a test or tool measures the theoretical construct, or abstract idea, it is intended to measure. This concept is critical in research studies and assessment development, ensuring that the tool provides accurate, useful data regarding the element under investigation. In the context of intelligence testing for example, construct validity will confirm that the test is indeed measuring intelligence accurately, and not an unrelated variable such as personal bias or language proficiency. It, therefore, confirms the integrity and relevance of the test in relation to its intended purpose, ensuring the reliability of its outcomes and conclusions.
Context: ‘Context’ refers to the external and internal factors or conditions, including environmental surroundings, internal states, and temporal elements, that exist and can influence the learning or experience at a given time.
Expanded Definition
‘Context’, in the realm of learning and cognitive science, pertains to various background elements that surround, influence, and interact with the process of acquisition and application of knowledge. Context may include multifaceted influences ranging from the immediate physical environment, typical exemplified by B.F. Skinner’s experimental box, to the temporal setting or period during which learning unfolds. However, the concept of context extends beyond tangible external parameters. It also encompasses internal, subjective experiences, such as an individual’s current mood state, or the sensory changes triggered by substances, such as alcohol. These examples underscore the crucial role context subtly plays in shaping our perceptions, understanding, and responses to information, making it a central factor in learning and memory dynamics.
Context-Dependent Learning: Context-dependent learning refers to the enhanced ability to recall information when the learning environment aligns with the retrieval environment. It implies that memory performance improves when learning and recall contexts are similar.
Expanded Definition
‘Context-Dependent Learning’ is often characterized by the enhancement of memory recall when the environment or situation during the learning process aligns with the scenario during the retrieval process. This concept emphasizes that the circumstances under which information is learned are closely tied to how and when it is best recalled. The context or surroundings can include physical location, sounds, smells, and even emotional state. It underlines the importance of congruence in the situations in which information is encoded and later retrieved, for optimal memory performance.
Contextual Information: Contextual information refers to the non-verbal cues, shared knowledge, and environmental detail that enables deeper comprehension of language.
Expanded Definition
‘Contextual Information’ refers to the supplemental cues, beyond the explicit content of language, that facilitate understanding and meaningful interpretation of communication. It often comprises the broader background knowledge, mutual understandings shared among communicators, and various non-verbal cues. Such indirect information could include, but is not limited to, the communicator’s facial expressions, posture, gestures, voice modulation, as well as the situational and cultural context. Recognizing and decoding this contextual information enhances coherent understanding, enabling individuals to respond appropriately in any interaction.
Continual-Activation Theory: The Continual-Activation Theory suggests that dreams are a byproduct of the brain’s ongoing activity and data synthesis during sleep.
Expanded Definition
The Continual-Activation Theory is a cognitive hypothesis which posits that dreams are an outcome of the brain’s consistent activity, specifically its process of activation and synthesis. According to this theory, the brain is in a constant state of electrical activity, even during sleep. During the phase of Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep, certain areas of the brain get activated and synthesize information and stimuli, producing a narrative that we interpret as dreams. This approach combats traditional views that dreams are either meaningless or purely psychological, suggesting instead that dreams reflect the brain’s ongoing engagement with data synthesis and consolidation.
Continuous Distributions: A continuous distribution is a statistical function representing all possible values (in an infinite number) a random variable can take within a specified range, typically featuring a peak around its mean.
Expanded Definition
‘Continuous Distributions’ in the realm of statistics, refers to a type of probability distribution that characterizes an infinite number of possible outcomes that fall within a range or interval. Unlike their discrete counterparts, which are confined to finite or countable outcomes, continuous distributions represent scenarios where an outcome can take on any value within a certain continuous range. The outcomes are typically visualized using a curve or a graph, where the total area under the curve represents ‘1’ or 100% probability. In this context, most values tend to cluster around a central location, creating a peak, while fewer occurrences of more extreme values taper the ends, generating what is often referred to as the ‘tails’ of the distribution.
Continuous Reinforcement: Continuous reinforcement is a strategy in which the desired behavior is rewarded each time it’s exhibited, promoting straightforward, fast learning.
Expanded Definition
‘Continuous Reinforcement’ refers to a behavioral training method where the subject receives a reward or reinforcement every single time they perform the designated action or behavior successfully. This strategy, often used in both psychology and animal training, encourages and strengthens the likelihood of the desired behavior occurring again, by immediately recognizing and positively reinforcing it each time it happens. This method is considered to be the most effective and quickest way for a subject to learn new behavior.
Contralateral Control: Contralateral Control refers to the brain’s configuration where the left hemisphere manages the right body side, and the right hemisphere oversees the left body side.
Expanded Definition
“Contralateral Control” refers to the unique neurological arrangement wherein the brain’s left hemisphere primarily oversees sensory input and motor function for the right side of the body, and the right hemisphere governs the same controls for the left side of the body. Typically, the two hemispheres cross-connect such that each one controls the opposite side of the body, granting the brain a superior level of coordination and function. This principle forms a significant component of our understanding of the brain’s configuration and operation, as well as its role in behavior, movement, and sensation processing.
Control: Control refers to the confidence in one’s ability to impact and modify the course of events.
Expanded Definition
‘Control’ is professionally defined as the conviction in one’s personal capacity to dictate or significantly impact the course and outcome of events. It suggests an individual’s perceived self-efficacy, demonstrating their confidence in mobilizing personal skills and resources to effectuate changes in their environment or circumstances as desired. This concept is a key component in areas such as psychology, management, and sociology.
Control Group: A control group is a set of participants left untreated or unexposed to specific factors to provide a baseline for evaluating the outcomes of the group under experimental treatment.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Control Group’ in a research context refers to a specific group of subjects within an experimental framework that does not receive the intervention or treatment under investigation. This group serves as a benchmark or baseline against which the researcher can compare the results of the experimental group, which receives the treatment. The purpose of the control group is to eliminate any external factors that could influence the results, providing a standard for evaluation and making it possible to measure the true effect and impact of the treatment or intervention on the experimental group.
Controlled Behavior: Controlled behavior is a conscious, self-regulated action, whereby an individual intentionally moderates their behavior.
Expanded Definition
‘Controlled Behavior’ refers to deliberate and mindfully managed actions driven by an individual’s self-discipline or external regulations. These behaviors are regarded as ‘controlled’ because the individual actively suppresses, directs, or alters their impulsive responses or innate tendencies to conform to certain expectations or standards. The purpose of such self-censoring is typically to achieve a desired objective, maintain harmony within a social construct, or comply with established norms and rules.
Convergence: Convergence refers to the eyes’ inward movement necessary to focus on close-range objects, typically within 50 feet.
Expanded Definition
‘Convergence’ is a term used in ophthalmology and visual science to refer to the coordinated inward movement and focus of both eyes on nearby objects, typically those within a distance of approximately 50 feet. This unique eye movement is a critical aspect of binocular vision, enabling us to maintain a single image and perceive depth. It’s an essential part of accomplishing simple day-to-day tasks such as reading or catching a ball.
Convergent Thinking: Convergent thinking is the mental process of finding a single, precise solution to a problem. It focuses on pinpointing the most accurate response rather than exploring multiple possibilities.
Expanded Definition
Convergent Thinking is a cognitive process that involves focusing on a single, predetermined solution to a certain problem. This type of reasoning is primarily used in situations where an unequivocal correct answer exists and can be obtained through logical reasoning and analytical processes. It involves methodically narrowing down various solutions based on facts, knowledge, and logical deduction to identify the most appropriate answer. Convergent thinking, therefore, is highly systematic, definitive, and is often associated with tasks involving problem-solving, decision making, and critical analysis where accuracy is paramount.
Conversion Disorder: Conversion Disorder is a rare psychological condition where a person shows real, physical symptoms that cannot be traced back to any physiological cause.
Expanded Definition
‘Conversion Disorder’, also known as Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder, is an infrequent and complex type of mental health condition. It is classified under the ‘somatoform disorders’ category, which are mental illnesses that cause bodily symptoms, including pain. In Conversion Disorder, an individual experiences specific physical symptoms that seem as if they stem from a neurological condition. However, even after comprehensive medical evaluations, these physical symptoms cannot be traced back to any physiological or organic issues. Hence, the condition is usually linked to psychological stress or emotional conflicts, in which the mind converts these psychological aspects into physical symptoms. The disorder’s manifestations can vary significantly from person to person, with symptoms ranging from paralysis to seizures, which are convincing and serious, but without a discernible physical cause. It’s essential to remember that these symptoms are very real to the patient and are not consciously produced or under the patient’s voluntary control.
Cornea: The cornea is the transparent front surface of the eye that both shields it from damage and initiates the light focusing process.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Cornea’ is a transparent, dome-shaped surface that covers the front of the eye. Acting as the eye’s first line of defense, its primary function is to safeguard the eye from harmful substances such as dust and bacteria. Additionally, it plays a crucial role in vision by facilitating the focus of incoming light onto the retina. Comprised of five distinct layers, the durability and transparency of the cornea allow for accurate light refraction, contributing significantly to the process of sight.
Coronary Heart Disease: Coronary heart disease (CHD) refers to the obstruction of heart’s blood vessels, primarily leading to cardiac morbidity and mortality in North America.
Expanded Definition
Coronary Heart Disease, also known as Coronary Artery Disease, is a significant medical condition characterized by the buildup of plaque within the arteries that supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle. This process, known as atherosclerosis, gradually narrows and hardens the coronary arteries, compromising the heart’s oxygen and nutrient supply. The result may be chest pain (angina), shortness of breath, or more serious complications such as heart attacks, heart failure, or arrhythmias. Current studies identify it as the most common cause of mortality in North America, underscoring its public health importance. Factors such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, smoking, diabetes, sedentary lifestyle, and family history can increase an individual’s risk of developing Coronary Heart Disease.
Corpus Callosum: The corpus callosum is the crucial structure bridging the brain’s two hemispheres, facilitating interhemispheric communication.
Expanded Definition
The Corpus Callosum is a prominent structure in the brain, comprised of nerve fibers, or white matter, which physically links and facilitates communication between the two cerebral hemispheres. This anatomical feature acts as a bridge, enabling the two sides of the brain to share information, integrate sensory input, and harmonize motor control. It’s essential for a variety of cognitive functions and everyday activities, underpinning the cohesion in our daily experiences and actions. It’s highly significant to activities from processing visual and auditory stimuli, to our ability to learn and retain information, among numerous other activities.
Correlation: Correlation is a statistical metric that indicates the degree to which two variables move in relation to each other. It’s essentially a measure of how one factor can predict variation in the other.
Expanded Definition
“Correlation” is an advanced statistical concept that refers to the statistical relationship between two variables. It is a numeric evaluation, often calculated using a correlation coefficient, which quantifies the degree to which these two variables consistently move in relation to, or with each other. This relationship may be positive (both variables increase or decrease together), negative (one variable increases while the other decreases), or null (no relationship). Understanding correlation allows us to predict changes in one variable based on known changes in another. Importantly, though correlation exhibits the relationship between variables, it does not imply causation – that one variable’s change directly causes the other’s change. Therefore, it should be interpreted with a general understanding of the variables’ cultural, scientific, or social context.
Correlation Coefficient: The correlation coefficient is a statistical measure that calculates the strength of the relationship between the relative movements of two variables, with values ranging from -1 to +1.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Correlation Coefficient’ is defined as a robust tool in statistics that quantifies the degree of relation between two variables. The calculated value can range from -1 to +1. A value close to -1 indicates a strong negative correlation, where one variable increases as the other decreases. Conversely, a value near +1 signifies a strong positive correlation, where both variables either increase or decrease together. A correlation coefficient closer to 0 denotes a weak or non-existent relationship between the variables. This metric is key in determining the interdependence of variables and aids in predictive analysis.
Correlational Research: Correlational research is a type of study that discovers and assesses the relationship between multiple variables, enabling prediction of future occurrences based on current data.
Expanded Definition
Correlational research is a type of scientific study which investigates the potential connection, or relationship, between two or more variables. The purpose of this research approach is not merely to determine that a relationship exists, but to assess the strength and nature of the association, whether positive (both variables increase or decrease together), negative (one variable increases as the other decreases) or neutral (no relationship). This form of research is designed to enable the prediction of future outcomes or events based on the knowledge of these variable relationships. It’s important, however, to note that correlation does not necessarily imply causation. In other words, just because two variables correlate, it does not necessarily mean that one causes the other to occur – they may both be related to a third, unmeasured variable. The primary tools used in this research are statistical tests, which help quantify and assess the relation between the variables studied.
Cortisol: Cortisol is a key stress hormone that boosts blood sugar levels, optimizes the brain’s glucose utilization, and enhances tissue repair.
Expanded Definition
‘Cortisol’ is a crucial hormone primarily recognized for its role in the body’s stress response system. Produced by the adrenal glands, cortisol functions to boost the levels of glucose, which is a form of sugar, in the bloodstream. This action provides the body with an immediate energy source during stressful or demanding situations. In addition to facilitating an increase in energy, cortisol also enhances the brain’s utilization of glucose, contributing to improved mental acuity under stress. The hormone is also responsible for the escalated availability of substances that repair tissues, thus contributing to bodily recovery and healing. This multifaceted function underscores cortisol’s essential role in helping the body respond to stress efficiently and restore itself to a harmonic state.
Cost–Benefit Analysis: Cost-Benefit Analysis is an analytical procedure for evaluating the potential risks and advantages of decisions or actions, often used to assess the desirability of a given policy or project. It’s a means of balancing potential costs against anticipated benefits to guide decision-making.
Expanded Definition
‘Cost-Benefit Analysis’ is a systematic approach employed in decision-making processes to quantitatively evaluate the potential advantages (benefits) and disadvantages (costs) associated with various alternatives. This includes, but is not limited to, business investments, policy decisions, and research projects. It aids in determining the feasibility of a proposed plan or project by assessing whether the total projected benefits outweigh the total anticipated costs. This analysis may also apply to ethical considerations wherein the wellbeing and potential risk to subjects in a research context are weighed to ensure the ethical integrity of the research initiative. This comprehensive evaluation provides a quantitative base for decision-makers to make informed choices that maximize value and minimize potential risk.
Counseling Psychology: Counseling Psychology is a specialty within psychology focused on helping individuals resolve issues in everyday life and enhance well-being, often pertaining to areas like education, employment, or relationships.
Expanded Definition
Counseling Psychology is a specialized domain within the broad field of psychology, focused on facilitating personal and interpersonal functionality across various aspects of an individual’s life. This field employs therapeutic strategies to help individuals manage and resolve issues pertaining to their personal, social, and vocational lives, which may originate from various arenas such as educational institutions, workplaces, or familial relationships. The objective of counseling psychology is not only to alleviate immediate issues, but also to equip individuals with the strategies and tools necessary for improving their overall emotional well-being and enhancing life satisfaction.
Counterconditioning: Counterconditioning is the process of retraining a conditioned response, such as fear, by associating it with a new, incompatible response like relaxation. It’s essentially changing the emotional reaction towards a previously established stimulus.
Expanded Definition
‘Counterconditioning’ is a therapeutic method used primarily in behavioral psychology, where an individual’s conditioned response to a particular stimulus is replaced with a new, more desirable one. Traditionally, this technique is applied when a person exhibits an unwanted response, such as fear or anxiety, to a specific trigger. This often-debilitating reaction has been learnt, or “conditioned,” through previous traumatic or negative experiences related to that trigger. The counterconditioning process introduces a direct antithesis to the existing harmful response. For example, should fear be the undesirable reaction, activities or actions that promote relaxation, calmness, or joy are implemented in the presence of the original trigger. Over time, with consistent pairing of these incompatible responses, the goal is to have the fear response fade and finally be replaced with the newly conditioned relaxed reaction. While the process can be challenging, counterconditioning empowers an individual to relearn their instinctive reactions and provides the tools needed to overcome negative, ingrained behaviors with more productive and healthier alternatives.
Counterfactual Thinking: Counterfactual thinking is the mental process of considering alternative outcomes or scenarios that contradict what has actually happened. It revolves around the concept of “what could have been”.
Expanded Definition
Counterfactual Thinking is a cognitive process where the mind creates possible alternatives to past events or situations that didn’t actually happen. This process is often triggered after unexpected or negative outcomes, leading individuals to imagine different scenarios and outcomes in the context of “what could have been” or “what should have been”. This type of mental simulation can influence emotions, attitudes, decisions and behaviors, and plays a significant role in learning, problem-solving, and future planning.
Couples Therapy: Couples therapy is a form of intervention where a therapist addresses relationship issues between two individuals who are romantically involved and/or living together.
Expanded Definition
“Couples Therapy” is a professional therapeutic intervention that involves partners who share a significant bond — cohabitating, dating or married, actively participating in sessions with a licensed therapist. The aim is to identify, comprehend, and address concerns, conflicts, or areas of dissatisfaction within their relationship. Through guided discussions, the expert helps the couple develop more effective communication strategies, increase understanding, and encourage positive change to enhance the quality and satisfaction of their relationship. This form of therapy is designed to improve relationship dynamics, promote emotional growth, and build healthier partnerships.
Creativity: Creativity is the capacity to generate unique and beneficial concepts.
Expanded Definition
‘Creativity’ is defined as the unique cognitive capacity to conceive and manufacture original ideas or solutions that hold intrinsic value. This multifaceted ability transcends traditional thought patterns, favours innovative thinking, and contributes to the generation of new concepts, approaches, or methodologies. Distinct from learned skills and knowledge, creativity often exhibits itself in the ability to view situations from unique perspectives, merge disparate ideas effectively, or produce imaginative and groundbreaking work within any field. It is an essential component in numerous professions, contributing to advancements across the arts, sciences, technology, and more. Thus, creativity is not merely an ability, but a pivotal driver of originality and progress.
Critical Period: A ‘Critical Period’ is a specific timeframe during which an individual is most receptive and primed for acquiring certain knowledge or skills.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘Critical Period’ is a concept derived from developmental psychology and neurobiology, referring to a specific, finite phase in an organism’s life or lifespan during which it possesses heightened sensitivity to stimuli in its environment, facilitating the acquisition of specific skills or knowledge systems. During this period, the organism is particularly susceptible to both positive and negative influences, and the absence of certain experiences can lead to missed developmental opportunities or deficits. Learning is not merely easier during this period, but often critical for normal development and later functionality, hence the term ‘Critical Period’.
Critical Thinking: Critical thinking is the analytical process of evaluating arguments and conclusions by challenging underlying assumptions, identifying implicit values, scrutinizing evidence, and weighing conclusions.
Expanded Definition
‘Critical Thinking’ can be comprehensively defined as a methodical appraisal process that does not unquestioningly accept arguments and outcomes. It involves a careful scrutiny of the foundational premises or assumptions underpinning an argument, recognising underlying or subtle values that may potentially bias these assumptions. In addition to this, it encompasses an exhaustive evaluation of evidence presented to support these arguments, checking for validity, credibility and reliability. Furthermore, it entails an independent assessment of the conclusions drawn thereafter, to ensure that they logically follow from the premises and the evidence. Critical thinking, thus, heralds an analytical, logical, and judicious approach towards understanding and interpreting information for effective decision-making.
Cross-Cultural Psychology: Cross-Cultural Psychology is the scientific study aimed at comparing behavior, cognition and emotion patterns across different cultural groups using standardized measures.
Expanded Definition
Cross-Cultural Psychology is a specialized branch of psychology which examines the ways that human behaviors, thought patterns, and emotions are influenced by different cultures. It employs universally recognized scales, methodologies, and research techniques to explore, analyze, and compare inter-relationships between behaviors and culture on an international scale. The objective of this discipline is not only to pinpoint the diversities across various cultures, but also to uncover commonalities, thereby contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of human psychology overall. This field is pivotal in assisting the development of theories and practices that are culturally sensitive and universally applicable.
Cross-Cultural Studies: Cross-cultural studies refer to the comparative research across multiple cultures to delineate their disparities using standardized assessment tools.
Expanded Definition
‘Cross-Cultural Studies’ refers to an interdisciplinary field of research that rigorously employs standardized methods and metrics to investigate and contrast the diverse facets of human behaviors, beliefs, value systems, social norms, and societal structures across various cultures. It underscores the exploration of distinct cultural diversities and commonalities, aiming to deepen our understanding of human societies and their complexities. Such studies can provide invaluable insights into designing more inclusive and effective socio-political policies, business strategies, or health-care interventions adaptable across a broad cultural spectrum.
Cross-Sectional Research: Cross-sectional research is a study design where data is collected from a diverse population at a single point in time, allowing for age-related comparisons across different samples.
Expanded Definition
Cross-Sectional Research Design refers to a type of observational research methodology, wherein a particular variable or set of variables is investigated across diverse population groups at a single point in time. Rather than tracking the same individuals over multiple periods, as in longitudinal studies, cross-sectional research observes different individuals, who correspond to different ages or demographic categories, all at the same instance. Its central purpose is to examine and compare variations between these distinct categories or age groups, providing insights into patterns or trends within the larger population.
Crystallized Intelligence: ‘Crystallized Intelligence’ refers to the total body of knowledge gained through lifelong experiences and learning.
Expanded Definition
“Crystallized Intelligence” pertains to one’s accumulated knowledge and experiences acquired over a lifetime. It represents the culmination of facts, information, and skills that one has learned and internalized, making it a fundamental aspect of cognitive abilities. This type of intelligence typically expands as one ages, reflects a person’s cultural and educational background, and plays an integral role in problem-solving and decision-making processes, particularly those calling upon learned knowledge and previously mastered abilities.
CT (Computed Tomography) Scan: A CT scan is a diagnostic imaging procedure that uses multiple X-ray measurements taken from various angles to generate a detailed cross-sectional view of the body, often referred to as a CAT scan.
Expanded Definition
A Computed Tomography (CT) Scan, also referred to as a Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) Scan, is an advanced medical imaging procedure. It employs the use of specialized X-ray equipment that takes a multitude of images from various angles around the body. These X-ray snapshots are then digitally compiled by a computer into a comprehensive, two-dimensional cross-sectional image. This allows clinicians to view and examine specific areas or ‘slices’ of the patient’s body in great detail. It improves the diagnostic accuracy by providing a clear visualization of both hard and soft tissues, including organs, bones, and blood vessels.
Cue Overload Principle: The Cue Overload Principle refers to the idea that the efficiency of a memory retrieval cue decreases as the number of memories linked to it increases. Essentially, it highlights the saturation possibility of a cue making it less impactful in triggering a specific memory.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Cue Overload Principle’ is a cognitive psychology theory that postulates the relationship between cues used for memory retrieval and effectiveness. Specifically, it posits that when a single cue is linked to multiple memories, its capacity to effectively trigger the recall of any individual memory diminishes. In simpler terms, if you associate many memories with one cue, it will be harder to recall a specific memory using that cue. This principle is important in understanding memory processes and has practical implications in fields like education and cognitive therapy.
Cues: “Cues” are stimuli, such as visuals or sounds, that hold specific importance or relevance for the individual who perceives them.
Expanded Definition
‘Cues’ are stimuli or signals of particular relevance or importance to the recipient. These distinct signals can be visual, auditory, or even sensory in nature. These cues are not just mere observations, but rather possess a special significance for the individual perceiving them due to the information they convey, or the action they trigger or suggest. For example, in the realm of communication, a social cue might be interpreted by a person as a prompt for a particular behavior or response. This definition views the term ‘cues’ in a broad context, covering multifaceted areas including social interaction, psychological responses, and behavioral directives.
Cultural Differences: ‘Cultural differences’ refer to the various distinct characteristics, values, and behaviors exhibited by groups from different geographical, ethnic, or social backgrounds.
Expanded Definition
“Cultural Differences” refers to the variation in how people from various ethnic, regional, and social groups perceive, interpret and understand the world. This concept encompasses a broad and comprehensive range of characteristics such as values, beliefs, norms, languages, habits, dietary practices, artistic expression, and social structures that sets one cultural group apart from others. Understanding cultural differences is vital in fostering effective communication, mutual respect, and harmony in increasingly multicultural societies and workplaces.
Cultural Display Rules: ‘Cultural Display Rules’ refer to the social norms learned in early life that dictate how we regulate and adjust our emotional responses based on varying social contexts.
Expanded Definition
‘Cultural Display Rules’ refer to the inherently learned guidelines that we encounter from early stages of our life. These rules primarily dictate how we manage, modify, and present our own emotional expressions in response to varying social situations. They emphasize the cultural nuances that shape emotional interaction, signifying how culture regulates when, how, and where it’s appropriate to express certain emotions. Hence, they act as social regulators, permitting or prohibiting expression of emotions based on culturally accepted norms, thus contributing to the maintenance of social order.
Cultural Intelligence: Cultural Intelligence is the capability to comprehend and interpret the behaviors of individuals from diverse cultures, aimed at improving cross-cultural interactions.
Expanded Definition
‘Cultural Intelligence’ can be professionally defined as the intellectual capacity or cognitive ability to accurately decipher, comprehend, and effectively respond to the behaviors, actions, attitudes, values, and practices exhibited by individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. This multifaceted and dynamic competency encompasses understanding the underlying motivations, often rooted in cultural norms, traditions, or societal structures, that influence the individuals’ actions or behaviors. It implies the capability to adapt one’s approach, actions, and communication to minimize misunderstanding and enhance effective interactions in multicultural contexts.
Cultural Psychology: Cultural psychology is the study of how cultural contexts influence and shape human behavior, perceptions, and emotions, as viewed from the perspective of the individuals within those cultures.
Expanded Definition
‘Cultural Psychology’ is a specialized field within psychology that seeks to analyze and interpret the interplay of social norms, cultural values, and psychological processes. It strives to comprehend how various cultural aspects influence human behavior, thought processes, and emotions, from the perspective of individuals that are part of the culture. This understanding is achieved by valuing emic perspectives, or the views of the individuals within the culture in their own terms. Consequently, the approach enables cultural psychologists to explore the nuanced nature of human cognition, interactions, and behaviors within their relevant cultural contexts.
Cultural Relativism: Cultural relativism is the assessment of a culture’s practices using its own context and values, emphasizing an internal perspective rather than an external one.
Expanded Definition
Cultural Relativism is a theoretical framework which posits that cultural norms, values, and practices are best understood and appreciated within their specific cultural context, rather than being judged against another standard. This socio-anthropological perspective advocates for observation and acceptance of cultural variations without a bias, emphasizing that no one culture is inherently superior or inferior to another. It challenges ethnocentrism and encourages an open-minded exploration of different cultures, fostering mutual respect and understanding across diverse cultural landscapes.
Cultural Scripts: Cultural scripts are behavioral patterns encoded by regional societal norms, encompassing the varied responses an individual may possess due to multiple cultural influences.
Expanded Definition
“Cultural Scripts” refers to the sociocultural templates that an individual learns and adheres to, dictating appropriate conduct in accordance with specific cultural or regional norms. This ingrained understanding of behavior influences an individual’s interactions and decisions within a particular cultural context. These scripts can be different for each culture or society an individual is part of, resulting in the ability for one person to possess multiple cultural scripts, each guiding behavior in diverse contexts.
Cultural Similarities: Cultural similarities denote the common elements, practices, or values found in different cultural groups. It essentially highlights the shared aspects across diverse cultures.
Expanded Definition
“Cultural Similarities” can be more professionally defined as a term used to denote the commonalities found among various cultures across the globe. These common facets may include universal human experiences such as rites of passage, societal norms, shared values, or traditional practices. This concept allows for the comparison and understanding of diverse cultures, highlighting that despite variabilities in geography, history, or societal makeup, there are universal human elements that link cultures together.
Culture: Culture is a shared set of social norms, moral beliefs, and understanding of the world, passed down through generations within a group or geographical region.
Expanded Definition
‘Culture’ is a term that refers to a shared system of knowledge, beliefs, values, norms, and customs that bind a group of people together, driving their understanding of the world and guiding their behavior. This collective consciousness is prevalent among members of a distinct group, community, or society, often defined by geography or shared experiences, and is communicated and perpetuated across generations. Culture encompasses an array of societal facets, including, but not limited to, religious doctrines, familial traditions, moral ideologies, and social etiquette. It is a crucial element in shaping individual identities and enabling social cohesion. As an intricate tapestry, culture is subject to the influences of time, environmental changes, and cross-cultural interactions, making it a dynamic entity that shapes and is shaped by those who embrace it.
Culture of Honor: ‘Culture of Honor’ is a societal backdrop valuing personal fame or familial prestige and societal hierarchy.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Culture of Honor’ is a sociological term that refers to a societal structure in which an individual’s or family’s reputation, dignity, and social standing are heavily valued and protected. Integral to societies with this cultural orientation, it emphasizes the significance of maintaining respect and pride, often through demonstrating bravery and refusing to tolerate slighting or disrespectful behaviors. This culture may influence various aspects of life, from interpersonal interactions to societal norms and laws, and can contribute to attitudes towards masculinity, honor-based violence, and the handling of disputes or conflicts. The concept is frequently observed in both historical and contemporary contexts around the globe.
Curvilinear Relationship: A curvilinear relationship is a statistical relationship between two variables where the rate of change between the variables is not constant, leading to a non-linear association that can’t be represented by a single straight line.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Curvilinear Relationship’ is a type of correlation between two variables where as one variable increases, the other variable’s behavior is not represented by a consistent linear function. This means, unlike a straight line relationship where the variables increase or decrease proportionately, in a curvilinear relationship, the direction of the relationship between the variables changes. It can increase or decrease at varying rates, creating a curve when graphed. This relationship is typically complex and might follow a pattern such as a U-shape or an inverted U-shape among other possibilities. The exact nature of the curve depends on the specific characteristics of the relationship between the variables. This term is commonly used in statistics and mathematical modeling.

D

Daily Hassles: ‘Daily hassles’ are frequent minor stress-inducing events caused by negative interactions with our environment, resulting in physiological changes like increased blood pressure and reduced immune system function.
Expanded Definition
‘Daily Hassles’ can be defined as routine occurrences or minor stressors we encounter in our day-to-day lives that have the potential to negatively impact our physiological and psychological well-being. These can include, but are not limited to, traffic congestion, work pressures, or interpersonal conflicts. Even though these stressors might seem insignificant on their own, their cumulative effect can result in elevated blood pressure, changes in stress hormone levels, and a decrease in the effectiveness of the immune system. These daily hassles essentially shape our negative interactions with our surroundings, subtly influencing our health and happiness over time.
Data: Data refers to collected information through observation or measurement that fuels research studies.
Expanded Definition
‘Data’ refers to the systematic collection of quantitative or qualitative information obtained through rigorous observation, measurement, or analysis, primarily used in a research or study context. This translates to a vast array of inputs–from numbers, symbols, text, images to sounds–which when processed, interpreted, or manipulated, enable informed decision-making, formulation of hypotheses, or draw insights to support conclusions within an investigative framework.
Debriefing: Debriefing is the post-research practice of revealing the study’s purpose to participants, resolving any deceptions used, and mitigating any resultant harm or misconceptions.
Expanded Definition
‘Debriefing’ is a crucial phase in research studies often conducted immediately after participant’s involvement. Its primary function is to provide a comprehensive explanation to the participants about the intent of the study. If any form of deception was utilized in the study, it is disclosed during this stage. The debriefing process is carefully designed to alleviate any potential misunderstandings or harm that might originate from their participation, ensuring the participant walks away with a clear understanding about their role and contribution in the study. This process not only ensures ethical research practices but also fosters trust and transparency between the researcher and participant.
Decay: Decay refers to the gradual diminishment of memory strength over time. It’s the process of memories becoming less accessible or less detailed as time passes.
Expanded Definition
‘Decay’, in a cognitive and psychological context, refers to the gradual decline or deterioration of the potency or vividness of memories over an extended period. This phenomenon suggests that information stored in our memory, if not periodically refreshed or revisited, tends to lose its clarity and detail, potentially leading to complete forgetting. It underscores the dynamic and somewhat fragile nature of memory storage and retention, substantiating the need for frequent reinforcement of acquired knowledge or experiences for their long-term preservation.
Deception: ‘Deception’ is the act of not fully disclosing the details of a research project to its participants before their involvement.
Expanded Definition
‘Deception’ in the context of research is defined as the act of deliberately withholding, obscuring, or presenting false information about the true nature, objectives, or procedures of a research study to its participants prior to their involvement. This term refers to any scenario where full transparency is not maintained, thus participants are not entirely aware or accurately informed about what they will be partaking in. Despite its ethical implications, deception may be used by researchers when knowledge of the study’s aim could potentially influence participants’ responses or behavior, thereby skewing the results.
Decibel: A decibel is a logarithmic unit used to measure sound intensity or power level, making it a key parameter in acoustics and audio engineering.
Expanded Definition
A decibel, often denoted as dB, is a logarithmic unit used to express the ratio between two values of a physical quantity, often power or intensity. In the context of sound, it measures the relative intensity of sounds — essentially, how loud or soft they are — by comparing the pressure of the sound wave to a reference value. Decibels quantify the levels of sound in a way that closely corresponds to the human ear’s perception, allowing us to discuss volume in precise, accurate terms. It is important to note that the decibel scale is non-linear: a sound 10 decibels higher than another sound is approximately double the perceived loudness, not simply “10 units” louder.
Declaration of Helsinki: The Declaration of Helsinki is a crucial ethical guideline established by the World Medical Council in 1964 to regulate human experimentation processes in medical research.
Expanded Definition
The Declaration of Helsinki is a comprehensive set of ethical guidelines, formulated in 1964 by the World Medical Association, for conducting biomedical research involving human subjects. It is globally respected and seeks to protect the rights, safety, and well-being of research participants. Among its key principles are informed consent, minimization of risk, necessary qualifications for researchers, and an emphasis on the potential benefits of research. The Declaration has been amended multiple times to address emerging issues and challenges in the field of medical research ethics.
Declarative Memory: Declarative memory is the cognitive function that allows conscious recollection of factual information and past occurrences.
Expanded Definition
Declarative memory, also known as explicit memory, refers to the cognitive retrieval of specific factual knowledge and past events. This form of memory is consciously controlled, requiring active thought processes to recall knowledge or experiences. Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into episodic memory, which pertains to personal events or experiences, and semantic memory, which involves general factual knowledge that is not tied to personal experiences. Whether recalling the capital of a country (semantic memory) or a childhood birthday party (episodic memory), these conscious memories collectively constitute declarative memory.
Deep Structure of an Idea: ‘Deep Structure of an Idea’ refers to the basic representation of a concept, based on the foundational syntax that all languages share. It explores the inherent linguistic framework that universally underscores ideas.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Deep Structure of an Idea’ can be comprehensively defined as the core conceptualization of an idea aligned with the cognitive universal grammar, which is the instinctive linguistic structure inherently understood by all human beings, irrespective of their language. It refers to the foundational representation of an idea that transcends the boundaries of language or culture, encompassing the essence of the idea in its purest form. This interpretation of an idea is not directed by semantics or syntax, but rather formed by the common cognitive structures uniting all human communication. This fundamental depiction aids in understanding, communicating, and developing the idea across all linguistic settings.
Defense Mechanisms: Defense mechanisms are subconscious strategies utilized by the ego to alleviate anxiety through the alteration of perceived reality.
Expanded Definition
‘Defense Mechanisms’ in the context of psychoanalytic theory, refer to the subconscious strategies employed by the ego – which is one part of the mind that mediates between the conscious and the unconscious and is responsible for sense of personal identity and continuity – to alleviate feelings of anxiety and discomfort. These mechanisms subtly distort an individual’s perception of reality, thereby safeguarding the individual’s psychological well-being from potential disturbances or threats arising from uncomfortable or unacceptable thoughts, behaviors, and external experiences. This involuntary process serves as a psychological shield that aids an individual in managing his/her emotional complexities and stressful circumstances.
Deficiency Needs: ‘Deficiency Needs’ are the fundamental requirements for survival and social belonging, as per the lower four levels of Maslow’s hierarchy, including physical necessities, personal safety, and social interaction.
Expanded Definition
‘Deficiency Needs’ is a term that originates from Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory and represents the base four tiers of this five-tier psychological model. These tiers include physiological needs, safety needs, love/belonging needs, and esteem needs. Physiological needs encompass the most basic human needs for survival such as food, water, and sleep. Safety needs cover personal security, employment, resources, and health. The category of love/belonging needs includes elements like friendship, family, and intimate relationships. Esteem needs refer to the human desire for respect, self-esteem, recognition, and freedom. Maslow argued that these deficiency needs must first be met for an individual to progress towards the highest level: self-actualization. If these needs are not fulfilled, a person may feel anxious and tense, hindering their overall wellness and personal growth.
Deindividuation: Deindividuation is the phenomenon where individuals lose their self-identity and self-control in group settings, usually stimulated by heightened emotions or anonymity.
Expanded Definition
‘Deindividuation’ refers to a psychological phenomenon frequently observed in group scenarios, in which individuals experience a significant reduction in self-consciousness and personal accountability. This typically occurs in environments that either encourage high emotional arousal, such as excitement or fear, or provide a degree of anonymity. Under these conditions, individuals often feel less constrained by social norms and may engage in actions they wouldn’t normally consider, caused by diminished self-monitoring and increased susceptibility to group influence. This concept significantly impacts behavioural sciences, sociology, and group dynamics studies.
Deja Vu: ‘Deja Vu’ is the sensation of familiarity with a situation or event that is actually being encountered for the first time, likely triggered by subconscious cues reminiscent of past experiences.
Expanded Definition
‘Deja Vu’ is a concept often described as a surreal sensation of familiarity, where one feels as though they have already experienced a current event or situation, even though it’s their first encounter. It is a French term meaning ‘already seen’ and is often characterized by an uncanny recognition of the present, induced by certain cues from the environment that may elicit unconscious recollection of a past, similar experience. Despite its complexity, the phenomenon is fairly common and equally fascinating, reflecting the intricacies of human memory and perception.
Deliberative Phase: The ‘Deliberative Phase’ refers to the moment when an individual must choose among various prospective objectives to follow at a particular time.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Deliberative Phase’ pertains to a particular stage in decision-making process where an individual is required to evaluate multiple possible objectives to determine which one to undertake at a particular moment. This phase typically involves careful consideration of the available options, taking into account possible outcomes, resources, timing, and other relevant factors. The intention of this phase is to make an all-encompassing, well-informed choice about the most appropriate course of action to take.
Delta Waves: Delta waves are high-amplitude brainwaves occurring at a frequency of 1-4Hz, typically linked with stages 3 and 4 of NREM (non-rapid eye movement) deep sleep.
Expanded Definition
Delta Waves can be comprehensively defined as the type of high amplitude brain waves with the slowest frequency, typically ranging from 0.5 to 4 Hertz. Prevalent during the stages of deep sleep, these waves are perceived as the brain’s most relaxed state, often associated with the unconscious or subconscious mind. It’s during this delta wave-dominated stage that the body indulges in tissue repair and regeneration, energy renewal, the release of various hormones, and other restorative processes vital for physical health and mental well-being. They are also occasionally detected during meditative state in experienced meditators. Primary measurement of delta waves is implemented using electroencephalography (EEG). The predominance or deficiency of delta waves can hold significant implications for sleep quality, mental health, and neural functions.
Delusions: Delusions are unfounded and deviant beliefs held with strong conviction, even when evidence contradicts them. They are unusual within one’s cultural context and clearly detached from reality.
Expanded Definition
‘Delusions’ are fundamentally distorted perceptions or interpretations of reality that an individual firmly holds, despite incontrovertible evidence contradicting these beliefs. These are unique to the individual and do not align with cultural or societal norms. In the realm of psychology and psychiatry, delusions are symptomatic of certain mental health disorders, such as schizophrenia, delusional disorder, and bipolar disorder. They are pervasive and remain unaltered even in the face of clear, rational arguments or definitive proof that contradicts the belief, underscoring their departure from objective reality.
Dementia: Dementia is a progressive brain disorder that significantly impairs cognitive functions, disrupting daily life activities.
Expanded Definition
Dementia is defined as a progressive neurodegenerative condition that impairs a person’s cognitive functions—such as memory, thinking, orientation, comprehension, calculation, learning capacity, language, and judgment— to a degree that it significantly disrupts their daily life and activities. This decline surpasses the normal age-related cognitive decline and can be characterized by symptoms, which might include confusion, memory loss, difficulty communicating, and altered behavior. It is not a single disease, but rather a collective term that encompasses a range of specific conditions, including Alzheimer’s Disease and Vascular Dementia. While the progression and symptoms can vary greatly between individuals, dementia is generally marked by continuous and gradual deterioration. Please note that an accurate diagnosis requires medical assessment.
Dendrite: A dendrite is a complex, tree-structured fibre in a neuron that gathers and transmits data from other cells to the cell body, or soma.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Dendrite’ is a sophisticated biological structure shaped akin to a multi-branched tree, found as a part of the neurons in our nervous system. Functionally, dendrites act as receptive points, intercepting information transmitted from other neural cells. These signals, typically in the form of electrical impulses, are then organized and relayed to the neuron’s cell body, termed as the soma. Ultimately, dendrites play an essential role in propagating the neuron’s communication, allowing for complex processes like thought, sensory interpretation, and coordination.
Denial: Denial is a psychological defense mechanism where individuals reject or ignore distressing realities, shielding themselves from the pain caused by them.
Expanded Definition
‘Denial’ refers to a psychological defense mechanism, commonly discussed in psychoanalytic theory, where an individual consciously or subconsciously ignores or rejects the existence of distressing or uncomfortable realities. This mechanism is often employed as a method of coping during stressful situations or traumatic events, allowing the person to maintain their psychological equilibrium by disavowing information that may disrupt it. Essentially, denial helps shield the mind from circumstances that the individual finds too painful or difficult to confront, leading to a state of perceived comfort or safety.
Dependence: Dependence refers to the regular need for a drug or substance, typically driven by both physical and psychological factors.
Expanded Definition
‘Dependence’ is a term used in the medical and psychological fields to describe a state in which an individual has developed a habitual reliance on a particular substance, typically drugs or alcohol. This continual use often results from a perceived necessity by the individual to function normally or to alleviate physical or psychological discomfort. It is characterized by the development of tolerance (the need for progressively larger doses to achieve the same effect) and withdrawal symptoms in the absent of the substance. Dependence can be physical, psychological, or both, influencing various aspects of an individual’s life, including their health, relationships, and fulfillments of responsibilities.
Dependent Variable: A dependent variable is an outcome that researchers measure, which they anticipate will change due to experimental intervention.
Expanded Definition
A dependent variable, in research and statistical contexts, is the outcome or factor that investigators hope to evaluate and comprehend. This variable, which is subject to measurement, is “dependent” because its value might change based on the alterations to other variables within the experiment, known as independent variables. Consequently, the dependent variable may provide insights about the effectiveness or impact of these manipulations, helping contributors infer relationships or causal patterns within their observations.
Depressants: Depressants are a category of psychoactive drugs that decelerate the body’s physical and mental processes by diminishing the activity of the Central Nervous System.
Expanded Definition
‘Depressants’ can be defined as a category of psychoactive drugs that have the effect of slowing down the functioning of the body’s physical and psychological processes. Put simply, these substances calm the body and mind by reducing the speed at which the body operates, including heart rate, respiration, and attention spans. In addition, these drugs specifically impact the activity within the Central Nervous System (CNS), leading to decreased levels of alertness, coordination, and responsiveness. They are often used medicinally to alleviate conditions like anxiety, tension, and sleep disorders, but their intensifying effect on inhibitions and potentially addictive properties may lead to misuse.
Depression: Depression is a widespread mental disorder influenced by biological, social and cultural elements, causing significant emotional distress and difficulty in daily functioning.
Expanded Definition
Depression is a multifaceted mental health disorder prevalent worldwide, impacting countless individuals. It is a complex condition influenced by a combination of biological, social, and cultural determinants. From a biological perspective, it can be linked to imbalances in brain chemistry or underlying physical health conditions. Social aspects include interpersonal relationships and individual life experiences that might contribute to the progression of this condition. Cultural factors refer to societal norms, values, or pressures that may foster an environment conducive for depression. Depression is often characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, loss of interest in previously enjoyed activities, and a variety of emotional, behavioral and physical symptoms that can significantly disrupt daily life. It’s essential to note that the manifestation of depression symptoms can vary greatly among individuals.
Depth Cues: Depth cues are signals from our surroundings and own perceptual system that aid in determining spatial and distance awareness.
Expanded Definition
‘Depth Cues’ refer to the signals that we receive from both our physiological systems and our surrounding environment, which aid in interpreting the spatial relationships and distance within our visual field. These cues help us to perceive three-dimensionality and comprehend the structure and depth of scenes, playing a key role in facilitating a sense of perspective and depth perception. This concept is pivotal in fields like psychology, visual arts, and computer graphics, among others.
Depth Perception: Depth perception is the skill to recognize 3D space and correctly estimate distance.
Expanded Definition
‘Depth Perception’ is a crucial visual ability that allows the observer to distinguish the relative distance between objects, interpret the three-dimensional nature of environments, and perceive the spatial relationships amongst objects. It empowers our visual system to create a perception of depth, facilitating our interaction with the physical world in a way that goes beyond simple two-dimensional views. This cognitive skill is typically achieved through the integration of visual information from both eyes, capitalizing on the slight difference in viewpoints to generate a perception of three-dimensionality. It’s critical for everyday activities like driving, sports and navigating through spatial environments.
Derailment: Derailment refers to the deviation from a main topic before its conclusion, shifting to another subject abruptly.
Expanded Definition
‘Derailment’ is a term broadly used to describe the process where a discussion or conversation deviates or veers off from its original topic or line of argument, without reaching a definitive conclusion or resolution. This phenomenon often occurs without a logical link or connection to the initial subject, causing a shift in the discourse that can result in confusion or misunderstanding. The derailment can be unintentional, driven by inadvertent tangents and distractions, or it can be intentional, usually employed as a rhetorical strategy or a conversational tactic. Whether in informal conversations or formal debates, derailment disrupts the sequence, coherence, and continuity of the discourse.
Descriptive Norms: Descriptive norms refer to the common behaviors exhibited by most individuals within a particular group or society, guiding our actions accordingly.
Expanded Definition
‘Descriptive Norms’ refer to a behavioral standard within a group, often unconsciously acknowledged and followed. It signifies the widespread actions or reactions, observed from the majority of individuals within a social group or society. This concept suggests that individuals commonly adapt their behavior to blend with the standard practice or behavior of their reference group, providing a social expectation of how a person typically behaves in a given setting.
Descriptive Research: Descriptive research is a study method aimed at detailing and explaining the characteristics or functions of the subject at hand, offering an in-depth view of the present situation.
Expanded Definition
‘Descriptive Research’ refers to a study method primarily employed in scientific research to gather and analyze data in a way that presents an accurate representation of persons, events, or situations. It aims to portray the characteristics, behaviors, or functions of the subject being studied, presenting a comprehensive overview of the subject ‘as-it-is’. The goal is not to establish, predict, or test hypotheses about causal relationships, but rather to offer a complete depiction of the current scenario or phenomena by exploring its various dimensions. While it does not predict what might occur in the future, it enhances our understanding of the present situation and is a valuable tool when establishing baseline measurements or trends.
Descriptive Statistics: ‘Descriptive Statistics’ refers to the statistical methods used to summarize and visualize data, allowing for a clear understanding of its distribution.
Expanded Definition
‘Descriptive Statistics’ refers to a branch of statistics that deals with the presentation, organization, and summarization of raw data sets. It provides simple summaries about the samples and the measures, frequently employing visual methods such as graphs, charts, and tables. Its primary goal is to accurately and meaningfully describe the main features or characteristics of a dataset by reducing large amounts of data into a more comprehensible form, thereby aiding in understanding the variability, central tendency, and distribution of score outcomes. Essentially, it forms the basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of data in fields ranging from business and science to public policy and beyond.
Development: Development refers to the lifelong transformations in human behavior, cognition, and social interactions, steered by both genetic factors and environmental impacts.
Expanded Definition
‘Development’ refers to the comprehensive evolution of physiological, behavioral, cognitive, and social aspects that takes place throughout a human’s lifespan. This multifaceted process is shaped by two core components: genetic predispositions, also known as ‘nature’, and environmental influences called ‘nurture’. Genetic predispositions refer to the inherited traits and characteristics that are present in one’s DNA at birth. Meanwhile, environmental influences encompass all external factors and experiences that interact with these genetic traits throughout an individual’s life, helping shape their growth and maturation. This broad spectrum includes everything from cultural conditioning and social learning to education and individual experiences. Thus, overall ‘development’ is a complex and continuous process of change guided by both innate characteristics and external interactions.
Developmental Intergroup Theory: Developmental Intergroup Theory suggests that children, influenced by adult emphasis on gender, use it as a primary descriptor for self and others, leading to the formation of hard-to-alter gender stereotypes.
Expanded Definition
The Developmental Intergroup Theory is a theoretical framework suggesting that children’s focus on gender and gender differences emanates from the prevalent emphasis adults place on gender in society. According to this theory, children perceive gender as a crucial element in understanding themselves and others due to the adults’ overt concentration on it. They actively search for potential gender differences, culminating in the formation of fixed gender-based stereotypes that later become challenging to modify. This theory thus provides insight into the origin and durability of gender stereotypes from an early developmental perspective.
Developmental Psychology: Developmental psychology is the psychological discipline focusing on the study of progressive changes in behavior and abilities across a person’s lifespan, encompassing aspects like cognition, physical growth, and social interactions.
Expanded Definition
Developmental Psychology is a specialized discipline within the broader field of psychology that focuses on understanding how people grow, evolve, and mature over their lifetime. It explores the various changes humans undergo physically, cognitively, and socially from infancy all the way through to old age. Physical changes pertain to growth and aging, cognitive changes explore the development and transformation of mental processes such as learning, memory, problem-solving, and decision making, while social changes concentrate on individuals’ interactions, relationships, and their understanding of others. The goal of this field is to provide insights into how these aspects influence our behavior, thinking, and emotions at different life stages.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM): The DSM is a manual that standardizes terminology and criteria for categorizing mental health conditions, thus ensuring consistency in diagnoses.
Expanded Definition
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is an authoritative and comprehensive reference tool utilized extensively by mental health professionals. Its purpose is to standardize the terminology, definitions, and diagnostic criteria for mental health conditions, thereby fostering clear communication and uniformity among professionals in the field. This document is periodically updated and published by the American Psychiatric Association, each time reflecting the latest understanding and developments within the psychiatric community. It covers a wide range of mental health disorders, from depression and anxiety to more complex conditions such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. The DSM is a key resource in clinical settings, research, educational instruction, and policy-making, promoting consistent and reliable diagnoses that are significant for treatment approaches and prognoses.
Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT): Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT) is a type of cognitive therapy that centers on engaging the patient’s active participation in their treatment, thereby fostering self-help skills.
Expanded Definition
Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT) is a specialized form of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, primarily developed to manage complex and severe mental disorders. It emphasizes a collaborative effort, engaging the patient actively in their treatment process. DBT combines standard cognitive-behavioral techniques for emotion regulation and reality-testing with concepts of mindful awareness, distress tolerance, and acceptance. It is grounded in dialectical philosophy and behavioral theory, which posits that positive change occurs when opposite forces (acceptance and change) are reconciled. This approach encourages patients to understand and accept their experiences while also working on strategies to change unhealthy behaviors.
Dichotic Listening: Dichotic listening is a psychological test where distinct auditory stimuli are delivered separately to each ear, facilitating the study of selective attention within the auditory system.
Expanded Definition
‘Dichotic Listening’ is a specialized, methodical procedure commonly employed in psychological and neurological research. In this procedure, two different auditory stimuli, typically in the form of verbal messages, are simultaneously presented to a participant. Uniquely, these presentations are segregated by ear – one message is directed to the left ear and the other to the right. This technique is primarily used to investigate selective attention within the auditory system and explore the functional asymmetry of the human brain. By analyzing how individuals process and recall the presented messages, researchers gain insight into cognitive perception and the brain’s information processing mechanisms. This procedure has integral contributions to our understanding of language processing, audiological disorders and brain lateralization.
Difference Threshold (or Just Noticeable Difference): The Difference Threshold, or Just Noticeable Difference, is the minimal alteration in a sensory input that an organism can detect. It represents the smallest noticeable change in a stimulus’s intensity or strength.
Expanded Definition
The Difference Threshold, also known as the Just Noticeable Difference (JND), refers to the minimum level of alteration that must occur in a stimulus before it is perceptibly detected by an individual or organism. In other words, it is the smallest noticeable variation in the intensity or strength of sensory input, such as sound, light, or touch, that can be recognized by a sensory system. Notably, the exact value of this threshold can vary between individuals, influenced by factors such as fatigue, attention, and the individual’s perceptual sensitivity. It is a fundamental concept in the field of sensory psychology and psychophysics.
Diffusion of Responsibility: ‘Diffusion of Responsibility’ is a psychological phenomenon where an individual’s accountability is minimized due to the perceived presence of others who could also intervene, therefore reducing their likelihood of action.
Expanded Definition
‘Diffusion of Responsibility’ refers to a social psychological concept whereby individuals in a group setting tend to abstain from actions, often in critical situations, under the assumption that others present in the same scenario will step forward and take the initiative. It is a phenomenon that dilutes personal accountability, as people believe the responsibility is shared amongst all observers, thus diminishing their immediate urge to intervene or provide assistance. The larger the crowd or the group of observers, the stronger this diffusion effect tends to be, often leading to what is known as bystander apathy.
Direct Effects of Social Support: Direct Effects of Social Support refer to the tangible benefits received from trustworthy and reliable relationships, such as reciprocal help and favor-sharing.
Expanded Definition
“Direct Effects of Social Support” refers to the tangible and intangible benefits that individuals glean from their social networks, which are composed of relations they have developed over time and can trust. These benefits may manifest in numerous ways, including emotional, informational, or instrumental aid, shared during times of need. Such assistance directly promotes wellbeing, enhances resilience, and mitigates stress levels, thereby contributing positively to an individual’s overall mental and physical health. The possibility of exchanging such support provides a sense of security, fostering increased self-confidence and independence.
Directional Goals: ‘Directional goals’ refer to the desired outcomes or states we aim for, influenced by our beliefs or preferences. They define a specific path or direction we want a situation to follow.
Expanded Definition
‘Directional Goals’ refer to the objectives or targets set with the intent of steering an outcome or situation towards a specific, desired direction. These goals embody our personal or professional expectations, aspirations, or beliefs, whereby our efforts are continually adjusted and regulated to ensure they coincide with the anticipated outcome. The main premise of directional goals involves proactive planning and strategic execution to influence the end result favorably.
Discrimination: Discrimination is a prejudice-based behavior towards an individual because of their affiliation with a specific social group.
Expanded Definition
Discrimination is a multifaceted concept that refers to the unfavourable or unfair treatment given to an individual or a group of individuals on the basis of their affiliation or membership in a specific social category. This can include, but is not limited to, classifications based on race, sex, age, religion, or disability status. Discrimination often arises from prejudice, stereotypes or bias, where certain social categories are viewed as inferior or different. It can manifest in various settings such as the workplace, institutions, public services, and within social interactions, often leading to societal inequality and injustice.
Discriminative Stimulus: A discriminative stimulus, in operant conditioning, is a cue that indicates whether a response will be rewarded, effectively guiding the subject’s behavior.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Discriminative Stimulus’ is a key term used in the field of psychology, particularly in the area of behavioral analysis, relating to operant conditioning. In this context, a discriminative stimulus functions as an indicative cue or trigger in an individual’s environment that signals the potential for reinforcement or punishment following a certain behavior. Essentially, it “sets the stage” for a particular action or response. In its presence, an action or behavior is likely to occur because it has been reinforced or rewarded in the past, or alternatively, will help the individual avoid a negative outcome. This concept is central to understanding how behaviors are learned and maintained over time.
Disorganized Attachment Style: Disorganized Attachment Style refers to a child’s inconsistent and unpredictable coping mechanisms in unfamiliar or stressful circumstances.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘Disorganized Attachment Style’ is described within the sphere of developmental psychology. It refers to a pattern of attachment behavior exhibited by a child when they encounter unfamiliar or stressful situations, specifically in the absence of a consistent or reliable method to manage the distress they feel. This attachment pattern, visible primarily in children but extending into adulthood, typically arises when the primary caregiver is either unpredictable or a source of fear, causing the child to behave erratically or unpredictably. Such behavior may include freezing, erratic movements, or contradictory behaviors such as seeking and avoiding contact simultaneously. Understanding and addressing this attachment style is crucial, as it may significantly impact the emotional and social development of an individual over time.
Dispersion: Dispersion is the measure of how data points vary or spread around a central value.
Expanded Definition
‘Dispersion’ is a statistical term that describes the degree to which numerical data points in a dataset vary around the central value, or mean. This concept explains how spread out or closely gathered these values are. A low dispersion indicates that the data points tend to be very close to the mean, thus they are highly clustered and display little variability. Conversely, a high dispersion signifies that data points are spread out over a larger range of values, indicating greater variability or heterogeneity in the dataset. Understanding dispersion is significant in data analysis as it provides critical insight into the reliability and predictability of the data.
Displacement: Displacement is a psychoanalytic defense mechanism where redirecting of anger, sexual or aggressive impulses towards a less threatening or more acceptable source or individual occurs, essentially providing a safer emotional outlet.
Expanded Definition
‘Displacement’ is a term that originates from psychoanalytic theory, referring to a specific type of defense mechanism whereby an individual unconsciously redirects their intense emotions such as aggression or sexual desires from their original source to a substitute target that is considered less threatening or more socially acceptable. This mental process allows people to handle their strong emotions and impulses in a safer way, avoiding the discomfort or social consequences that might result from directing these feelings towards their actual source. An example could be someone who, after experiencing a stressful situation at work, expresses their anger through a less destructive means like physical exercise, rather than confronting their boss directly.
Dissociation: Dissociation is a psychological phenomenon where an individual intensely concentrates on a particular thought or stimulus, thereby disregarding their surrounding environment; essentially, it’s a disconnection between general awareness and focal attention.
Expanded Definition
‘Dissociation’ is a psychological concept that involves an intense concentration on a single thought or stimulus, to the point of neglecting or losing consciousness of the person’s surrounding environment. This is not just a regular focus, but rather a profound degree of absorption that results in a disconnect or a disruption of awareness, memory, and perception. A person experiencing dissociation may seem preoccupied or distant, as they are wholly engrossed in one particular object or thought and are oblivious to other stimuli. This phenomenon is commonly associated with certain psychological disorders, but can also occur in everyday life under stress or high cognitive demand.
Dissociative Amnesia: Dissociative Amnesia is a mental disorder characterized by significant yet specific memory loss that can’t be attributed to physical factors.
Expanded Definition
Dissociative Amnesia is a specific type of psychological disorder characterized by the substantial, yet selective, loss of memory. This amnesia goes beyond typical forgetfulness. Individuals with this disorder may forget significant personal information and past experiences, often related to traumatic or stressful events. Crucially, unlike other types of amnesia, the memory loss in Dissociative Amnesia cannot be attributed to physical causes such as brain injury or disease. Instead, it is understood to be a defense mechanism, where the person’s mind excludes distressing memories from their consciousness.
Dissociative Disorder: Dissociative disorder is a psychological condition characterized by significant disturbances in a person’s memory, awareness, and sense of self.
Expanded Definition
Dissociative Disorder is a category of psychiatric conditions characterized by significant and persistent disruptions in critical functions related to consciousness, such as memory, personal identity, and awareness of self and environment. These disorders may manifest as memory gaps or forgetting personal information, an unstable and discontinuous sense of self, feeling detached or disconnected from one’s thoughts, actions, feelings or body, and in extreme cases, the presence of alternate identities. It is important to note that dissociative disorders are complex and involve psychological mechanisms often serving as coping strategies in response to traumatic or stressful experiences. These conditions require medical diagnosis and can be effectively managed with psychotherapeutic interventions, often tailored to the specific needs of the individual.
Dissociative Fugue: Dissociative Fugue is a mental disorder characterized by memory loss of personal identity, often accompanied by the creation of a new one, typically occurring far from one’s usual environment.
Expanded Definition
‘Dissociative Fugue’ is a specialized term within the field of psychology, referring to a form of dissociative disorder. It is characterized by a sudden and unexpected departure from one’s home or regular routine, accompanied by memory loss regarding one’s actual identity. Often, the individual affected may fabricate a new identity entirely to compensate for the one lost. This complex psychological phenomenon is generally understood to be a response triggered by stress or traumatic events, with the affected person typically dissociating themselves geographically and mentally from the source of distress. Key to understanding this disorder is recognizing that it’s not a conscious or intentional act, but rather an involuntary defense mechanism.
Dissociative Identity Disorder: Dissociative Identity Disorder is a psychological condition characterized by the presence of two or more distinct identities within an individual, accompanied by significant memory gaps about these alternate personalities.
Expanded Definition
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) is a recognized psychological disorder characterized by the presence of two or more distinct personality states, or identities, within a single individual. Each of these personalities may have their own name, personal history, behaviors, and manner of interaction. Another defining feature of this disorder is memory gaps or severe interruption in recalling personal information; this is not explained by ordinary forgetfulness or other neurological factors. This memory disruption often pertains to information about the other distinct personalities. Persons with this disorder frequently report feeling detached or disconnected from their selves, surroundings, or ordinary reality, with recurrent shifts in their sense of identity. It is important to note that these dissociations are an involuntary response to overwhelming stress or trauma, and not a deliberate act or by-product of imagination or creativity.
Distinctiveness: Distinctiveness refers to the enhanced recall and recognition of unique events compared to routine ones. It’s a principle indicating that anomalies within a context stand out, and thus, are remembered better.
Expanded Definition
‘Distinctiveness’ refers to the cognitive principle suggesting that events or occurrences that stand out in a sea of repetitive or similar incidents tend to be more readily remembered and identified. This principle dictates that unique, atypical or different elements within a specific context will be etched more deeply into memory, compared to those events that are routine, monotonous, or nondistinctive. This cognitive propensity allows us to embolden our memory of unique experiences, differentiating them from those occurrences that are uniform or common.
Distractor Task: A distractor task is a purposely developed activity to divert attention away from an upcoming decision by engaging the person in unrelated cognitive processes.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Distractor Task’ is a psychological tool used in research and assessments, specifically structured to divert an individual’s cognitive focus away from an imminent decision-making process. The objective of this task is to prevent the individual from continuously contemplating or pre-empting the decision, thereby minimizing any potential bias or rehearsed responses. These tasks, often simple in nature like memory games or puzzles, are intentionally unrelated to the decision at hand, ensuring authentic, spontaneous reactions in the decision-making process.
Distribution: “Distribution” refers to an overview of how data points for a specific variable are dispersed and centered, offering insights into the data’s variation and average.
Expanded Definition
‘Distribution’ in the context of statistics and data analysis refers to how data values are spread out and arranged across a specified dataset. This concept encompasses two essential characteristics. ‘Central tendency’ refers to a single value that best signifies and summarizes an entire dataset, typically captured by measures such as the mean or median. ‘Spread of data’, also known as dispersion, reflects the degree of variability or scattering existing within the data points. So, when referencing ‘distribution’, we are discussing the collective patterns of data points including their central clustering point and how far they deviate or diverge from that central point.
Divergent Thinking: ‘Divergent Thinking’ is the creative ability to develop multiple unique solutions or approaches to a particular challenge.
Expanded Definition
‘Divergent Thinking’ is a cognitive process that involves the exploration of multiple possible solutions in response to a given problem or question. It is characterized by creativity, non-linear thinking, and flexibility, allowing for the generation of several unique solutions or concepts. Divergent thinking encourages free-flowing, spontaneous thought processes, as opposed to convergent thinking, which aims to find a single, correct answer to a problem. Its utilization is essential in fields where innovation and problem-solving are key, such as in entrepreneurship, research, and design.
Divided Attention: Divided attention is the capacity to simultaneously concentrate on multiple tasks, effectively distributing cognitive resources among them.
Expanded Definition
“Divided Attention” is defined as an individual’s cognitive capacity to engage with multiple tasks or stimuli simultaneously. It refers to the adaptability of one’s attentional resources to accommodate two or more tasks occurring concurrently. This skill involves the concurrent processing of information and is central to everyday functions, enabling us to effectively interact with our surrounding environment that often demands simultaneous attention to various elements.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): DNA is a macromolecule that encodes the instructions for life’s processes, housed in chromosomes.
Expanded Definition
DNA, or Deoxyribonucleic Acid, is a highly intricate biomolecule that carries the inherent genetic instructions necessary for the biological development, functioning, and reproduction of all known types of organisms and many viruses. Structured as a double helix, a DNA molecule is composed primarily of nucleotides, each of which includes a sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen base. The sequence of these base pairs establishes unique genetic blueprints that link to the chromosomal structures within cells, thereby acting as the vital code for life and its continual propagation.
DNA Methylation: DNA methylation is the chemical alteration of DNA where a methyl group is added to the cytosine molecule, usually seen in the CpG dinucleotide sequence.
Expanded Definition
‘DNA Methylation’ refers to a biochemical process involving the addition of a methyl group to the DNA molecule, more specifically to the cytosine base, which is one of the four main bases found in DNA. This event most often occurs in particular areas termed CpG dinucleotides, a region where a cytosine nucleotide is located next to a guanine nucleotide on the DNA chain. This methylation process plays significant roles in genetic regulation and gene expression, which contribute to various biological processes and the development of several diseases when irregularly modified.
DNA Methyltransferases (DNMTs): DNA Methyltransferases (DNMTs) are enzymes that regulate DNA methylation, using donors or cofactors to transfer methyl groups. They are primarily DNMT1 for maintaining methylation and DNMT3a and DNMT3b for initiating new methylation.
Expanded Definition
DNA Methyltransferases (DNMTs) are a class of enzymes essential for epigenetic regulation in a cellular context, as they facilitate the process of DNA methylation. This mechanism involves the transfer of methyl groups from a specific type of molecular compound known as a methyl-group donor or cofactor to the DNA molecule. The process of DNA methylation has significant influence on gene expression and genome stability. In mammals, the principal DNMTs are DNMT1, DNMT3a, and DNMT3b. Each has a unique role. DNMT1, often referred to as the ‘maintenance methyltransferase’, is primarily responsible for preserving the existing methylation pattern during the process of DNA replication, ensuring the integrity of genetic information. Meanwhile, DNMT3a and DNMT3b are known as ‘de novo’ DNMTs, as they introduce new methylation marks to the DNA, shaping the methylation landscape during early development and cell differentiation.
Double-Blind Experiment: A double-blind experiment refers to a research methodology where both the investigator and the subjects are unaware of who is receiving the treatment or control condition, thereby eliminating potential bias.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Double-Blind Experiment’ is a methodologically sophisticated research technique in which neither the participants involved in the study, nor the researchers administering the experiment, are privy to who is receiving the treatment or intervention under investigation. This design safeguards against potential biases, either from participants or researchers, that might influence the results. For example, a participant’s knowledge about the treatment they are receiving could alter their behavior or perceived response, potentially skewing the findings. Similarly, if researchers know which participants are receiving the treatment versus those who are in the control group, it might inadvertently affect their interaction with participants or their interpretation of the results. This process, therefore, aids in ensuring greater objectivity and reliability in the experimental outcomes.
Down Syndrome: Down Syndrome is a genetic disorder caused by the existence of an extra 21st chromosome, resulting in cognitive impairments.
Expanded Definition
Down Syndrome is a genetic condition that results from a unique chromosomal arrangement. It’s commonly characterized by the occurrence of an additional or fractional part of the 21st chromosome. This atypical chromosomal pattern leads to an assortment of physical characteristics, developmental challenges and may cause varying degrees of intellectual disability. Despite the disabilities, with the right support, individuals with Down Syndrome can lead fulfilling lives. Though it’s present at birth, the effects may vary across individuals and continue throughout their lifetime. It is not a disease, but a condition that can have a significant impact on an individual’s learning ability and physical development.
Dream: A dream is a succession of images, emotions, and ideas experienced by a person during sleep, often characterized by surreal scenes, non-linear narratives and the oblivious acceptance of these notions, which can be difficult to recall upon waking.
Expanded Definition
‘Dream’ is defined as a complex subconscious phenomenon experienced during sleep, marked by an array of images, emotions, and thoughts processed in the mind of the individual. These experiences are characterized by their vivid, often hallucinatory visuals, erratic discontinuities, and logical inconsistencies. Interestingly, despite such anomalies, the dreamer often accepts the dream content as realistic during the experience, but may face challenges in recalling the specific details upon awakening.
Dream Analysis: Dream analysis is a therapeutic technique where the therapist interprets a client’s dream symbolism to understand their unconscious thoughts and implications.
Expanded Definition
‘Dream Analysis’ can be defined as a therapeutic method in which a psychotherapist attentively listens to a client’s recounting of their dreams. The therapist then scrutinizes and interprets the various symbolic elements present in these dreams. This method serves as a window into the client’s unconscious mind, allowing the therapist to gain insight into underlying thoughts, feelings, and potential unresolved issues. The aim is to extract meaningful interpretations that can aid in understanding the client’s cognitive and emotional state more thoroughly.
Dreams: Dreams are a structured sequence of images, thoughts, and feelings experienced during sleep, reflecting unconscious intentions or ideas.
Expanded Definition
‘Dreams’ can be described as the phenomenon occurring during sleep, where we experience a series of images, thoughts, sounds, and emotional feelings. This sequence is not random; it unfolds with a distinct and meaningful structure. It represents specific expressions, typically associated with our subconscious mind that signify an inherent idea or intention. In this state, our brain weaves together this visual and mental imagery into a narrative form, a process which continues to intrigue scientific and psychological communities due to its complex and partially understood nature.
Drive State: A drive state refers to an emotional condition that propels an organism towards achieving objectives essential for survival and reproduction.
Expanded Definition
“Drive State” can be expertly defined as a specific emotional or psychological condition that instigates and propels living organisms towards achieving certain objectives that are inherently advantageous for their survival and propagation. This complex state, typically fueled by internal or external stimuli, effectively drives behavior and actions, guiding organisms to meet their basic needs or reproduce, thus promoting their existence and continuation among their species.
Drive-Reduction Theory: Drive-Reduction Theory suggests that organisms are driven to fulfill their physiological needs, reducing tension and restoring the body to its balanced state.
Expanded Definition
Drive-Reduction Theory is an established psychological concept that proposes a link between internal physiological states and outward behavior. According to this theory, when an individual’s physiological state is out of balance, or in deficiency—for example, a state of hunger or thirst—this ignites a psychological state of arousal, known as a ‘drive.’ This drive pushes the individual to engage in actions or behaviors that will alleviate tension and restore their physiological equanimity. In other words, it ‘motivates’ the organism to seek satisfaction or to ‘reduce’ this drive, returning themselves to a state of homeostasis or comfort. Thus, this theory is focused on how humans and other organisms are motivated to behave in ways that meet their basic survival needs.
DSM-IV-TR: The ‘DSM-IV-TR’ is a guidebook for mental health professionals for diagnosing mental disorders, outlining their distinguishing characteristics.
Expanded Definition
The ‘DSM-IV-TR’, an acronym for ‘Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision’, is a well-established, comprehensive book that serves as a standard reference for the diagnostic criteria of various mental health conditions. It features a dedicated list of symptoms, statistics, and an in-depth examination of each psychiatric disorder, outlining how to differentiate one from another, in order to assist mental health professionals in diagnosing these disorders accurately. It is essential to note that while DSM-IV-TR is a highly utilized manual, the latest version is the DSM-5, which includes updated research and criteria adjustments.
Dual Processing: Dual processing refers to our mind’s ability to process information both consciously and unconsciously at the same time. It encapsulates the concurrent operation of explicit and implicit cognitive systems.
Expanded Definition
Dual processing is a conceptual framework in cognitive psychology that suggests our brain operates using two different systems or ‘tracks’ for processing information: one conscious and one unconscious. The conscious track, often referred to as System 2, involves deliberate, intentional, and analytical thought processes that we are openly aware of. Conversely, the unconscious track, known as System 1, involves automatic, instinctual, and intuitive thought processes that occur beneath our conscious awareness. These two systems often work in harmony, allowing us to respond to a wide range of stimuli effectively, by processing information simultaneously across different levels of consciousness.
Dualism: Dualism is the philosophical concept propounded by Descartes, emphasizing the inherent separation yet connection between the immaterial mind and the physical body.
Expanded Definition
Dualism, a philosophical concept introduced by René Descartes, posits a fundamental dichotomy between the mind and the physical body. According to this viewpoint, the mind is regarded as a non-material and distinct entity, inherently dissimilar from the physical and mechanical structure of the body. Despite their significant differences, the mind and body are considered interconnected and integrally coexistent. In essence, dualism presents a framework where mental phenomena are entirely separate from, but nevertheless influenced by, physical occurrences.
Durability Bias: Durability bias is a cognitive bias where individuals mistakenly anticipate the enduring impact of emotional events, both good and bad. It highlights the human error in calculating the lasting effect of significant experiences.
Expanded Definition
Durability Bias is a psychological concept defined as an individual’s propensity to inaccurately predict the longevity of the emotional impact, both positive and negative, of future events. This cognitive bias results in the overestimation of the extent to which joyous occurrences will bring sustained happiness or how long distressing circumstances will cause enduring sorrow. Despite the transient nature of emotions, humans frequently believe their emotional states will persist longer than they typically do, thereby potentially influencing their decision-making, planning, and expectations of life satisfaction.
Dysthymia: Dysthymia is a persistent mild depression lasting for a minimum of two years.
Expanded Definition
‘Dysthymia’, also known as Persistent Depressive Disorder, is a mental health condition that is typically identified by its long-term and consistent presence of mild to moderate depressive symptoms. These symptoms, generally less severe but more enduring than major depression, persist for a minimum of two years. Manifestations often include low mood, lack of interest in daily activities, fatigue, low self-esteem, difficulty making decisions, hopelessness, and changes in sleep and appetite. Its chronic nature can have a significant impact on an individual’s quality of life, often affecting their overall functioning in social, occupational, and other important areas. Despite its durability, it is a treatable condition typically managed with a combination of psychotherapy and medication.

E

Early Adulthood: Early adulthood refers to the life stage typically occurring from 25 to 45 years, marking adulthood’s prime phase.
Expanded Definition
‘Early adulthood’ is a defined period in the human lifespan that typically spans from the age of 25 to 45. This phase is marked by the onset and progression of both physiological and psychological development, which encompasses personal, professional, as well as socioemotional growth. Early adulthood is recognized as a critical stage wherein individuals often establish their careers, create a family, and define their identity and place within society, while simultaneously experiencing various physical changes due to age. Notably, while the age range is generalized, variations can exist based on individual circumstances and cultural differences.
Echoic Memory: Echoic memory is a type of sensory memory that specifically retains auditory information, which can last up to 4 seconds, longer than visual (iconic) memory.
Expanded Definition
‘Echoic Memory’ refers to a specific sub-type of sensory memory that pertains to auditory information. In cognitive psychology, it is understood as the short-term retention of sounds, or the brain’s temporary mental store for auditory stimuli. Echoic memory, capable of holding information for up to 4 seconds, decays more slowly than iconic memory, which pertains to visual stimuli. This longer retention time allows our cognitive system to process, comprehend, and respond to auditory information in a meaningful way, even after the original sound has ceased.
Eclectic Therapy: Eclectic Therapy is a therapeutic method that utilizes various techniques tailored to individual patients, chosen according to their unique needs and symptoms.
Expanded Definition
Eclectic Therapy, also commonly known as Integrative Therapy, is a therapeutic approach in which the therapist utilizes a range of different treatment methodologies tailored to suit the individual needs of a patient. In this approach, the therapist is not strictly bound to a single set of therapeutic principles, but rather selects the most effective techniques from various therapy models. This may involve the integration of methods from Cognitive-behavioral Therapy, Psychoanalysis, Client-centered Therapy, and others, depending on the patient’s unique characteristics, preferences, and therapeutic progress. The ultimate goal of Eclectic Therapy is to provide a personalized treatment plan that is most effective in addressing the patient’s specific psychosocial concerns.
Ecstasy (MDMA): Ecstasy, also known as MDMA, is a lab-created stimulant possessing slight hallucinogenic effects, leading to feelings of joy and heightened social connection. However, it poses significant short-term health hazards and potentially damaging effects on serotonin neurons, mood, and cognition over time.
Expanded Definition
Ecstasy, or MDMA (3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine), is a lab-created psychostimulant known for its dual stimulant and hallucinogenic abilities. This substance typically evokes feelings of profound joy, heightened social interactivity, and a sense of extreme closeness with others, characterized by elements of perceptual and cognitive distortions. However, MDMA comes with a set of transient health concerns such as elevated body temperature, increased heart rate, and other potential physical and psychological side effects. Of greater concern, consistent use can lead to long-term damage, specifically impairing the neurons responsible for creating serotonin, a neurotransmitter that plays a key role in regulating mood, cognition, sleep, and other essential functions. The destruction of these neurons can, therefore, lead to enduring mood disturbances and cognitive impairments, making MDMA a substance with significant potential hazards despite its temporary enjoyable effects.
Educational Psychology: Educational Psychology is the exploration of how mental functions influence and improve instruction and learning.
Expanded Definition
Educational Psychology is a specialized field of psychology that fundamentally explores the intersection between psychology and education. It primarily involves understanding the psychological principles and theories that influence the learning process, and leveraging that understanding to improve or augment teaching methodologies. The area of focus includes individual learners’ traits, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes and how they interact with instructional strategies to impact learning. Additionally, it also extends into issues such as developmental stages, cultural influences, varying learning abilities, and motivation, among others. By employing these insights, educational psychologists aim to foster better educational experiences and outcomes, from early education through higher level academics.
EEG (Electroencephalography): EEG is a diagnostic method that captures brain wave patterns through scalp-placed electrodes. It maps the electrical activity of the brain.
Expanded Definition
Electroencephalography, commonly referred to as EEG, is a diagnostic testing technique that measures electrical impulses within the brain. It involves strategically positioning sensors or electrodes across the scalp to record the patterns of electrical activity over a specific duration. This non-invasive approach helps professionals visualize and understand the complex interactions occurring within the brain’s neural network. By investigating the frequency, amplitude and regularity of these electrical signals, the EEG testing can assist in diagnosing a range of neurological disorders and conditions, assess brain functions, and obtain vital insights into the brain’s overall health. The recording provides a graphical representation of brain wave patterns, facilitating detailed analysis and interpretation.
Effect Size: Effect size is a statistical concept that quantifies the magnitude of difference or relationship between variables, often used to determine the practical significance of research findings.
Expanded Definition
‘Effect Size’ is an advanced statistical concept that refers to the magnitude or extent of an observed relationship, difference, or impact between groups in an experiment or study. It’s a quantitative measure that indicates the strength of a treatment, intervention, or phenomenon. Unlike statistical significance which merely addresses whether an effect exists, the effect size provides information about the practical significance of the results, addressing how large or substantial the effect actually is. This can be especially useful when comparing the efficacy of different treatments or identifying which factors have the most substantial impact in an experimental context.
Effortful Processing: Effortful Processing is a type of data encoding in the brain that necessitates focused concentration and conscious mental work.
Expanded Definition
‘Effortful Processing’ refers to a cognitive method of learning or committing information to memory that necessitates active, conscious engagement and deliberate application of mental resources. This type of processing often involves in-depth attention, effective strategies, such as repetition or chunking, and a commitment to understanding and remembering the information. This contrasts with automatic processing, which requires minimal cognitive load. The key distinction lies in the individual’s conscious control over the learning process in effortful processing.
Ego: The ego, as per Freudian theory, is the conscious part of our personality that balances the needs of the id, superego, and reality. It helps satisfy our desires in a way that brings pleasure whilst avoiding pain, based on the principle of reality.
Expanded Definition
‘Ego’ is a concept rooted in psychology, popularised by Sigmund Freud, representing an integral component of our personality. It is mostly a conscious element, often acting as the ‘manager’ or ‘executive’ of our personality, overseeing and mediating the interactions among the id, superego, and the tangible, real-world conditions we encounter. The id is primarily concerned with immediate satisfaction of basic desires and impulses, while the superego focuses on moral and social rules. The ego is tasked with balancing these two opposing forces in a manner that is committed to reality, recognized as the ‘reality principle’. This means that the ego aims to meet the desires of the id, but only in ways that are realistically achievable without causing harm or drawing negative consequences. Thus, the goal of the ego is to fulfill the demands of the id, but in a way that aligns with reality and the moral guidelines of the superego, aiming for pleasure and avoidance of pain. In simpler terms, think of the ego as the sensible, practical part of us that tries to get what we desire (the id’s domain) but in a socially acceptable and pain-free way (the superego’s rules), while keeping in touch with ground realities.
Ego-Depletion: ‘Ego-depletion’ refers to the fatigue experienced following continuous resistance to temptation, seen as a drain on self-control resources.
Expanded Definition
‘Ego-Depletion’ is a psychological theory which posits that an individual’s self-control or willpower draws upon a limited pool of mental resources that can be depleted. This exhaustion of resources often occurs as a consequence of exerting self-discipline or from resisting temptations. When in a state of ‘ego-depletion,’ individuals may be unable to exert self-control or discipline, leading to weakened willpower or impaired decision-making.
Egocentric: ‘Egocentric’ refers to the inability to understand perspectives other than one’s own. It’s when individuals are self-centric and struggle to relate with others’ viewpoints.
Expanded Definition
‘Egocentric’ is a psychological term referring to an individual’s difficulty or inability in comprehending perspectives other than their own. This concept encapsulates the tendency to prioritize one’s own feelings, thoughts, and experiences, potentially resulting in a limited understanding or disregard for others’ perspectives or emotions. It is often associated with self-centeredness, where one’s own viewpoint takes precedence, overlooking the varying viewpoints that others may offer.
Egoism: Egoism refers to the philosophy where self-interest is the primary motivator for one’s actions.
Expanded Definition
‘Egoism’ is a philosophical concept, often referred to in psychological and sociological contexts as well. It describes a state of being or a behavioral tendency wherein an individual primarily puts their own interests, needs, and welfare at the forefront, frequently assessing situations based on the cost-benefit outcomes to themselves. This could mean prioritizing their own welfare over others or making decisions largely based on personal gains rather than collective benefits. Egoism does not necessarily equate to a lack of altruism, but it certainly emphasizes a focus on self-interest.
Eidetic Imagery (or Photographic Memory): Eidetic Imagery, also known as Photographic Memory, is the capacity to accurately recall detailed images for extended periods, acting much like a long-term snapshot of visual information.
Expanded Definition
‘Eidetic Imagery,’ often referred to as ‘Photographic Memory,’ is a unique cognitive ability characterized by the individual’s enhanced capacity to visualize and recall intricate details of a visual stimulus, such as an image, even after significant periods of time have lapsed. This phenomenon essentially allows the individual to retain a highly detailed, ‘photo-like’ mental representation of the visual stimulus, contributing to the impression of recalling visual memory in high fidelity. However, it’s important to note that this is a relatively rare and scientifically contested phenomenon, with many experts arguing that true, long-term eidetic memory possibly doesn’t exist in adults, being more typically reported in children.
Elaborative Encoding: Elaborative encoding is a cognitive strategy that enhances memory retention by associating new information with existing knowledge in a meaningful way. It simplifies memory recall through creating relevant or significant connections with the new data.
Expanded Definition
‘Elaborative Encoding’ is defined as the cognitive strategy of processing incoming information by associating it with other data stored in long-term memory to enhance its significance and relevancy. This technique deepens our understanding by tying the new information with pre-existing knowledge or experiences, facilitating its long-term retention and easy retrieval. It essentially converts abstract or complex information into a more relatable and comprehensible format, thus enabling efficient encoding within our memory system.
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) is a treatment protocol where electric currents induce seizures in the brain to treat certain psychological disorders.
Expanded Definition
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) is a specialized therapeutic technique, employed in the sphere of mental health treatment. It involves the carefully managed transmission of electrical currents through the patient’s brain, with the intention of provoking a short-lived seizure. This technique is purposefully employed in an effort to alleviate the symptoms associated with certain psychiatric disorders. The exact mechanisms by which ECT exerts these therapeutic effects are not fully understood, but it is generally believed to induce changes in brain chemistry that can rapidly reverse symptoms of certain mental illnesses. This treatment is typically administered under general anesthesia and muscle relaxants to ensure the safety and comfort of the patient. ECT is typically utilized when other treatments have been ineffective, or if the patient’s condition is severe or life-threatening such as in cases of severe depression, mania, or catatonia.
Electroencephalography (EEG): EEG is a method that captures the brain’s electrical activity using strategically placed electrodes around the user’s head.
Expanded Definition
Electroencephalography (EEG) is a sophisticated, non-invasive technological method used to capture and record the brain’s electrical activity. This is facilitated via strategically-positioned electrodes on a participant’s scalp. These electrodes detect and measure minute electrical charges resulting from the activity of the brain’s neurons, which are specialized cells involved in transmitting information. The electrical patterns observed are then translated into line tracings known as ‘waves’ which provide valuable insights into brain function and health. Used widely in neurological research and medical diagnostics, EEG is a key tool in the study of brain disorders and cognitive processes.
Electromagnetic Energy: Electromagnetic energy refers to energy transported via waves that can carry information, including light, radio waves, and X-rays. It’s the fundamental mechanism for all wireless communications.
Expanded Definition
‘Electromagnetic Energy’ refers to a broad spectrum of energy forms, generated by electrically charged particles interacting with their mutual fields. These interactions produce waves of energy that extend across a spectrum, from radio waves to gamma rays, transmitting energy at the speed of light. The unique characteristics and intensity of these waves can be harnessed to relay information over distances, forming the basis for technologies such as radio, television, wireless networks, and even microwave ovens. Thus, electromagnetic energy is a cornerstone of many modern communication and energy systems.
Embodied: ‘Embodied’ refers to the integration of one’s physical presence with their perceived environment, to the point where their cognition is influenced and extended by their surroundings. It suggests a profound intertwining of body, mind, and external world.
Expanded Definition
‘Embodied’ refers to the integrated phenomenon in which individuals develop a profound connection with their surrounding environment to such an extent that this interaction influences their cognitive processes. Essentially, the physical body and the sensory inputs from the environment become interconnected with our cognitive functions, positioning the external world as an extension of our mental processing. This concept suggests that our brain is not limited to our biological boundaries, but is instead intricately entwined with the world around us in our perception, interaction, and understanding.
Embryo: An embryo is the early developmental stage of a zygote post-attachment to the uterine wall.
Expanded Definition
An ’embryo’ is more appropriately defined as an early developmental stage in multicellular organisms, following fertilization and the formation of the zygote. It represents the period during which the basic structures and organs of the organism start to form – a process known as organogenesis. In the context of human development, the embryo stage commences post fertilization once the fertilized egg, or zygote, undergoes a series of cellular divisions and eventually implants itself into the uterine wall. This embryonic stage typically spans from the third week post fertilization until the end of the eighth week, at which point the structure is generally referred to as a fetus. During this stage, key body plan features such as the central nervous system, facial features, limbs, and fundamental organ systems begin to form, making this a critical period in development.
Emerging Adulthood: “Emerging Adulthood” is a transition phase from late teens to mid-twenties, characterized by a shift from adolescent dependence to autonomous adulthood, primarily found in modern societies.
Expanded Definition
‘Emerging Adulthood’ is a sociological term representing a distinct developmental phase that some individuals in modern societies experience, typically ranging from their late teens to mid-twenties. This period serves as a pivotal transitionary stage from the dependent status associated with adolescence to the full independence and accountability of mature adulthood. Emerging adulthood is characterized by individuals exploring their identity, experiencing professional development, and frequently engaging in decision-making processes, all of which collectively foster a personal progression towards self-sufficiency and responsibility. It’s important to note that this life stage is not universally recognized or experienced, but is notably prevalent in societies where prolonged education and later-age marriage are common.
Emotion: Emotion is a psychological and bodily state that influences focus and molds actions.
Expanded Definition
‘Emotion’ can be expertly defined as a complex psychological state, which encompasses a combination of mental reactions and physical responses. These reactions and responses are typically triggered by personal interpretations of specific situations. It captivates our concentration, influencing how we perceive surrounding events. Moreover, emotions play a crucial role in shaping our actions, encouraging certain behaviors while discouraging others, and effectively guiding our interactions within a social context. These emotions can vary widely in intensity and duration, and may include a broad range of feelings, such as happiness, sadness, fear, and anger.
Emotion Regulation: Emotion regulation refers to the capacity to manage and effectively utilize one’s emotions, transforming them into productive activities or behaviors.
Expanded Definition
‘Emotion Regulation’ is professionally defined as the capacity and proficiency of an individual to effectively manage, modulate, and utilize their emotional responses in a manner that is beneficial to their overall well-being and appropriate to their environment. It involves conscious and unconscious processes that influence the experience and expression of emotions, and it equips individuals with strategies to handle both positive and negative emotional states, leading to improved social interactions and mental health.
Emotion-Focused Coping: Emotion-focused coping is a stress management strategy that primarily revolves around dealing with and easing the emotional distress triggered by stressful situations.
Expanded Definition
Emotion-Focused Coping is a psychological stress management approach characterized by strategies designed to manage and control the intense emotions associated with stressful life circumstances. This approach does not directly address the source of stress, rather it attempts to modify the individual’s emotional response, working to reduce negative feelings such as fear, anxiety, aggression, embarrassment, or frustration, and enhance feelings of comfort, self-confidence, and well-being. Such strategies may include practices such as meditation, deep breathing, mindfulness, or venting emotional distress to others.
Emotional Intelligence (EI): Emotional Intelligence (EI) refers to an individual’s capacity to understand, use, and manage both their own and others’ emotions effectively, applying that understanding to guide their thoughts and actions.
Expanded Definition
Emotional Intelligence (EI) is a psychological construct that refers to an individual’s capacity to recognize, comprehend, and regulate not only their own emotions but also the emotions of others. The concept is built upon four key components: 1. Perceiving Emotions: This is the ability to detect and decipher emotions in faces, pictures, voices, and cultural artifacts, including the ability to identify one’s own emotions. It’s the most fundamental aspect of emotional intelligence. 2. Using Emotions: This ability allows individuals to harness their emotions to facilitate various cognitive activities, such as thinking and problem solving. The emotionally intelligent person can capitalize fully upon changing moods to best fit the task at hand. 3. Understanding Emotions: This component relates to the ability to comprehend emotional language and to appreciate complicated relationships among emotions. For instance, comprehending emotions encompasses the ability to be sensitive to slight variations between feelings, and the capacity to recognize and describe how emotions evolve over time. 4. Managing Emotions: The final key component of emotional intelligence pertains to the ability to be open to feelings, and to modulate them in oneself and in others so as to promote personal understanding and growth. This means regulating own emotions, calming down when distressed and cheering up when feeling down, as well as helping others do the same. Collectively, these abilities contribute to an individual’s emotional intelligence and influence how well they understand and interact with the world around them.
Empathic Concern: ‘Empathic Concern’ is the inclination to enhance a victim’s welfare, even when it involves personal sacrifices, demonstrating a primary focus on the victim’s well-being.
Expanded Definition
‘Empathic Concern’ can be professionally defined as a phenomenon in which individuals, often referred to as helpers, exhibit a predominant interest in enhancing the welfare of others, commonly known as victims, irrespective of the costs they may need to bear. These costs could often be conveniently circumvented but the helper willingly chooses to incur these for the purpose of uplifting the other person’s living condition or state of being. This concept underlines the selfless aspect of empathy where aiding the other person takes precedence over personal convenience or benefit.
Empathy–Altruism Model: The Empathy-Altruism Model suggests that altruistic behavior primarily arises from the ability to empathize with the victim’s situation, essentially understanding their emotional state.
Expanded Definition
The Empathy-Altruism Model is a psychological theory suggesting that empathy, the ability to understand and share the feelings of others, serves as a crucial driver for altruistic behaviors. This model asserts that when an individual empathizes with the distress or hardship of another, placing themselves imaginatively in that person’s circumstance, they are more likely to act in ways that alleviate the other’s suffering, even if doing so involves personal sacrifice. These altruistic actions are driven not by self-interest, but by a genuine desire to improve the well-being of the other party, instigated by the empathy generated through shared emotional understanding.
Empirical: ‘Empirical’ refers to a method or approach that is rooted in direct observation or practical experience, systematically collected and analyzed for insights.
Expanded Definition
‘Empirical’ refers to a method or approach that bases its findings or conclusions on direct observations or experiences. It is characterized by the systematic and objective assembly and examination of quantitative or qualitative data. This approach strongly relies on observational or experimental results rather than just theoretical or subjective elements. This means that empirical information is grounded in real-world data gathering and analysis, thus ensuring that the insights derived are reflective of actual conditions or occurrences.
Empirical Methods: Empirical methods are scientific approaches used for data gathering and organization, followed by conclusions based on the collected data.
Expanded Definition
‘Empirical Methods’ refer to a systematic approach employed by researchers and scientists, which revolves around collecting, organizing, and analyzing data with the primary purpose of drawing dependable conclusions. The term ’empirical’ signifies that these methods are grounded in observable, measurable evidence obtained through experimental or observational practices. This methodology is pivotal in various disciplines, including natural sciences, social sciences, and business research, among others, as it ensures that conclusions drawn are based on clear, real-world data, rather than conjecture or assumptions. Thus, empirical methods play a critical role in advancing our understanding of the world around us in a reliable, credible, and verifiable manner.
Empiricism: Empiricism is the philosophical stance asserting that knowledge stems from sensory experience, advocating for observation and experimentation as the core of scientific method.
Expanded Definition
Empiricism refers to a philosophical approach or theory asserting that knowledge is primarily derived from sensory experience and observation. According to empiricism, our understanding of the world around us and the concepts we grasp emanates from our tangible interactions with our environment, and our mental and sensory perceptions thereof. Empiricists contend that all knowledge with its foundational roots in experience is the most trustworthy, hence asserting that scientific endeavors should be anchored in observable phenomena and rigorous experimentation. This perspective essentially places empirical evidence, which is information obtained through the senses or through measurable experiments, at the center of knowledge creation and learning, thereby helping shape valid conclusions and inform theory development.
Encoding: Encoding is the cognitive process by which perceived information is converted and stored into memory. It’s the initial stage of learning and memorizing events.
Expanded Definition
‘Encoding’ is a cognitive process that facilitates the conversion of real-time experiences and information into a construct that can be stored within our memory and recalled later. It lays at the core of learning mechanisms, enabling us to form memories from interactions with the world around us. In essence, encoding is the crucial first step in creating a new memory by translating perceived information into a format that can be lodged into the brain’s memory system for future use. Hence, it encapsulates the act of transforming new information into a memory, making it a vital part of our capability to recall events, learn new things, and maintain mental agility.
Encoding Specificity Principle: The Encoding Specificity Principle suggests that the success of recalling a memory significantly depends on the degree of similarity between the information present at encoding and at retrieval. In simple terms, it’s the idea that memory is most effective when recall conditions mirror the conditions in which the information was encoded.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Encoding Specificity Principle’ is a psychological theory proposing that an individual’s ability to recall a particular piece of information is significantly impacted by the context in which the information was encoded. In other words, memory retrieval is most effective when the conditions at the time of retrieval are similar to the conditions present when the memory was encoded. This theory suggests that the cues or prompts one receives to trigger memory recall are likely to be effective if they share a high degree of similarity or overlap with the information initially stored in the memory trace. A ‘memory trace’ here refers to the hypothetical brain state linked to a specific piece of information that makes recall or recognition possible.
Enculturation: Enculturation is the process through which an individual absorbs and comprehends their own culture’s norms, values, and behaviors. It’s a fundamental socialization tool that ensures the continuation of cultural practices and understanding.
Expanded Definition
‘Enculturation’ is a sociocultural term that refers to the in-depth process by which individuals acquire and assimilate the knowledge, values, norms, behaviours and social skills pertinent to their native culture. This process fundamentally shapes an individual’s identity, guiding their cognitive and behavioural responses within their particular societal framework. Enculturation often occurs implicitly over time, starting from childhood, through constant interaction with familial, institutional, and societal influences. It underscores how cultural understanding is transmitted across generations, contributing to the continuity of cultural traditions and societal norms.
Endocrine System: The endocrine system is the body’s internal chemical communication network, comprising of hormone-producing glands that manage essential biological functions.
Expanded Definition
The endocrine system is a complex network within the body that revolves around the regulation of biological functions through the production and distribution of hormones. This system is composed of various glands, such as the thyroid, pituitary, and adrenal glands, among others. These glands secrete specific hormones directly into the bloodstream, enabling them to travel to targeted cells and organs. The hormones released by the endocrine system play a crucial role in a wide array of bodily processes, encompassing growth and development, metabolism, reproductive function, and mood regulation. Hence, the endocrine system serves as a vital chemical messenger system that maintains the body’s internal balance, or homeostasis.
Endorphins: Endorphins are neurotransmitters, similar to opioids, produced in the body that alleviate pain and trigger feelings of pleasure.
Expanded Definition
‘Endorphins’ are neurotransmitters, which are substances naturally produced in the brain, that have properties similar to the drug morphine. They serve crucial roles within the body’s nervous system, particularly in regulating sensations of pain and contributing to feelings of pleasure and well-being. These endogenous chemicals are released at times of stress or discomfort, promoting pain relief, and during enjoyable activities, fostering a sense of happiness or euphoria.
Engrams: “Engrams” refer to the neural alterations symbolizing an occurrence, essentially functioning as memory imprints within the nervous system.
Expanded Definition
Engrams are commonly understood as the biological embodiment of a memory in the complex workings of the nervous system. This term refers to the lasting physical or chemical alterations that occur within the brain after a particular event or experience; these alterations form a “memory trace” that helps store and retrieve that memory later. They essentially represent an event’s impression in the brain, acting as the neural blueprint of a memory. This concept is foundational to our understanding of how our brains process, retain, and recall information, thereby playing a crucial role in the study of neuroscience and cognitive psychology.
Environment: The environment refers to all external, non-genetic factors that affect an individual, ranging from prenatal care to social and physical surroundings.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Environment’ can be comprehensively defined as the sum total of all external factors and conditions, which are not genetically transmitted, that influence the life, properties, and behavior of an organism or group of organisms. These influences encompass a vast range of elements, starting from prenatal factors such as the nutritional status and health of the mother during pregnancy to postnatal elements including the social, cultural and physical environment. This also includes exposure to specific environments such as educational settings, workplaces, political climate, and interpersonal relationships. Essentially, the environment represents all non-heritable elements that cumulatively shape the development and behavior of individuals and communities.
Epigenetics: Epigenetics is the exploration of heritable changes in gene activity without DNA alteration, often characterized by DNA covalent modifications and posttranslational histone modifications.
Expanded Definition
Epigenetics is a specialized field of science that investigates the mechanisms by which characteristics or traits may be passed from one generation to the next without altering the underlying DNA sequence. This process can influence how and when certain genes are activated or expressed. Critically, the term ‘heritable’ means these changes can be transmitted to subsequent generations. Two notable aspects of epigenetics are covalent DNA modifications and post-translational histone modifications. Covalent DNA modifications refer to changes involving the addition or removal of certain molecular groups (e.g., methyl group) that attach themselves to the DNA molecule but do not modify its sequence. These modifications can switch genes on or off, thereby affecting gene function. Post-translational histone modifications, on the other hand, involve changes to histone proteins, which help package and organize DNA within the cell nucleus. These modifications can alter how tightly DNA is wound around these histones, thereby regulating the accessibility of genes and influencing their expression. Put in simple terms, epigenetics looks into how your behaviors and environment can cause changes that affect the way your genes work. Unlike genetic changes, these alterations aren’t written into the DNA code. Instead, they happen because of external or environmental factors and can potentially be passed down through generations.
Epigenome: The epigenome refers to the collection of all the chemical compounds and proteins that can inform the activity of our genes, or in simpler terms, it’s the set of biological markers that determine how our genes function.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Epigenome’ is a comprehensive term referring to the complete system of chemical compounds and proteins that can attach to the DNA within our genome, influencing its structure and function. This system can regulate gene expression – that is, it can turn genes on and off, or it can adjust a gene’s activity level – without altering the DNA sequence itself. These ‘epigenetic marks’ are positioned all over the genome and play a vital role in various biological processes such as development, aging, and memory formation, as well as in numerous diseases. The study of these marks across the entire genome is what we refer to as the ‘Epigenome’.
Episodic Memory: Episodic memory refers to the ability to recall specific personal experiences situated in a particular time and location. It’s essentially our memory for life events.
Expanded Definition
Episodic memory refers to the capacity of the human cognitive system to encode, store, and retrieve individual experienced events or incidents. These incidents are deeply personal and encompass specific details related to time, location, emotions, and contexts. This type of memory encompasses not just factual information, but our unique, subjective experiences. For instance, recalling your first day at school or your birthday party involves episodic memory, as it calls for instance-based details about the event and your firsthand experiences. Episodic memory hence plays a crucial role in shaping our understanding of the past and forming our individual identity. It’s also a dynamic process, reflecting our ability to travel mentally in subjective time, from the past to expectancies of the future.
Error Management Theory (EMT): Error Management Theory (EMT) is a cognitive theory that suggests, under uncertain conditions, our minds have evolved to minimize the larger costs of errors by having adaptive biases; thus, we tend more to make smaller cost mistakes. Essentially, our brains have been wired to take the ‘better safe than sorry’ approach when making judgments.
Expanded Definition
The Error Management Theory (EMT) is an advanced concept that explores decision-making processes under uncertain circumstances. Rooted in evolutionary psychology, this theory suggests that during human evolution, cognitive biases, or systematic errors in judgment and decision-making, developed as protective mechanisms to minimize potentially detrimental or more costly errors. These cognitive biases, in evolutionary terms, can potentially influence an individual’s survival and reproductive success. The theory proposes that whenever there are discrepancies in the costs of judgment errors — being either false positives or false negatives — our cognitive system is naturally biased towards the direction of less costly mistakes. Therefore, this theory provides a plausible explanation for why and how certain cognitive biases have evolved in humans.
Escape Learning: Escape learning is a type of behavioral conditioning where an individual learns to perform a certain action in order to cease ongoing unpleasant stimuli.
Expanded Definition
Escape learning is a psychological concept that refers to the process in which an individual learns to engage in a particular behavior to end an existing negative or unpleasant stimulus. It is a fundamental principle in behavioral psychology, denoting the adaptive learning method where an individual modifies their actions with the objective of terminating an ongoing uncomfortable or undesirable situation. Thus, escape learning is pivotal in understanding how organisms, including humans, adapt their behaviors to mitigate discomfort and promote survival.
Estrogen: Estrogen is a primary female hormone, produced by the ovaries, crucial for sexual development, fertility regulation, and the distribution of body fat in women.
Expanded Definition
‘Estrogen’ is a biologically essential hormone primarily found in females, although present in both sexes. It is majorly produced in the ovaries, the female reproductive organs, and functions to regulate numerous aspects of female physiological growth and development. Specifically, it orchestrates the emergence and maintenance of distinct female secondary sexual characteristics. These include the development and enlargement of breasts, creation of a typical hourglass body shape through the redistribution of adipose tissue to the hip and thigh areas, and initiation of the marked height increase that typically characterizes puberty. Furthermore, estrogen plays a pivotal role in female reproductive health. It regulates the menstrual cycle, ensuring its consistency and synchrony. It also prepares the uterus for pregnancy by promoting the thickening of its lining, essential for successful implantation after fertilization. Thus, estrogen is a potent and multifunctional hormone necessary for the progression and facilitation of critical female growth and reproductive processes.
Ethical Review Board (ERB): An Ethical Review Board (ERB), also known as an Institutional Review Board (IRB), is a committee tasked with assessing the ethical implications and potential benefits of institutional research.
Expanded Definition
An Ethical Review Board (ERB), also recognized as an Institutional Review Board (IRB), is a well-structured panel typically comprising a minimum of five individuals, assembled to oversee and assess the ethical implications of research activities conducted within a particular organization. It seeks to balance the gains of knowledge discovery against potential risks and adverse effects to research participants. The members of the ERB are specifically selected for their expertise and understanding of ethical principles, regulatory requirements, and specific research areas. Their primary objective is to protect and preserve the rights, safety, and well-being of human subjects involved in research, thereby implementing and maintaining a high standard of ethical conduct in scientific investigation.
Ethics: Ethics is a field in psychology focused on understanding and guiding moral behavior and principles.
Expanded Definition
‘Ethics’ is a multifaceted domain, not exclusively tied to psychology but indeed influencing it, that investigates core questions concerning morality, which pertains to principles of right and wrong behavior. Often, it seeks to apprehend and elucidate the meaning of ethical conduct and moral principles, as well as how individuals ought to behave based upon these principles. This holistic study of morality includes the exploration of values, virtues, duties, and rights, as well as the philosophical analysis and application of these concepts in everyday life and professional practice. Ethics can reach into various contexts, ranging from individual personal decisions to global societal dilemmas, aiming to foster a better understanding of what it means to act morally and responsibly.
Ethnocentric Bias: Ethnocentric bias refers to the unconscious skewing of research findings based on the personal cultural beliefs or norms held by the researcher.
Expanded Definition
‘Ethnocentric bias’ can be understood as a form of cognitive preconception which may potentially influence a researcher’s approach and findings. This bias stems from the researcher’s own cultural framework which may unintentionally shape their perspective, methods of data collection, interpretation, and conclusions. Consequently, the cultural context and assumptions of the researcher are inadvertently projected onto the study, potentially skewing results and limiting objectivity. It’s important to note that the researcher may not consciously recognize these biases, making them challenging to control. Awareness and mitigation strategies are crucial in ensuring robust, unbiased research outcomes.
Ethnographic Studies: Ethnographic studies involve the close observation of, and engagement with a specific culture through practices like interviews, aimed at gaining an in-depth insight into the culture’s characteristics and dynamics.
Expanded Definition
‘Ethnographic Studies’ refer to a comprehensive methodology within the field of social and anthropological research where a researcher immerses themselves within a particular culture or community to glean in-depth insights. This immersion frequently involves direct observation of cultural practices, interactions, and behaviors, as well as structured and unstructured interviews with community members. This approach helps the researcher to gain a holistic and nuanced understanding of the cultural context, societal norms, values, and the intricacies that govern the lives of people within that community. By participating and engaging with the community over an extended period, the research supports the honing of a first-hand, subjective yet deeply researched narrative of the community’s life and perspective.
Eugenics: ‘Eugenics’ is the concept of enhancing the human population by fostering reproduction among individuals with sought-after genetic traits.
Expanded Definition
‘Eugenics’ refers to a theory and social movement that advocates for the enhancement of the human population by promoting the reproduction of individuals with deemed ‘desirable’ genetic traits and discouraging or preventing those with ‘undesirable’ traits from reproducing. This concept, rooted in the fields of genetics and heredity, rests on the assumption that certain physical, intellectual, or emotional qualities are innately superior and can be cultivated throughout generations via targeted reproduction policies. However, establishing what is ‘desirable’ or ‘undesirable’ can be profoundly subjective and potentially harmful, as this often intersects with socio-cultural biases and prejudices. Therefore, discussions about eugenics mandate a deep understanding of ethical considerations and sociopolitical contexts, given its controversial history and potential consequences.
Euphoria: ‘Euphoria’ refers to an extreme state of joy, pleasure, or delight. It’s a high level of happiness or excitement that’s exceptionally intense.
Expanded Definition
‘Euphoria’ is a psychological state distinguished by the heightened sensation of pleasure, elation, or joy. It is a profoundly positive emotional response often triggered by various stimuli such as accomplishments, positive life events, intense physical activities, or the use of certain substances. This overwhelming feeling can temporarily blur a person’s perception of reality, making troubles or challenges appear distant and less impactful. It’s essential to understand that although euphoria provides a temporary sense of extraordinary well-being, persistent pursuit of such a state could potentially lead to harmful effects.
Eureka Experience: The ‘Eureka Experience’ is the sudden realization or insight when a creative idea becomes fully formed and clear in one’s mind. It is the “aha” moment when the solution to a complex problem suddenly becomes apparent.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Eureka Experience’ is a cognitive phenomenon commonly referenced in psychology and neuroscience, traditionally defined as a moment when an innovative or creative solution or concept abruptly surfaces into one’s conscious awareness. This experience is often marked by a sudden clarity or comprehension, as if a proverbial ‘light bulb’ has turned on, illuminating an idea or answer that previously eluded understanding. The term originates from the ancient Greek mathematician Archimedes, who reputedly exclaimed “Eureka!” (translated as “I have found it!”) upon solving a challenging problem. This experience is integral to problem-solving, creativity, and epiphany-like moments in scientific, artistic, and everyday contexts.
Eustress: ‘Eustress’ refers to positive or beneficial stress that can improve a person’s performance, capabilities, or overall well-being.
Expanded Definition
‘Eustress’ refers to a type of stress that, rather than causing hindrance or harm, can potentially be beneficial to an individual’s well-being, abilities, or overall performance. Unlike distress, which can have negative effects, eustress operates as a positive form of stress that can motivate a person, enhance their skills, and improve their sense of fulfillment or satisfaction. It encompasses those situations or pressures that, although stressful, inspire personal growth and achievement.
Evaluative Priming Task: An Evaluative Priming Task is an indirect method used to assess the speed of classifying an entity’s emotional value, positive or negative, when it’s promptly exposed following a positive or negative stimulus.
Expanded Definition
The Evaluative Priming Task is an indirect assessment tool designed to gauge the speed with which an individual determines the emotional tone—positive or negative—of a subject of interest, known as the “attitude object”. This happens when the attitude object is swiftly presented after an emotionally charged image. The latency in response time is thought to reflect the underlying attitude of the participant towards the attitude object. This method is often used in psychological research to explore unconscious or implicit biases, attitudes, or associations whereby the initial image primes the evaluator’s response to the subsequent object.
Event Time: ‘Event Time’ refers to a scheduling approach led by the natural progression of activities where commencement and conclusion are judged collaboratively based on appropriateness rather than strict timelines.
Expanded Definition
‘Event Time’ is a concept rooted in the field of scheduling and time management. Unlike clock time, which is rigidly structured around hours and minutes, event time is characterized by the nature and progression of the activity itself. In an event time framework, the sequence and duration of events are guided by the participants involved. These participants collectively determine the commencement and completion of an event based on their collective judgment and on the natural progression of the event. This might involve factors such as feeling that an objective has been met, or that a discussion point has reached a natural conclusion. Essentially, ‘Event Time’ is marked by a more fluid and responsive approach to managing time, anchored by the collective consensus of the involved parties on when it is appropriate to begin or end an event.
Evidence Based Practice: ‘Evidence-Based Practice’ is the multifaceted approach to clinical care which combines expert clinician judgement, relevant research findings, and patient predilections and circumstances.
Expanded Definition
‘Evidence-Based Practice’ is defined as a structured approach to making clinical decisions that effectively merges three key components. First is the integration of the highest caliber of scientific research available, which provides reliable and valid data on the effectiveness and possible side-effects of treatments or interventions. Second, it involves the clinician’s professional expertise including their accumulated experience, skill, and clinical acumen. The final component is a comprehensive understanding of the patient’s unique health history, values, circumstances, choices, and expectations about their healthcare outcomes. This approach ensures informed and personalized patient care, leading to a greater likelihood of successful health outcomes.
Evolution: Evolution is the gradual adaptation of traits and behaviors beneficial to survival over time.
Expanded Definition
‘Evolution’ is a complex scientific theory that pertains to the gradual development and diversification of living organisms over vast periods of time. It specifically refers to the subtle, continuous process by which individual organisms with favorable, advantageous traits—traits that enhance their ability to survive and reproduce within their specific environments—become more common within a population across successive generations. Thus, over time, these advantageous traits become dominant. It is a process driven by natural selection, mutation, gene flow, and genetic drift, which together contribute to the diversity of life on Earth.
Evolutionary Psychology: Evolutionary Psychology is a discipline within psychology that utilizes principles of natural selection to explain human and animal behavior, focusing on fostering a stronger emotional bond between individuals and nature to promote sustainable living and mitigate nature-alienation.
Expanded Definition
Evolutionary Psychology is a specialized field within psychology that draws upon the principles of Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection. This discipline endeavors to explain human mental processes and behavioral traits by examining their evolutionary roots. It posits that just like physical characteristics, the cognitive functions and behaviors exhibited by humans and animals have been shaped over generations by evolutionary processes to increase adaptability and survival. This perspective can also be employed to foster a deeper emotional bond between individuals and the natural environment. The goal is to facilitate the development of sustainable lifestyles and mitigate feelings of disconnection from nature. However, it is important to note that evolutionary psychology focuses more on the impact of evolutionary processes on the mind and behavior rather than ecological connectedness.
Exact (or Direct) Replication: Exact replication is the process of recreating a previous study by strictly following its methodologies, with the aim of verifying consistency and accuracy of the initial results.
Expanded Definition
Exact or Direct Replication refers to the rigorous scientific process wherein the methodologies used in a previous study are meticulously followed to verify the study’s results’ consistency and reliability. This is an instrumentally important part of the scientific research framework since it validates the accuracy of the initial findings. If the outcome from the replication matches or is remarkably similar to the original study, it serves as a strong testament to the precision, reliability, and verifiability of the initial results.
Excitation Transfer: Excitation Transfer is a psychological process where arousal from one event amplifies the emotional response to a subsequent, unrelated event.
Expanded Definition
‘Excitation Transfer’ is a psychological construct which explains the augmentation of emotional responses to unrelated phenomena due to pre-existing arousal from a different event. This theorizes that when individuals are exposed to a certain state of stimulation or arousal, it profoundly influences and amplifies the intensity of their emotions experienced in any subsequent, unrelated circumstance. Even after the original source of arousal has subsided, the elevated emotional response can persist, potentially heightening reactions to new stimuli in a manner that may not directly correspond to the events themselves. This concept is vital in fields like psychology, in analysing emotional responses and predicting behavior.
Excitatory: Excitatory neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that increase the probability of a neuron firing an action potential.
Expanded Definition
“Excitatory” is a term used in neurobiology to describe types of neurotransmitters, which are biochemical messengers employed by neurons — the nerve cells that constitute the nervous system. These specific neurotransmitters increase the probability of the target neuron, or nerve cell, to initiate an electrical signal known as an action potential. These excitatory neurotransmitters, therefore, promote the primary active response in the receiving neuron, thereby facilitating the transmission of information within the brain and throughout the nervous system.
Exemplar: An exemplar is a memory-based example classified under a specific category.
Expanded Definition
‘Exemplar’ is a term used to refer to a specific instance or example that has been stored in memory and has been categorised under a particular grouping or class. It is a representative model that aids in the understanding or clarification of that specific category. This is usually used in fields like psychology, research, or education, where patterns are observed and examples are categorised to assist in problem-solving, learning, or decision-making processes.
Exempt Research: Exempt Research refers to research activities not subjected to federal regulations, typically involving data sourced publically.
Expanded Definition
‘Exempt Research’ refers to a particular category of research activities that, due to their specific nature and structure, are not subjected to the typical federal regulations that ordinarily govern research projects. This exemption primarily applies when the research uses readily accessible and publicly accessible information. Consequently, such research projects are not obligated to meet certain federal regulatory criteria because they are deemed to carry minimal risk to participants and the data involved is not private or confidential. However, determinations of exemption should always uphold the ethical principles and intent of regulatory protections.
Existential Therapy: Existential therapy is a psychotherapeutic approach that emphasizes personal choice in shaping future outcomes and promotes active responsibility in decision-making, focusing on the individual’s interaction with the world.
Expanded Definition
Existential therapy is a form of psychotherapy that centers on the individual’s engagement with their existence and its inherent challenges. It underscores the human capacity for decision-making in both present and future contexts, encouraging individuals to exercise their freedom to choose and to take responsibility for their actions. This therapeutic approach fosters self-awareness and self-determination, empowering clients to confront, understand, and resolve their personal and existential issues, such as the search for meaning, feelings of isolation, mortality, and freedom. By so doing, existential therapy aims to help individuals live more authentic and fulfilling lives.
Expectation Fulfillment Theory: Expectation Fulfillment Theory suggests that dreams function as a mechanism to release unresolved emotional stimuli experienced during waking hours. It portrays dreams as an essential coping strategy in emotional regulation.
Expanded Definition
‘Expectation Fulfillment Theory’ is a psychological concept that suggests the primary function of dreaming is to alleviate and process emotional tension accrued during the day that has not been adequately expressed or resolved. According to this theory, our brain utilizes dreams as a safety valve, where unexpressed emotional experiences from our waking hours are played out and diffused, thereby preparing the mind for a new day. In essence, this theory underscores the importance of dreams in maintaining our emotional equilibrium and mental wellbeing.
Experiment: An experiment is a research technique where the researcher adjusts certain factors to evaluate their impact on a particular outcome or process, using random participant assignment to manage other significant variables.
Expanded Definition
In the field of research, an “experiment” is defined as a systematic method of investigation which involves an experimenter intentionally altering one or more aspects, which are known as “independent variables”, to examine how these changes impact a specific outcome like behavior or mental processes, referred to as the “dependent variable”. The use of a random assignment of participants is a crucial component of this method, enabling the experimenter to limit the influence of other potential variables, thereby promoting the integrity and accuracy of the observations. In simpler terms, an experiment is a controlled study where the researcher changes some elements to see how they affect the final results, while attempting to keep all other factors constant.
Experimental Group: The experimental group in a study is the group subjected to the variable being tested, to observe its influence or effect.
Expanded Definition
‘Experimental Group’ is a term referring to the subset of participants within a scientific study or experiment who are subjected to the variable being tested. This group is exposed to specific conditions or treatments that are unique from other subsets (such as the control group) as a way of evaluating the effects of the independent variable in question. The changes, outcomes, or responses observed in this group help researchers understand the potential causal relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable within the framework of the study.
Experimental Psychology: ‘Experimental Psychology’ refers to the field that explores behaviors and cognitions by implementing scientific experiments.
Expanded Definition
‘Experimental Psychology’ refers to a branch of psychology that utilizes scientific methodologies, primarily experimental techniques, to investigate and understand human cognition and behavior. It involves the execution of controlled trials that manipulate certain variables to observe the effects they have on behaviors, thoughts, and emotions. This form of psychology aims to establish causality through rigorous scientific protocols, fostering a comprehensive understanding of human mental processes and responses. The outcomes from such studies often contribute significantly to the development of theories, which then guide further psychological research and practical applications.
Experimental Research: Experimental research is a methodical approach where researchers manipulate one variable to measure its impact on other variables, ensuring initial participant equivalence across groups.
Expanded Definition
Experimental research refers to a systematic investigation method often used in the scientific field. It starts by ensuring a fair comparison by assigning research participants into different groups with equal characteristics, known as initial equivalence. Afterward, a particular variable or condition is deliberately changed or manipulated within these groups. This manipulated variable is often referred to as the “independent variable.” Following this manipulation, researchers measure the impact of these changes on the participants’ behavior or responses, known as the “dependent variable”. The main objective is to determine if there is a causal link between the manipulated experience or variable and the participants’ responses, thereby providing valuable insights and understandings into various phenomena.
Experimenter Bias: Experimenter bias refers to the unintentional influence an experimenter may have on the outcome of a study, undermining the validity of the results due to differential treatment of participants.
Expanded Definition
Experimenter bias, also known as expectancy bias, is a form of methodological bias that occurs in scientific research. This bias can manifest when the researcher’s expectations unconsciously influence the outcome of the research. Specifically, the researcher may unintentionally interact with participants in different experimental groups in dissimilar ways, thereby inadvertently influencing their responses and behaviors. This bias may then lead to invalid and unwarranted confirmation of the researcher’s initial hypothesis. In order to mitigate such a bias, double-blind study designs and clear, standardized procedures can be implemented.
Explicit Attitude: Explicit attitude is a clearly stated or demonstrated viewpoint or sentiment an individual holds about something.
Expanded Definition
‘Explicit Attitude’ refers to an individual’s conscious, openly shared, and intentionally communicated viewpoint or perspective towards an idea, object, individual, or event. It is an observable behavior that is typically gauged through self-report methods because it reflects the conscious beliefs and values of the individual. Moreover, these attitudes usually align with a person’s deliberate actions and are susceptible to direct control and self-reflection.
Explicit Memory: Explicit memory refers to conscious, intentional recollection of factual information, previous experiences, or specific concepts, categorized into episodic (personal experiences) and semantic (general world knowledge).
Expanded Definition
‘Explicit Memory’ is defined as a form of long-term memory that requires conscious thought. It refers to the intentional, conscious recollection of factual information, past experiences, and concepts. This mode of memory is categorized into two primary types: episodic memory, which relates to our personal experiences and specific events in our lives, and semantic memory, which encompasses general world knowledge that we have accumulated throughout our lives such as facts, ideas, meaning and concepts that are not drawn from personal experiences. This type of memory allows us to recall who we are, where we live, and what we did yesterday, as well as more abstract knowledge such as mathematical concepts or historical facts. It’s the type of memory that performs a crucial role in our ability to operate in the world.
Exposure Therapy: Exposure therapy is a technique in behavioral therapy intended to help patients lessen their fear or anxiety towards a specific stimulus by gradually and repeatedly exposing them to it. It relies on the principle of extinction from classical conditioning to reduce negative emotional reactions.
Expanded Definition
‘Exposure Therapy’ refers to a well-established behavioral therapeutic approach grounded in the key concept of extinction from classical conditioning – a learning process in psychology. This technique involves deliberate, systematic encounters with a stimulus or situation that induces fear or anxiety in an individual. The ultimate objective of Exposure Therapy is to lessen or entirely diminish the individual’s negative emotional reactions, including fear and anxiety, towards the stimulus. By repeated exposure under controlled conditions and professional guidance, the individual can ‘unlearn’ or ‘extinguish’ their distressing response over time, significantly improving their ability to cope with or face what once caused them distress.
External Locus of Control: ‘External Locus of Control’ refers to the belief that one’s successes or failures are influenced by external factors such as luck or fate rather than one’s own actions or capabilities.
Expanded Definition
‘External Locus of Control’ is a psychological term that describes an individual’s perception of the underlying main factors to their life experiences. Those with an external locus of control tend to attribute their successes or failures to external elements beyond their personal control such as environmental factors, fate, or chance. For instance, if there is a lack of success, instead of attributing it to their own actions and efforts, they believe it is due to external circumstances or influences. This perspective can significantly impact their decision-making processes, their ability to handle stress, and their motivations to take on challenges since they perceive their capacity to influence outcomes as limited.
External Validity: External validity refers to how much a study’s findings can be generalized or applied to other contexts, settings, or populations beyond the initial experimental conditions.
Expanded Definition
External validity is a term in research methodology that refers to the applicability or transferability of the findings of a study outside its immediate context or across different settings, groups, or time frames. It assesses to what degree the outcomes of an experiment align with real-world scenarios. In other words, it evaluates if a study’s outcomes are universally valid, rather than being only applicable to the specific sample, procedures or conditions utilized in the original research. This concept is vital for ensuring the broader relevance and utility of research findings.
Extinction: Extinction is the reduction or cessation of a learned behavior when the triggering stimulus or reinforcement is no longer presented, indicating both the process and outcome of this behavioral change. It results in the learned response diminishing, or being “extinguished”.
Expanded Definition
‘Extinction’ is a term used in the realm of psychology, specifically within the context of learning theories such as classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning. It denotes the process and outcome when a previously learned behavior gradually decreases in intensity or frequency. In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when a conditioned stimulus – a previously neutral trigger that has been taught to evoke a response – is repeatedly presented without the presence of the unconditioned stimulus – the original, naturally occurring trigger. Over time, without the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response gradually weakens until it’s no longer noticeable. In instrumental conditioning, extinction happens when a certain behavior, previously reinforced either by rewards or punishments, ceases to receive such reinforcement. As a consequence, the occurrence of this behavior begins to decrease over time and may eventually cease. Hence, any behavior whose intensity has been dampened through this radical shift in circumstances is said to have been “extinguished.” This term represents both the process (cessation of stimulus or reinforcement) and the result (diminishment or end of the learned response).
Extrasensory Perception: Extrasensory Perception, often abbreviated as ESP, refers to the contentious idea of gaining information not through the known senses, but via a form of perception beyond the traditional five senses, encompassing phenomena like telepathy and precognition.
Expanded Definition
“Extrasensory Perception (ESP) refers to the contentious assertion of obtaining information beyond what is traditionally acquired through the five recognized senses: sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. Those supportive of ESP maintain that individuals are capable of acquiring insight by transcending the typical sensory boundaries. The ESP phenomena is often broken down into three categories: Telepathy – the supposed communication of thoughts or ideas by means outside the known senses, Clairvoyance – the reported ability to gain information about an object, person, location, or event through means other than the physical senses, and Precognition – the purported ability to perceive or predict future events before they occur. However, it’s critical to note that the existence and validity of ESP are not universally recognized or supported within the scientific community.”
Extraversion: Extraversion is the inclination towards outgoingness, sociability and a commanding presence, marked by enjoying company of others and frequent communication.
Expanded Definition
Extraversion is a widely recognized personality trait that is primarily characterized by energy derived from social interactions, a propensity for engaging communication, an enjoyment for being in the company of others, and a prevailing social confidence. Individuals with high levels of extraversion often exhibit a robust social presence, a talkative demeanor, and a dominant style in interpersonal interactions. These individuals habitually seek out congenial activities, take pleasure in bustling environments, and thrive on external stimulation. They are essentially outgoing by nature and are comfortably assertive, paving the way for strong societal participation and leadership presence.
Extravert: An extravert is an individual who focuses on external stimuli, engaging actively with their surroundings and deriving energy from social interactions.
Expanded Definition
An extravert, in the field of psychology, is traditionally defined as an individual driven by external stimuli, including relationships and interactions with others, and tends to exhibit outgoing behavior. Such individuals typically gain energy from being around others, feel comfortable in social situations, and enjoy engaging in various group activities. Their mental and emotional state is often significantly shaped by the environment and social dynamics they are part of.
Extrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic motivation refers to the drive arising from anticipated rewards or outcomes linked with accomplishing a task. It’s essentially motivation driven by external rewards or consequences.
Expanded Definition
Extrinsic Motivation refers to the driving factor that fuels behavioral actions based on explicit rewards or recompenses external to the person. The key drivers of these motivations are typically tangible rewards like money, certificates, or recognition, or intangible benefits such as praise or a sense of accomplishment. The commitment to attain a goal underlies this sort of motivation and is crucially induced by perceived benefits that go beyond personal satisfaction or fulfilment.

F

Facets: ‘Facets’ refer to the detailed, foundational elements that make up one’s personality traits.
Expanded Definition
‘Facets’ within the context of personality psychology, are the distinct and finer dimensions or units of a broader personality trait that provide a more detailed analysis of that trait. They represent the branching aspects or various attributes of an overarching personality characteristic, allowing for profound insight into the nuances and specifics of an individual’s behavior and inner inclinations. By focusing on these facets, psychologists can advance beyond generalizations and achieve greater precision in understanding and predicting human behavior.
Facial Feedback Hypothesis: The Facial Feedback Hypothesis suggests that our own facial expressions have the power to influence our emotional states, meaning the action of smiling can induce feelings of happiness.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Facial Feedback Hypothesis’ is a psychological theory suggesting that the actions of your facial musculature have the ability to influence your emotional state. According to this theory, when you manipulate your facial muscles into expressions associated with specific emotions, such as smiles or frowns, it can in turn generate the associated emotional response. For example, the act of smiling, even deliberately, can potentially engender feelings of happiness or joy. This hypothesis underscores the interconnectedness of our physiological and mental states, proposing a systematic feedback loop where our body’s expression of an emotion can invoke the same emotional experience in our mind.
Factor Analysis: Factor Analysis is a statistical technique used to identify a few unobservable variables, or factors, that explain the correlation patterns among a set of observable variables in a larger system.
Expanded Definition
‘Factor Analysis’ is a sophisticated statistical procedure that enables researchers to investigate and quantify the potential underlying structure within a large and complex set of observed variables or data points. Through this process, the aim is to reduce the dimensions of these data points into a smaller set of factors, which are an amalgamation of the original variables. Essentially, Factor Analysis helps researchers discern if few core constructs could explain the variations and correlations among a much larger pool of measured variables. This technique often assists in sharpening our understanding of complex trends, identifying relationships between variables, and asserting more definitive cause-effect conclusions within the realms of sectors like psychology, sociology, business, marketing, and many more.
Facts: Facts are verifiable, objective statements validated through empirical research.
Expanded Definition
‘Facts’ are defined as statements that hold an objective truth, validated and established as accurate through empirical research. Empirical research involves the use of observation or experience, often documented and measured via case studies, experiments, or surveys. In short, a fact is an indisputable truth that has been scrutinized and verified using systematic methods of data collection and analysis in the realm of factual inquiry.
False Memories: False memories are recollections of events that did not really happen, typically instilled through experimentation or other techniques.
Expanded Definition
‘False Memories’ are inaccurately recalled events that are perceived as real memories. These often result from various factors such as experimental manipulation, suggestive comments, or misleading information that distort an individual’s recollection of events, even to the extent of generating the memory of an event that never actually occurred. It is a psychological phenomenon underlining the fallibility and malleability of human memory. This understanding can significantly influence studies related to cognitive psychology, legal cases, mental health therapies, and various aspects of daily life, emphasizing the importance of accurate and unbiased information in shaping our memories.
False-Belief Test: A False-Belief Test is a scientific method used to determine if an individual can comprehend that others might hold beliefs inconsistent to factual events or truths.
Expanded Definition
A False-Belief Test is a methodical approach used in cognitive and developmental psychology; its purpose is to ascertain an individual’s understanding of the fact that someone else may hold a belief that is erroneous, and does not align with objective reality. Essentially, it evaluates a person’s theory of mind, which is the ability to comprehend and consider the mental states, perspectives, and beliefs of others that may differ from one’s own or from factual truth.
Falsified Data (or Faked Data): Falsified data refers to intentionally fabricated data, misrepresented as accurate research results, constituting a significant ethical violation and potential legal infringement.
Expanded Definition
‘Falsified Data’, often referred to as ‘Faked Data’, are information or research findings that have been intentionally distorted or invented by a researcher or data analyst. The objective behind this deceptive act is usually to present inaccurate or manipulated results as credible and accurate. This not only constitutes a severe breach of professional and ethical standards, but can also attract legal penalties depending on the jurisdiction, due to the potential harm such misinformation may cause to stakeholders relying on this data for crucial decision-making. This conduct is deemed unacceptable in any data-driven field, including science, finance, policy-making, amongst others.
Family Study: Family Study is a research approach that involves tracing a specific trait, like a developmental disorder, from an index individual across their family tree to ascertain its prevalence in the familial lineage.
Expanded Definition
“Family Study” refers to a systematic approach often used in genetic research and psychology, which commences with a single individual exhibiting a specific attribute or condition of interest, such as a developmental or genetic disorder like autism. The study then extends to the examination of the person’s familial lineage. The aim is to ascertain the prevalence or pattern of the same trait or condition among other family members. This assists in identifying hereditary patterns or environmental influences, providing significant insights into the genetics, inheritance, and dynamics of that particular trait.
Family Therapy: Family Therapy refers to a therapeutic practice where families engage with a professional therapist, often triggered by a specific issue concerning an individual member.
Expanded Definition
Family Therapy refers to a therapeutic approach that brings together family members to engage in sessions with a trained therapist. This method is predicated on the belief that individual issues and familial conflicts can be more effectively resolved within the context of the family unit, recognizing its integral role in shaping and influencing members’ behavior and emotional health. In some circumstances, these therapy sessions may be initiated by challenges or problems primarily associated with a specific family member. However, the ultimate goal is to mend relationships, improve communication, and foster a positive family dynamic, not merely to address one person’s issue. The set-up promotes understanding, empathy, and supportive actions among family members, driving positive changes that can lead to lasting relational health and personal growth.
Farsighted: Farsightedness, or hyperopia, is a refractive error where light rays entering the eye are focused behind the retina instead of directly on it, often due to the eye being shorter than normal.
Expanded Definition
“Farsightedness”, medically known as hyperopia, is a common vision condition where an individual has difficulty focusing on nearby objects, while distant objects can be seen clearly. This happens because the light entering the eye focuses behind the retina, not directly on it. The root cause is typically a cornea with too little curvature or an eye that is shorter than normal. This incorrect bending or refracting of light signals causes blurry or strained vision when looking at close-range objects or during activities like reading. Consequently, this condition often demands vision correction through eyeglasses, contact lenses, or refractive surgery.
Fear Conditioning: Fear conditioning is a behavioral paradigm wherein a neutral stimulus becomes fear-inducing when consistently paired with an unpleasant event, playing a significant role in anxiety disorder onset.
Expanded Definition
“Fear conditioning” is a concept rooted in behavioral psychology that involves the method of classical, or Pavlovian, conditioning. In this process, a neutral stimulus, referred to as the conditioned stimulus (CS), is paired with a negative, or aversive, unconditioned stimulus (US) – an example of which could be an electric shock to the foot. Through repeated pairings, an association is formed between the two stimuli. As a result, the previously neutral stimulus eventually elicits a fear response on its own, having been linked with the negative experience. This technique is vital in understanding how fear-based memories are encoded and may play a significant role in the onset of anxiety disorders in humans, as it can mimic how we might learn to fear certain situations or objects that have previously been associated with a negative or traumatic event.
Feature Detector Neurons: Feature Detector Neurons are neurons in the visual cortex that activate in response to specific elements of a visual input, like the shape, motion, or edge of an object.
Expanded Definition
‘Feature Detector Neurons’ are uniquely programmed neurons, predominantly found in the visual cortex of the brain, that are intricately involved in visual perception. These particular neurons react to specific attributes of visual stimulus such as the intensity, angular direction, geometric patterns, boundaries, and dynamism. They hence play a significant role in interpreting the external visual environment by processing intricate details of viewed objects and their movements, thereby enabling us to understand and react to our surrounding world.
Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects: The Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects is a legislative framework derived from the Belmont Report, directing the execution of research, endorsed or regulated by the U.S government.
Expanded Definition
The “Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects,” also known as the Common Rule, is a comprehensive regulatory framework based on principles set forth in the Belmont Report. It governs the ethical conduct of research involving human subjects, which is carried out, funded, or otherwise overseen by U.S. federal agencies. The policy establishes stringent standards to uphold the basic rights, welfare, and dignity of participants in such studies, and encompasses crucial elements like informed consent, risk-benefit assessments, and the constitution of review boards.
Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon: The ‘Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon’ refers to the propensity of individuals to perform kind or helpful actions when they are experiencing positive emotions.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon’ is a psychological principle that refers to the increased likelihood of individuals engaging in pro-social behaviors, such as acts of kindness, generosity, or assistance towards others, when they are experiencing a positive emotional state. This phenomenon underscores the connection between personal emotional well-being and propensity for altruistic behavior. In other words, when people are in a favorable emotional condition, they are more likely to exhibit charitable actions and contribute positively to the well-being of others.
Feeling Function: The ‘Feeling Function’ refers to the emotional aspect of one’s cognitive processes, often associated with fostering a sense of connection, warmth and creativity.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Feeling Function’ is a term used in psychology, particularly in the context of Carl Jung’s theories and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). This term goes beyond the simplistic definitions of being ‘creative, warm, and intimate.’ Rather, it refers to one of the fundamental ways in which an individual perceives, processes and evaluates their world. The Feeling Function is characterized by decision-making processes that give precedence to emotions, empathy, harmony, and moral values. Individuals with a dominant Feeling Function tend to prioritize interpersonal relations, often placing a high value on the emotional impact of their decisions on others. While indeed associated with warmth and intimacy due to its relational nature, it also involves a nuanced and complex web of emotional understandings and responses. This function is also creative as it encompasses a rich and diverse range of human emotions, enabling the individual to navigate through various social scenarios using empathy and consideration for others’ feelings.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) is a disorder resulting from prenatal alcohol exposure, causing a range of developmental impairments.
Expanded Definition
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) is a medical condition resulting from the consumption of alcohol by the mother during pregnancy. This prenatal exposure to alcohol can lead to a broad spectrum of developmental issues in the offspring. These effects can range from physical abnormalities, including characteristic facial features, growth deficits and neurological problems, to cognitive impairment disrupting learning and behavioral functioning. The condition is permanent, affecting the individual throughout their lifespan. It emphasizes the critical importance of abstaining from alcohol during pregnancy to mitigate potential risks to the fetus.
Fetus: A fetus refers to the developmental stage of a human from the ninth week post-conception until birth.
Expanded Definition
A ‘fetus’ is a scientific term used to describe a stage in human development. This term specifically refers to the period from the ninth week after fertilization of the egg (conception) until the moment of birth. During this phase, significant growth and maturation of the organism occur, preparing it for life outside the womb. Key physiological structures, such as organs and tissues, will form or finalize their development during this critical timeframe. Thus, the designation ‘fetus’ represents a distinct and crucial stage in the continuum of human biological development.
Fight-or-Flight Response: The fight-or-flight response is a physiological reaction to perceived threats, priming the body for immediate action by increasing heart rate, blood flow, and adrenaline release.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Fight-or-Flight Response’, also known as the acute stress response, is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival. When faced with such a situation, your body prepares to either confront the danger (‘fight’) or escape it (‘flight’). This response is mediated by the autonomic nervous system which releases adrenaline, promoting rapid action by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and energy supplies. Concurrently, senses are heightened and physical changes like rapid breathing, dilation of pupils, and slowing of digestion occur. While typically associated with immediate physical threats, this response can also be triggered by psychological stressors, preparing your body for immediate reaction and enhancing your capacity to perform under pressure. This inherent ‘alarm system’ response is critical for survival, ensuring we are prepared to effectively respond to emergency scenarios.
Figure Ground: ‘Figure Ground’ refers to the principle of visual perception where the focal point of a visual image (figure) is distinguished from the rest of the visual scene (ground).
Expanded Definition
‘Figure-Ground’ refers to the perception principle which involves the segmentation of visual information into ‘figure’ and ‘ground’. The ‘figure’ represents the main object or entities in the visual field that are of principal interest, thus drawing immediate attention due to their outstanding properties. Conversely, the ‘ground’ is the backdrop or surrounding elements that help amplify the figure by providing contrast or context. This concept plays a pivotal role in understanding how humans perceive and prioritize visual stimuli, forming the basis of focus and attention in a complex visual environment.
Fitness: Fitness is the measure of an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce more effectively due to a specific characteristic, compared to others of the same species lacking this trait.
Expanded Definition
Fitness, in the realm of biology, refers to an organism’s ability to survive, reproduce, and pass on its genes successfully, particularly in comparison with other members of its species. This ability is often linked to specific characteristics or traits that the organism has. If a particular characteristic enhances an organism’s potential to live longer, reproduce more, and better ensure its offspring’s survival, this contributes to what is termed as its ‘fitness’. This leads to a greater representation of these favorable traits in succeeding generations, a fundamental concept underpinning the process of natural selection. Thus, the term ‘fitness’ essentially encapsulates an organism’s reproductive success in its environment, influenced by its unique genetic makeup.
Fixation: Fixation is the cognitive hindrance where one is unable to view a problem differently or use new mental strategies. It denotes the lack of flexibility in problem-solving approach.
Expanded Definition
‘Fixation’, in the context of problem-solving and cognitive psychology, can be more accurately defined as ‘a persistent impediment to problem-solving or innovation, characterized by an individual’s inability to deviate from a certain mindset or perspective. This restricts their capacity to approach issues in a novel or different manner, often resulting in a narrowed focus and limited creative and critical thinking.’
Fixed-Interval Schedule: A fixed-interval schedule refers to a strategy in operant conditioning where a reward or reinforcement is given only after a set period has passed.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Fixed-Interval Schedule’ is a concept rooted in the field of behavioral psychology, specifically within the realm of operant conditioning. This method of conditioning involves offering a reinforcement or reward following a specific time period. Here, ‘Fixed’ refers to the time-based consistency, and ‘Interval’ denotes the passing of time. Thus, a behavior is reinforced not by how many times the behavior is exhibited, but rather by the span of time that elapses between reinforcements. Simply put, the reinforcement arrives after a predetermined, consistent duration, regardless of how many times the behavior happens within that time frame.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule: A fixed-ratio schedule is a principle in operant conditioning where a reinforcement is given after a certain set number of responses, fostering consistent behavior.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Fixed-Ratio Schedule’ is a term derived from the field of psychology, particularly under operant conditioning — a learning process where behavior is modified by its consequences. In this schedule, a subject, such as a person or animal, receives reinforcement only after a set, predefined number of specific actions or responses are made. This type of schedule is often leveraged in conditioning and training exercises, playing a critical role in shaping behavior where a consistent response rate is desired. The predictability of reinforcement in a fixed-ratio schedule makes it useful in both educational and therapeutic contexts.
Flashbulb Memory: Flashbulb memory is a distinct, intensely vivid recollection of learning about a significant, often emotional event, which an individual believes they remember with high clarity.
Expanded Definition
‘Flashbulb Memory’ is a psychological term indicating an individual’s ability to vividly recollect their unique personal experience upon receiving news of a highly significant, typically unexpected, and often emotionally charged event. These memories boast a striking degree of clarity, detail, and emotional resonance, and typically involve events that carry significant personal or societal implications. As such, individuals tend to confidently believe in their accurate recall of these memories. However, the accuracy of these memories can still be susceptible to the natural processes of forgetting and distortion over time.
Flexible Correction Model: The Flexible Correction Model is a cognitive process where individuals adjust their biased beliefs and evaluations once they identify the biasing factors, thereby realigning their judgments to a more objective standpoint.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Flexible Correction Model’ is a psychological concept that highlights an individual’s capacity to alter their beliefs and assessments if they perceive there’s an inherent bias in their initial judgment. For instance, if an individual discerns that their positive evaluation of a day was largely influenced by the sunny weather, they can modify this original judgment to account for the influential factor, in this case, the weather. This model emphasizes the flexibility of human cognition, reflecting our capacity to reassess our perspectives and rectify potential biases for a more accurate understanding of our experiences and perceptions.
Flooding: Flooding is a therapy method where the patient is immediately exposed to their fear source to lessen the impact over time.
Expanded Definition
‘Flooding’ is a term utilized within the domain of psychological therapy, specifically within the paradigm of exposure therapy for treating anxiety disorders and phobias. In this therapeutic technique, a client is intensely and abruptly subjected to the stimuli or situations that induce fear or anxiety in him or her. The objective behind this methodology is to enable the client to directly confront their fears, ultimately aiming to reduce or completely alleviate the pathologic anxiety response. This approach is based on the principle of ‘habituation,’ which posits that continuous exposure to a fear-inducing element will eventually cause the individual to become desensitized to it, lessen the fear response, and promote adaptive coping mechanisms.
Flourish: “Flourish” refers to a state of thriving or developing in a healthy or vigorous way.
Expanded Definition
“Flourish” is generally defined as the ability or capacity to experience robust growth, thrive, and perform optimally within one’s respective environment or sphere. It denotes not just survival, but thriving, marked by ongoing, dynamic engagement and positive development. Flourishing could refer to an individual, a society, or any system, indicating that they are reaching and often surpassing their full potential.
Flow: ‘Flow’ is a pinnacle state of functioning wherein an individual performs at their highest capability, often demonstrated by seamless progression of tasks or activities.
Expanded Definition
‘Flow’ can be comprehensively defined as a mental state of deep focus and immersion in a particular activity, wherein an individual showcases peak performance. During this state, the person blends concentration and active participation so seamlessly that time may appear to either slow down or speed up. Efficiency and productivity are greatly increased, leading to the optimized performance of the task at hand. It often involves a feeling of personal fulfillment and reward, making the experience enjoyable and worthwhile. This state, referred to as ‘flow’, was conceptualized by psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and is frequently associated with creative and professional fields, but can be experienced during a broad range of activities.
Fluid Intelligence: Fluid intelligence is the cognitive ability to swiftly process and analyze new information, and adaptively apply this in problem-solving and unfamiliar tasks.
Expanded Definition
Fluid Intelligence refers to an individual’s innate cognitive capacity to rapidly and effectively process, assimilate, and interpret unfamiliar and abstract information. It is the mental ability involved in reasoning, problem-solving, and learning. Unlike crystallized intelligence which is rooted in prior knowledge and experience, fluid intelligence involves the utilization of cognitive skills and strategies to find novel solutions and approaches to unfamiliar challenges or tasks. This concept is integral in environments requiring agility, adaptability, and innovative thinking, allowing individuals to address new issues without relying on prior known solutions.
Flynn Effect: The ‘Flynn Effect’ refers to the significant global rise in intelligence test scores over recent decades.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Flynn Effect’ refers to a notable sociological phenomenon observed in various regions globally. This term originated from the work of James Flynn, who noted a steady and significant rise in scores on standardized intelligence tests from generation to generation over the last century. Essentially, the Flynn Effect postulates that the average intelligence quotient (IQ) of populations increases by approximately 3 points per decade, demonstrating a consistent improvement in cognitive abilities over time. These augmentations in intelligence scores may reflect chronological advancements in educational systems, nutritional improvements, increased exposure to technology, and overall enhanced cognitive stimulation. However, the theory is subject to ongoing research and debates regarding its causes and implications.
Foils: ‘Foils’ refers to individuals in a lineup, excluding the suspect, either in person or in photos presented during an investigation.
Expanded Definition
‘Foils’ are traditionally defined as individuals included in a lineup, either in person or photographically, with the exception of the primary suspect. These individuals serve as controls or comparatives, intended to ensure the reliability and accuracy of a witness’s identification. The purpose of a foil is to avoid implicating an innocent suspect by preventing false identifications, thereby providing a fair and balanced judicial process.
Foot In The Door Technique: The ‘Foot In The Door Technique’ is a psychological strategy that involves gaining a person’s agreement on a smaller request first, which increases their likelihood to consent to a subsequent larger request.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Foot In The Door Technique’ is a psychological persuasion tactic primarily utilized in sales and marketing areas. It operates on the principle that gaining an individual’s agreement to a minor request or commitment initially leads to an increased likelihood of them acceding to a more substantial demand later on. This technique leverages the psychological concept of consistency, where individuals prefer to maintain harmony in their attitudes and behaviors. Thus, having assented to a smaller request, they are more inclined to agree to larger ones to maintain a consistent self-image.
Forgiveness: Forgiveness is the process allowing relationships to heal from harm caused by an individual’s misconduct.
Expanded Definition
‘Forgiveness’ is an essential psychological concept, commonly defined as a conscious, deliberate decision to release feelings of resentment or vengeance toward an individual or group who has harmed or offended. This process does not simply negate or overlook the act of offense but instead cultivates an environment for healing and reconciliation. It paves the way for damaged relationships to potentially recover, stimulating growth and fostering understanding. Despite the negative incident, forgiveness allows for the continuity of relations, emphasizing on the human capacity for empathy, compassion, and emotional maturity.
Formal Operational Stage: The Formal Operational Stage refers to the developmental phase where individuals can engage in abstract reasoning and utilise scientific and philosophical thinking.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Formal Operational Stage’ is defined as a phase in human cognitive development, typically occurring from adolescence and extending into adulthood, identified by the capability to process abstract concepts and employ complex reasoning. This stage is distinguished by the capacity to think hypothetically, speculate about possibilities, use logical thought processes, and grasp higher-level academic concepts such as science and philosophy. It’s during this period that individuals move beyond concrete experiences or objects as they learn and explore more sophisticated, abstract and theoretical levels of comprehension and problem-solving.
Four-Branch Model: The Four-Branch Model, by Drs. Salovey and Mayer, is a hierarchical emotional intelligence framework involving four foundations: emotion perception, using emotion for thinking, emotion understanding, and emotion management.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Four-Branch Model’ is a conceptual framework for emotional intelligence (EI), meticulously developed by renowned psychologists Dr. Peter Salovey and Dr. John Mayer. This model consists of four primary elements, each representing key aspects of EI. These elements are hierarchically arranged, moving from foundational psychological processes to more complex and integrated ones. 1) Perception of emotion: This marks the first and most elementary aspect of the model, referring to an individual’s capacity to accurately identify and express their own emotions and those of others. 2) Use of emotion to facilitate thinking: The second level involves leveraging emotions to enhance cognitive processes. This involves harnessing your emotional states to support and improve problem-solving, decision making, creativity and other mental functions. 3) Understanding Emotion: The third branch involves comprehending the causes and consequences of emotions, understanding the complexities of emotional language, and discerning the transitions among different emotions. 4) Management of Emotion: The final and most complex level refers to the ability to regulate emotions effectively in oneself and others. This involves managing emotional reactions in various circumstances, applying effective strategies for self-regulation and improving interpersonal relationships through empathetic management of other’s emotions. This model provides a comprehensive layout, illustrating the progressive development of emotional intelligence from basic recognition to the sophisticated application and management of emotions.
Fovea: The fovea is the precise area in the retina where visual acuity is highest.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Fovea’ is a specialized region situated in the center of the retina, a thin layer at the back of the eye. It has a high concentration of cone cells, the photoreceptors responsible for color vision and high-resolution spatial acuity. This region is responsible for sharp, detailed central vision, crucial for tasks like reading, driving, and recognizing facial details. The fovea’s distinct anatomy and cellular composition make it exceptionally sensitive to light, enabling the highest degree of image resolution.
Framing: ‘Framing’ refers to the influence of presentation on perception, where the way information is conveyed can systematically bias understanding, even when the facts remain unchanged.
Expanded Definition
“Framing” is a cognitive bias that refers to the way individuals’ perceptions and decisions can be significantly influenced by how information is presented, even when the objective content of the information remains unchanged. This can lead to different interpretations based on the frame or context within which this information is communicated, thus affecting subsequent actions or choices. Framing is widely recognized and studied in fields like psychology, communication, and economics, due to its critical impact on behaviour, decision-making, and understanding.
Fraternal Twins: Fraternal twins are siblings conceived simultaneously from two separate eggs and sperm. Although genetically akin to regular siblings, they share the same prenatal environment.
Expanded Definition
‘Fraternal Twins’ refer to a type of twinning where two distinct eggs are fertilized by two distinct sperm. Unlike identical twins, who share the same genetic composition, fraternal twins essentially have the same degree of genetic relatedness as regular siblings. What sets fraternal twins apart is that they share the same maternal environment at the same time—essentially, they concurrently develop in their mother’s womb during a single pregnancy.
Free Association: Free Association is a psychotherapy technique where the client freely expresses thoughts and feelings without self-censorship, allowing the therapist to gain insight into unconscious processes.
Expanded Definition
‘Free Association’ is a psychoanalytical technique often used in therapy, where the therapist encourages the client to express their thoughts, feelings or ideas in a free-flowing, unconstrained manner. The client is asked to speak without attempting to organize or censor their thoughts in any way. This method aims to reveal unconscious thoughts and emotions, aiding in identifying potential sources of psychological stress or conflict. The therapist’s role is to listen, interpret, and help the client understand these often hidden aspects of their psyche, thereby promoting psychological healing and personal growth.
Frequency: Frequency is the count of sound waves arriving per second, inversely related to the wavelength, and is measured in Hertz.
Expanded Definition
‘Frequency’ is a fundamental characteristic of a wave, notably a sound wave. However, the provided definition conflates it with ‘wavelength,’ another key term. Rather than defining the wave’s length, frequency actually refers to the number of wave cycles that occur in one second. It’s quantified in Hertz (Hz), with one Hz equalling one cycle per second. Unlike wavelength, which is about the physical distance of a wave, frequency is about the passage of time, specifically how often a wave peaks within a given period. The frequency of a sound wave correlates with our perception of pitch; a higher frequency leads to a higher perceived pitch, while a lower frequency results in a lower pitch.
Frequency Theory: Frequency Theory posits that the pitch we perceive corresponds to the rate of auditory nerve impulses, matching the tone’s frequency.
Expanded Definition
‘Frequency Theory’ refers to one of the prominent theories in auditory perception which posits that our understanding of a sound’s pitch directly correlates with the rate at which the auditory nerve transmits neural signals to the brain. In simpler terms, this theory suggests that we perceive the pitch of a tone based on how fast these auditory nerve impulses are traveling. Higher frequency sounds result in faster nerve impulses, and thereby, we perceive them as higher in pitch. Conversely, lower frequency sounds result in slower nerve impulses, making them seem lower in pitch. As such, Frequency Theory can help explain our ability to distinguish between different pitches in the realm of sound perception.
Frequency Theory of Hearing: The Frequency Theory of Hearing suggests the pitch of a sound wave determines the frequency of nerve impulses sent to the auditory nerve. Essentially, each sound pitch triggers a matching nerve impulse frequency.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Frequency Theory of Hearing’ is a well-regarded concept in the realm of auditory perception and neuroscience. This theory posits that the pitch or tone of a sound wave is directly attributable to the frequency of nerve impulses transmitted to the auditory nerve. In simpler terms, it suggests that our perception of a sound’s pitch is determined by the rate or speed at which the auditory nerve receives electrical signals. The faster these impulses are sent, the higher the perceived pitch, and vice versa. Essentially, according to this theory, one’s auditory system decodes the vibrational frequency of sound waves into nerve impulses that mirror these frequencies, thus enabling one’s brain to interpret diverse sound pitches.
Frontal Lobe: The frontal lobe, situated behind the forehead, manages motor skills, abstract thought processes and verbal expression.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Frontal Lobe’ is a critical region of the human brain positioned anterior to the central sulcus and behind the forehead. It is sometimes identified as the motor cortex given that it facilitates various motor skills. This lobe performs a wide array of complex functions, making it essential for human cognitive processes. It plays a fundamental role in facilitating higher-level cognition which involves thought processing, strategic planning, and memory functioning. Furthermore, it’s instrumental in judgment formation by evaluating and deciphering information, thereby guiding decision-making processes. Also on its repertoire of crucial duties is the control of expressive language, enabling individuals to articulate and express themselves verbally.
Frustration-Aggression Principle: The Frustration-Aggression Principle is a psychological concept suggesting that obstacles towards goals spur anger, potentially leading to aggressive behavior.
Expanded Definition
The Frustration-Aggression Principle refers to a psychological theory positing that frustration, which is perceived as the obstruction of progress towards a desired goal, leads to feelings of anger. This emotional state can, in turn, instigate aggressive behavior. The principle suggests a clear causal link between frustration and aggression: when individuals are impeded from achieving their objectives, they can experience emotional distress, often manifested as anger. This condition may then act as a precursor or catalyst for aggression as the individuals seek to overcome the obstacles blocking their goal-achievement. Importantly, not every occurrence of frustration leads directly to aggression, as the reaction can be mediated by various other psychological and situational factors.
Functional Fixedness: Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that restricts a person’s ability to use an object beyond its conventional function, inhibiting creative problem-solving.
Expanded Definition
“Functional Fixedness” is a cognitive bias referring to the tendency of individuals to perceive the functions of objects or processes as unchangeable and fixed, based on their customary use or traditional practices. This implies a restricted framework for understanding the versatility of an object, thereby limiting the potential for creative problem-solving. People with functional fixedness are often unable to use resources in innovative ways due to their preconceived schemas or mental structures that shape their understanding and interpretation.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) is a brain scanning method that crafts images of neural activity through detecting variations in blood flow across different brain regions, leveraging magnetic fields.
Expanded Definition
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, often abbreviated as fMRI, is a sophisticated neuroimaging technique that relies on the use of magnetic fields and radio waves to generate detailed images of the brain. It does so by detecting changes in blood oxygenation and flow that correspond to neural activity – when a brain area is more active it consumes more oxygen, hence more blood flows into that region. By linking brain activity with specific tasks, it allows scientists and physicians to observe functional brain activity, understand the brain’s intricate processes, explore mental and neurological conditions, and even discover how the brain handles certain tasks. In simple terms, it helps to create a ‘live map’ of the active brain, providing insights into both the health and function of various brain regions.
Functionalism (or School of Functionalism): Functionalism is a psychological approach that emphasizes understanding the evolutionary purpose of human and animal mental processes and behavior. It aims to figure out how such aspects contribute to survival or adaptation.
Expanded Definition
Functionalism, also known as the School of Functionalism, is a prominent theoretical perspective within the field of psychology. Its primary objective is to comprehend the reasons behind the evolution and development of certain psychological attributes in humans and animals. The theory suggests that these mental properties have been shaped over time due to their functional roles and adaptability to specific environments and situations, contributing to survival and reproduction. Consequently, this approach to psychology underscores the biological and social implications of cognitive and behavioural traits which are examined in terms of their practical use and effectiveness.
Fundamental Attribution Error: The Fundamental Attribution Error refers to our tendency to ascribe individuals’ behaviors to their intrinsic character traits, often disregarding external situational factors.
Expanded Definition
The term “Fundamental Attribution Error” refers to the cognitive bias in which we tend to excessively attribute an individual’s observed behavior or actions to their inherent personality or character traits, rather than considering external situational factors that might be influencing that behavior. This results in a tendency to underestimate the influence of situational social, environmental, or circumstantial variables, and overestimate the role and impact of personal characteristics and dispositions when interpreting or explaining others’ behavior. This common cognitive lapse is a central concept in social psychology that reveals implicit biases in our perception and social judgements.

G

Gamification: Gamification is the application of gaming elements like rewards, competition, and achievements to ordinary activities to encourage behavior change.
Expanded Definition
Gamification refers to the strategic and innovative technique increasingly employed today to influence and alter behaviors by infusing certain elements typically associated with games into non-gaming activities. This approach harnesses the motivating factors inherent in gameplay, such as engaging prompts, the thrill of competition, the recognition of achievements through badges, and the gratification of rewards. By incorporating these elements, ordinary tasks or activities become more intriguing, interactive, and rewarding, thereby prompting improved participation, engagement, or performance. This methodology is often employed in diverse fields such as marketing, education, and workplace productivity, with the aim to enhance user experience and encourage desired behaviors.
Gate Control Theory of Pain: The Gate Control Theory suggests that pain perception is regulated by a gating system of nerve fibers in the spinal cord, controlling pain signals sent to the brain.
Expanded Definition
The Gate Control Theory of Pain is a scientific theory that provides an explanation for the psychological perception of pain. It postulates that the experience of pain is not simply a direct result of activating pain-sensing nerves, but instead it is modulated by interplay between two types of nerve fibers in the spinal cord. These two types include the thin, slow-conducting nerve fibers, which transmit pain signals, and the thick, fast-conducting nerve fibers, which inhibit these signals. The ‘gate control’ aspect of the theory signifies that there is a “gate” mechanism in the spinal cord that can either let pain signals pass onto the brain if the gate is ‘open’, or block them if the gate is ‘closed’. This interplay or balance can occur due to a variety of factors, including the relative amount of activity in these nerve fibers, and psychological factors such as attention or emotional state. Therefore, one’s perception of pain is a complex mixture of both physiological and psychological components. The Gate Control Theory, hence, helped to revolutionize our understanding of pain, its management and treatment procedures.
Gender: Gender is the sociocultural and psychological attributes linked to the concepts of masculinity and femininity.
Expanded Definition
‘Gender’ is a term fundamentally denoting the range of characteristics, roles, and expectations inherently tied to the constructs of masculinity and femininity. These characteristics and constructs are deeply embedded in and shaped by various social, cultural, and psychological frameworks. Unlike biological sex which is typically categorized as male or female based on physical attributes, gender refers to the broader spectrum of identities that an individual may identify with, influenced by their personal experiences, societal norms, and cultural values. This spectrum includes identities such as male, female, transgender, gender-neutral, and others, substantiating the fluid and multidimensional nature of gender identity.
Gender Constancy: Gender constancy is the childhood realization, typically by age three, that one’s gender remains fixed and unaffected by external modifications.
Expanded Definition
‘Gender Constancy’ is an established psychological term referring to a critical stage in a child’s development, usually around three years of age, where they gain the ability to correctly identify their personal gender. This concept also encompasses the understanding that one’s gender remains constant over time and isn’t altered by changes in external factors or appearances. Essentially, a child realizes that changing superficial traits such as clothing or hairstyle does not change their inherent gender identity.
Gender Discrimination: Gender discrimination refers to the unfair or unequal treatment of individuals or groups based on their gender. It’s the practice of giving preferential treatment based on one’s gender while ignoring their skills or capabilities.
Expanded Definition
‘Gender Discrimination’ is formally represented as the occurrence of unequal or prejudiced treatment based on an individual’s gender. This concept involves the unjust or biased practices that favor one gender over another and can manifest in various environments such as workplace, educational settings, or social interactions. These discriminatory actions may encompass multiple forms like pay disparity, unequal opportunities, stereotyped roles, or biased attitudes and can have significant implications for the person experiencing it, including emotional distress and limited progression in personal and professional facets of life.
Gender Identity: Gender identity is an individual’s inner understanding of whether they align themselves as male or female.
Expanded Definition
“Gender Identity” is a term that denotes an individual’s deeply held sense and personal experience of their gender, which may or may not correspond with their sex assigned at birth. This personal perception can be as male, female, a combination of both, or neither. Rather than being strictly linked with physical attributes, gender identity is more closely aligned with the subjective, internal understanding of one’s gender alignment.
Gender Roles: Gender roles are expectations by a society or culture about how individuals should behave, think, and feel based on their biological sex, categorized as either masculine or feminine.
Expanded Definition
‘Gender Roles’ can be more expertly defined as the set of socially constructed norms, practices, and expectations that influence behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits traditionally attributed to and perceived as masculine or feminine within a specific society or culture. This concept not only has a significant influence on individual and group interactions but also shapes personal identities and societal structure. It’s notable to mention, however, that what’s considered ‘masculine’ or ‘feminine’ can greatly vary across different cultures and times, reflecting the fluidity of these concepts.
Gender Schema Theory: ‘Gender Schema Theory’ posits that children are proactive learners, developing their understanding of gender roles and identities by absorbing and assimilating societal cues and behavioral norms into cognitive schemas or frameworks.
Expanded Definition
‘Gender Schema Theory’ refers to the psychological framework that emphasizes the integral role that children play in their own socialization process. According to this theory, children are active learners who absorb, categorize, and develop beliefs about gender roles and behaviors from an early age. They construct a mental framework, or ‘schema,’ regarding what it means to be male or female in their society. This schema, heavily influenced by societal norms, cultural practices, and individual experiences, guides their understanding of gender, impacting their attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors relating to gender roles.
Gender Stereotypes: ‘Gender Stereotypes’ are preconceived notions about the typical traits, preferences, and actions commonly attributed to males and females.
Expanded Definition
‘Gender Stereotypes’ refer to the societal and culturally ingrained preconceptions and assumptions about the attributes, roles, interests, and behaviors conventionally associated with men and women. These stereotypes typically categorize men and women into fixed binary identities based on their perceived ‘norms,’ often disregarding individual differences and non-binary gender identities. Such stereotypes can influence individuals’ perceptions, actions, opportunities, and interpersonal interactions, potentially leading to gender bias or discrimination.
Gender Typing: Gender typing is the process through which individuals adapt to masculine or feminine roles typically dictated by societal norms and expectations.
Expanded Definition
Gender typing is a process in social and psychological development where an individual adopts behaviors, roles, responsibilities, and attributes traditionally associated with their identified sex – masculine or feminine. It involves an individual’s gradual absorption and understanding of what society generally deems appropriate for their gender, resulting in their inclination towards gender-stereotyped preferences and behaviors. This concept is multifaceted, encompassing various societal norms, and plays a crucial role in the formation of personal identity and societal interactions.
Gene: A gene is a specific DNA sequence that codes for a protein or trait, serving as the fundamental hereditary unit transmitting characteristics across generations.
Expanded Definition
A ‘gene’ is a unique sequence found in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which serves as the blueprint for the construction of a specific protein or polypeptide. In other words, it carries the instructions for making a unique part of a cell’s machinery, or even a whole observable characteristic, that can be passed down from parents to offspring. As the foundational unit of heredity, genes are pivotal elements in driving the continuity and diversity of life’s traits across generations.
Gene Selection Theory: Gene Selection Theory, a contemporary evolution theory, asserts that the primary driver of evolutionary alterations is the differential replication of genes.
Expanded Definition
Gene Selection Theory, also known as the Modern Theory of Evolution, is the contemporary understanding of the evolutionary process, fundamentally characterized by differential gene replication. In simple terms, it theorizes that variations in the reproduction and proliferation of genes – the fundamental units of heredity – are what primarily drive the course of evolution. The theory suggests that certain genes may replicate more efficiently and effectively because of the survival advantage they impart on the organism, thus ensuring these genes are passed on to successive generations, gradually leading to the evolution of species over time. Hence, change and diversity of life on Earth are seen as a product of this continuous selection of genes.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Model: The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Model is a framework outlining three sequential stages—alarm, resistance, and exhaustion—occurring when an organism faces enduring stress. These stages embody the physiological responses experienced during protracted stressful situations.
Expanded Definition
The ‘General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Model’ refers to a conceptual framework that illustrates the body’s comprehensive and progressive responses to chronic stress. Developed by endocrinologist Hans Selye, this model outlines a triphasic process encompassing: 1. The ‘Alarm’ stage, wherein the body initially senses the stressor and activates the fight-or-flight response, leading to a surge in adrenaline and cortisol levels; 2. The ‘Resistance’ phase, where if the stress persists, the body attempts to adapt and cope, aiming to return to a state of homeostasis, albeit at a heightened level of alertness; 3. The ‘Exhaustion’ stage, which takes effect if the stressor continues unabated. At this point, the body’s resources to fight stress are depleted, causing physical and mental wear and tear that may potentially lead to severe health concerns. In essence, the GAS model provides a broad understanding of how the human body reacts to sustained stress conditions, delineating the dynamic and multifaceted nature of physiological changes that take place across different phases.
General Intelligence: ‘General Intelligence’ is the underlying mental capability that impacts all cognitive tasks, hence is assessed during any intelligence test.
Expanded Definition
‘General Intelligence’, often referred to as ‘g factor’, is a concept introduced by the psychologist Charles Spearman in the early 20th century. It represents a core cognitive capacity that encompasses a range of specific mental abilities. Spearman and subsequent researchers posited that this ‘g factor’ fundamentally drives a person’s performance across all tasks on an intelligence test. Thus, it’s not specific abilities like verbal skill or mathematical acumen that dictate your performance on such a test, but this underlying general intelligence. It therefore suggests that people with high ‘g’ are likely to excel in a variety of intellectual endeavors, as their cognitive capacity can be flexibly applied to different challenges.
General Intelligence Factor (g): The General Intelligence Factor (g) is a theoretical construct representing the overlap between diverse cognitive abilities and skills assessed by intelligence tests. It’s the common thread measuring universal intelligence across various mental tasks.
Expanded Definition
General Intelligence Factor, often noted as ‘g,’ represents a theoretical construct in psychology illustrating the shared foundation across a spectrum of cognitive skills and abilities that are evaluated by intelligence tests. It asserts that these diverse intellectual skills have a common underlying factor, suggesting that a person’s performance in one area of cognition can often correlate with performances in other areas. Essentially, it is a measurement of a person’s universal cognitive capability that influences overall intellectual abilities and performance on various cognitive tasks.
Generalization: Generalization refers to the applicability of relationships between conceptual variables across diverse populations and a broad range of manipulated or measured variables. It essentially means that findings from a particular study can be extended to a wider context.
Expanded Definition
‘Generalization’ refers to the proposition that the associations among certain conceptual elements hold true across a broad set of conditions. It means the identified relationships among these elements are not limited to a specific situation, group of people, type of manipulation, or measures employed, but apply to a larger scope. In essence, it’s about the applicability and transferability of discovered relationships to diverse contexts and variables.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) is a mental condition characterized by excessive, chronic worries about various facets of life, such as finances, health, and relationships.
Expanded Definition
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) is a recognized psychological condition, characterized by prolonged, excessive worry and unwarranted fear pertaining to various aspects of life, including but not limited to, financial matters, personal health, professional responsibilities, familial interactions, and personal relationships. This perennial concern might often seem unjustified or exaggerated, disproportionately amplified with respect to the actual circumstances or potential outcomes. GAD is clinically diagnosed, utilizing specific criteria and assessments, when persistent, intense anxiety significantly impairs an individual’s daily life function and overall quality of life.
Generativity: Generativity refers to the ability of language users to create new, original sentences expressing ideas they haven’t encountered before.
Expanded Definition
‘Generativity’ refers to the unique linguistic ability possessed by individuals permitting them to construct and articulate original sentences, phrases, or concepts that reflect novel ideas, thoughts or experiences. Despite not having previous exposure or specific teaching, the individual, with their comprehension of language structure, grammar, and vocabulary, can progressively express and communicate these unprecedented thoughts in a manner that others can understand. This aspect of language underlines its dynamic and adaptable nature, promoting effective and diverse communication.
Genes: Genes are DNA segments on chromosomes, functioning as the fundamental units of heredity, responsible for protein synthesis.
Expanded Definition
‘Genes’ are fundamental components of biological inheritance, which form parts of chromosomes inside the cells of living organisms. These are discrete segments of Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), the molecule that carries our genetic instructions. Each gene contains a specific set of instructions, generally coding for the production of a particular protein, which in turn influences the traits and characteristics, or ‘phenotypes’, of the organism. In essence, genes serve as the blueprints for life and its processes, directing and influencing the development, functioning, growth, and reproduction of all life forms.
Genome: A genome is the entirety of an organism’s genetic material, comprising all the information in its chromosomes. It serves as the blueprint for the organism’s biological functions and characteristics.
Expanded Definition
A ‘genome’ is a comprehensive set of genetic blueprints that dictate the biological development and functioning of an organism. It includes all of its genetic material – DNA, organized into chromosomes. This genetic information guides aspects such as physical characteristics, metabolic processes, and potentially, the risk for certain diseases. Essentially, a genome characterizes the entire genetic architecture of an organism and serves as a biological playbook for its life processes.
Genotype: A genotype is the complete genetic makeup, contained within a cell’s nucleus, that determines an organism’s traits, regardless of their external manifestation.
Expanded Definition
‘Genotype’ refers to the specific set of genetic information held in an organism’s DNA within the cell nucleus. This innate genetic blueprint determines an individual’s various traits and characteristics. It should be noted that these traits may not always be externally observable, as the genotype includes both expressed traits and those that remain latent due to the complexities of genetic dominance and inheritance. Consequently, an organism’s genotype is a comprehensive record of its genetic potential and inherent biological design.
Gestalt: Gestalt outlines the concept of holistic understanding, emphasizing that whole entities possess unique properties above and beyond their individual elements.
Expanded Definition
‘Gestalt’ is a term derived from German psychology, which refers to the idea that anything, whether an object, concept, or perceptual experience, is perceived as a complete, unified whole. This notion asserts that this whole entity carries more significance and complexity than simply the collective attributes of its individual components. The Gestalt principle suggests that our mind organizes sensory inputs into coherent groups or wholes, enabling us to comprehend complex environments and experiences as meaningful entities, instead of disconnected, isolated elements.
Gestalt Therapy: Gestalt Therapy is a psychological approach that emphasizes heightened self-awareness and understanding of feelings to improve mental well-being.
Expanded Definition
Gestalt Therapy is a psychotherapeutic approach developed in the mid-20th century that emphasizes the importance of an individual’s self-awareness and self-acceptance. It is focused on the present moment, and employs techniques and strategies aimed at helping individuals to understand, identify, and accept their feelings in their entirety. This therapy fosters the belief that increased self-awareness leads to more fulfilling and authentic living. Encouraging the individual to experience their feelings fully, rather than analyzing them, is a key aspect of this therapeutic approach. Thus, Gestalt Therapy facilitates personal growth and self-improvement by promoting a holistic perspective of self, and exploring the individual’s interactions and relationships with their environment.
Gland: A gland is an organ comprised of cells within the endocrine system, whose primary function is to secrete hormones.
Expanded Definition
A gland, as understood in the context of the endocrine system, is a specialized cellular structure or organ. This organ is composed of distinct groups of cells that work closely in a coordinated fashion. The primary function of these cells is the production and secretion of hormones, which are chemical substances that regulate various bodily functions. These hormones travel through the body’s bloodstream, influencing different physiological activities such as growth, metabolism, and functioning of other organs.
Glial Cell: Glial cells are specialized cells in the nervous system that provide sustenance, structural support, and protection to neurons.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Glial Cell’ is a specialized type of cell that is integral to the functioning of the nervous system. Its primary role is to provide physiological support to neurons – the primary cells responsible for communication in the nervous system. This involves providing nutrients to neurons, maintaining a balanced environment around neurons for optimal performance, and offering structural support that aids in holding neurons in place. Glial cells also play an important role in the repair and regeneration process in the nervous system, and in the formation of myelin – a form of insulation that increases the speed at which neural signals travel. In sum, while not directly involved in transmitting neural signals, glial cells are vital to neuronal health, function, and efficiency.
Glial Cells: Glial cells, or glia, are supportive cells in the central nervous system that nourish, protect neurons, and regulate neurotransmission.
Expanded Definition
‘Glial Cells’, also referred to as ‘glia’, are critical elements of the nervous system that function to support, maintain, and protect the neurons – the primary message transmitters in the brain. Their roles are multifaceted, including enveloping and structuring the neuronal network, mediating nutrient supply, participating in immune response, and cleaning up excess neurotransmitters to assure proper signaling balance. Essentially, they create an optimal environment for neuronal functioning, which further enhances the overall efficiency and effectiveness of the brain’s communication system.
Glucose: Glucose is the primary sugar in the bloodstream that serves as the main energy source for body tissues, with low levels triggering hunger sensations.
Expanded Definition
‘Glucose’ is a simple monosaccharide, often referred to as a ‘blood sugar,’ which exists in our bloodstream. Functioning as the primary energy source for body cells, glucose is integral to numerous bodily functions and biological processes. During digestion, carbohydrates found in our diet are broken down into glucose, which is then transported via the bloodstream to various body tissues. These tissues, in turn, either utilize glucose for immediate energy needs or store it for future use. The level of glucose in the blood is regulated by hormones such as insulin and glucagon, maintain an equilibrium. A decrease in blood glucose levels can stimulate hunger sensations, driving individuals to consume food to replenish glucose levels.
Glutamate: Glutamate is a crucial neurotransmitter derived from the amino acid glutamic acid, playing a key role in memory functions.
Expanded Definition
“Glutamate” is a vital neurotransmitter, a type of chemical messenger which neurons in the brain use to communicate with each other. It is a derivative of the amino acid known as glutamic acid. This neurotransmitter plays a crucial role in cognitive functions, notably in the process of creating and retrieving memories. Essentially, glutamate facilitates the transmission of signals between neurons, contributing significantly to synaptic plasticity – the ability of synapses to strengthen or weaken over time – which is considered fundamental to learning and memory.
Goal: A goal is a desired outcome or end-state that one aims to achieve as mentally visualized or imagined.
Expanded Definition
A ‘goal’ can be defined as the mental construct of a desired outcome or the state one wishes to achieve. It refers to the envisioning of a specific result that signifies success or fulfillment in a given context. Essentially, a goal serves as a guidance system for one’s thoughts, actions, and efforts, laying a clear path towards a set outcome that we aspire to reach. In tangible terms, it might relate to personal milestones, professional progress, or overall life achievement. This mental idea of our anticipations for the future can serve as a motivational force, driving us towards continuous personal growth and advancement.
Goal-Directed Behavior: Goal-Directed Behavior is an action taken with the understanding of its outcome and the current worth of that outcome, where the value of the outcome can impact the behavior. It is highly susceptible to changes in the value of the rewards or consequences.
Expanded Definition
‘Goal-Directed Behavior’ is a psychology term that refers to behavioral actions consciously initiated and guided by an individual or animal to achieve a specific outcome or goal. This behavior is predicated upon the understanding of a cause-and-effect relationship, meaning the individual or animal has knowledge of the immediate or eventual consequence that the behavior will lead to. Moreover, this definition indicates that the value or worth of the immediate or future consequence greatly affects the exhibited behavior, highlighting the importance of an individual’s need or desire for the said consequence. In consequence, ‘Goal-Directed Behavior’ is reactive to reinforcer devaluation effect, which is the reduction in the value or desirability of the outcome or reward, influencing the course or intensity of behavior aimed to acquire it.
Grammar: Grammar is the structured set of linguistic rules governing the composition and interpretation of language, facilitating clear communication and comprehension.
Expanded Definition
‘Grammar’ refers to the structured set of linguistic guidelines in a particular language that governs the formation of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. It establishes the conventions for proper syntax, usage, and punctuation, enabling coherent and meaningful communication and mutual understanding among individuals. This system facilitates not only the creation of spoken and written language but also the interpretation of verbal or written messages and the building of linguistic skills for both native and non-native speakers.
Gratitude: Gratitude is the emotional expression of appreciation for benefits or favors received.
Expanded Definition
‘Gratitude’ is defined as an emotive sensation rooted in one’s recognition and acknowledgment of the value and significance of an act of kindness or benefit one has received. It encapsulates a profound sense of appreciation or thankfulness that is directed towards the originator of the benefit. This emotional response can arise from either tangible or intangible benefits and can prompt affirmative actions, enhancing the quality of social interactions and mutual respect.
Grit: ‘Grit’ is a method employed to reduce global strife and foster inter-country rapport.
Expanded Definition
“Grit”, in the context of international relations, is a carefully crafted approach intended to help mitigate global conflicts and ease international tensions. This strategy often involves the use of diplomatic channels, negotiation tactics, and constructive dialogues to foster an environment of mutual understanding, peace, and cooperation among nations. The aim is not just to resolve existing issues, but also to prevent the escalation of future disputes, thereby contributing to a more stable global geopolitical climate.
Group Polarization: ‘Group polarization’ refers to the intensification of group members’ initial positions into more extreme stances following group discussions.
Expanded Definition
‘Group Polarization’ is a psychological and social phenomenon where members of a group, after engaging in collective discourse or deliberations over a specific issue, tend to adopt more extreme positions than their initial individual perspectives. This amplification towards a more severe stance is typically in the direction of the group’s pre-discussion average. Greater exposure to identical viewpoints, risk-taking biases and the desire for social conformity contribute to this outcome. Thus, Group Polarization emphasizes the impact of social interactions on decision-making processes, potentially leading to more radical, risky, or conservative outcomes than those that might have resulted from individual decisions.
Group Therapy: Group therapy is a form of psychotherapy where multiple clients undergo treatment together, fostering shared experiences and mutual support.
Expanded Definition
Group Therapy is defined as a specialized form of psychological treatment where individuals participate collectively in therapeutic sessions. In this therapeutic approach, multiple participants are treated contemporaneously by a professional therapist, fostering an environment that encourages sharing, trust, support, and growth among members. This method utilizes interpersonal interactions as a tool to help individuals gain self-awareness, understand their own thinking patterns, and learn new ways of dealing with personal or relational challenges. This therapeutic process is known to be effective for a multitude of psychological issues and is beneficial in developing improved social, emotional, and problem-solving skills.
Grouping: Grouping, in context of perceptual psychology, simply refers to the innate inclination to categorize multiple objects or stimuli into understandable and contiguous clusters.
Expanded Definition
‘Grouping’ refers to a cognitive inclination to categorize or arrange perceived stimuli or information into unified, understandable collections or clusters. This is a fundamental aspect of human perception and understanding, facilitating our ability to make sense of the complex sensory information we encounter in our environments by organizing them into identifiable and meaningful entities.
Growth Need: ‘Growth Need’ refers to the apex of Maslow’s hierarchy, denoting an individual’s innate drive to achieve their utmost potential and self-actualize.
Expanded Definition
“Growth Need” refers to the highest tier of Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, a psychological framework used to understand human motivation. This level, often referred to as “self-actualization,” represents an individual’s aspiration to realize their maximum capacity and to cultivate their personal skills, talents, and potential. It is characterized by seeking growth, self-fulfillment, and the pursuit of personal excellence and self-improvement. This tier is typically addressed after the fulfillment of physiological, safety, social, and esteem needs. Maslow suggested that reaching this level of growth need is a lifelong endeavor, promoting a continuous journey of self-discovery and personal growth.

H

Habit: A habit is a behavior triggered automatically by a certain stimulus, regardless of the perceived value of the reward, and is resistant to changes in the reward’s worth.
Expanded Definition
A ‘habit’ is traditionally defined as a behavior pattern that an individual carries out subconsciously when presented with a certain stimulus. This pattern is not manipulatable based on the subject’s awareness of the possible rewards or consequences; it is immune to changes in perceived value of the reinforcement, a phenomenon known as the reinforcer devaluation effect. This suggests that the behavior is deeply ingrained and automated, functioning independently of deliberate thought or intent.
Habituation: Habituation is a form of learning where an organism reduces its response to a repeated stimulus over time. It’s essentially the process of getting used to a stimulus after continuous exposure.
Expanded Definition
‘Habituation’ is a term utilized in the field of psychology and behavioral neuroscience, defined as the diminished cognitive or emotional response to a specific stimulus after it has been repeatedly presented over a span of time. Essentially, it refers to an individual’s tendency to pay less attention to or become less responsive to a stimulus that becomes familiar or predictable through its recurrence. Habituation is a basic form of learning, demonstrating an organism’s ability to adapt to consistent environmental conditions.
Habituation Procedure: ‘Habituation Procedure’ refers to the experimental method of recording a baby’s eye and face movements in response to visual stimuli, typically while seated in a high chair.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘Habituation Procedure’ refers to a research methodology widely utilized in developmental psychology, particularly in studies involving infants. During this procedure, an infant is securely positioned in a high chair and exposed to various visual stimuli. Simultaneously, the infant’s reactions, encompassing eye and facial movements, are meticulously recorded with the help of a video camera. This procedure enables researchers to evaluate the infant’s attention span, perception, and cognitive abilities by observing their responses to new versus familiar stimuli. Habituation Procedure provides critical insights into early developmental stages, and is considered an essential tool in understanding cognitive development during infancy.
Hallucinations: Hallucinations are perceptions experienced without an external cause, or significant misinterpretations of real stimuli.
Expanded Definition
A hallucination refers to a perceptual experience wherein an individual perceives certain sensations that have no basis in objective reality or are significantly distorted versions of a genuine stimulus. This condition can take place through any of the five senses – sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell – and is often puzzling or disorienting for the person experiencing it. Rather than being signs of weakness or imagination, hallucinations can be indicators of specific psychological conditions, neurological disorders, or physiological changes. Thus, they are a serious phenomenon requiring professional attention and understanding.
Hallucinogens: Hallucinogens are substances that modify an individual’s perceptions and sensory experiences, often inducing unreal visions or distorting time perception.
Expanded Definition
‘Hallucinogens’ refers to a class of psychoactive substances that inherently prompt significant modifications in an individual’s perception, thoughts, and feelings when consumed. They notably induce hallucinations, sensory experiences in which a person perceives a seemingly real occurrence, object, or event in the absence of external stimuli. Furthermore, they can warp the sense of time, either speeding up or slowing down the user’s temporal perception. These drugs play a complex role in the brain’s neurotransmitter systems, leading to these notable alterations in one’s subjective experience of reality.
Hardiness Theoretical Model: The Hardiness Theoretical Model outlines the adaptive responses to stress demonstrated by individuals or groups, emphasizing resilience and determination.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Hardiness Theoretical Model’ is a sophisticated paradigm that explicates the inherent resilience and tolerance to stress within individuals and groups. This model suggests that certain psychological traits or factors contribute to an individual’s ability to effectively manage and withstand physical and psychological stress. It essentially examines how resilience functions as a buffer against the negative impacts of stress, promoting mental well-being and adaptability. This model is premised on three fundamental tenets: commitment, control, and challenge, which collectively build a robust defense mechanism against stressors. It underscores the importance of understanding and enhancing these mechanisms, fostering resilience not only at an individual level, but also within group contexts in settings such as workplaces, families, and teams.
Health Behaviors: Health behaviors refer to actions that either enhance or deteriorate one’s health status. These can include habits, practices or activities related to personal wellbeing.
Expanded Definition
Health Behaviors are typically defined as the actions inculcated or performed by individuals, consciously or unconsciously, and could be singular or habitual, that may directly or indirectly influence their physical or mental well-being. These behaviors encompass a broad spectrum, including lifestyle choices like dietary habits, physical activity, and substance use, as well as preventive actions like health screenings and vaccinations. While positive or protective health behaviors can enhance an individual’s overall vitality and contribute to disease prevention, negative or risky health behaviors may lead to health detriments, disease progression, and reduced life quality.
Health Psychology: ‘Health Psychology’ is a psychology branch that applies psychological principles to the study and improvement of health behavior and overall wellness.
Expanded Definition
Health Psychology is a specialized branch of psychology that focuses on how biological, social, and psychological factors influence health and illness. This field employs psychological principles and research to enhance understanding, prevention and management of illnesses. Furthermore, health psychologists contribute to behavioral medicine by evaluating and modifying lifestyles as well as psychological conditions that could potentially lead to health issues. It also extends its focus to the promotion of health and the improvement of the healthcare system.
Helpfulness: Helpfulness refers to an individual’s belief and propensity to provide effective assistance, which promotes a continued pattern of aid-giving behaviors.
Expanded Definition
‘Helpfulness’ can be elucidated as a characteristic possessed by individuals who hold a strong belief in the efficacy of their assistance or service. These individuals are confident in contributing positively towards resolving issues or fulfilling needs. This attribute cultivates a proactive inclination towards offering support in future scenarios, driven by their previous successful experiences and the intrinsic satisfaction derived from being of help to others.
Helping: “Helping” is a form of beneficial action, giving support or aid to an individual or group in need.
Expanded Definition
‘Helping’ can be comprehensively defined as the active engagement in prosocial behavior, which signifies the act of offering support, aid, or assistance to an individual or a collective group who are confronting a situation of need or difficulty. This supportive behavior can be manifested in numerous ways, ranging from sharing skills and knowledge to provide physical or emotional support. This fundamental social activity plays a crucial role in building and fostering healthy interpersonal relationships, promoting societal harmony, as well as nurturing personal growth and development.
Heritability: Heritability refers to the extent to which genetic variations contribute to individual differences in observed behavior or phenotype and is determined when identical twins show higher correlation coefficients than fraternal twins for a given trait.
Expanded Definition
‘Heritability’ is a term used in the field of genetics to define the degree to which genetic factors contribute to observed variations or differences in a particular trait within a population. This concept is often examined by comparing correlation coefficients between identical twins, who share 100% of their DNA, and fraternal twins, who share about 50% of their DNA. If the correlation for a trait is higher among identical twins than among fraternal twins, it suggests that genetic factors play a substantial role in determining that trait. In this context, it’s commonly used to ascertain the genetic influence on aspects such as personality traits, signifying that shared DNA is a significant factor in personality development.
Heritability Coefficient: The Heritability Coefficient is a statistical measure, ranging from 0 to 1, that quantifies the extent to which genetic factors can explain individual differences in a trait.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Heritability Coefficient’ is a statistical measure used in the field of genetics to quantify the proportion of individual differences in a particular trait that can be attributed to genetic factors. This coefficient ranges from 0 to 1; a score closer to 0 implies that the trait is primarily influenced by environmental factors, whereas a score closer to 1 indicates a higher genetic influence. However, it must be understood with caution as it doesn’t measure the influence of genetics on a single individual’s trait, but instead, it explains the role of genetics in the variance of that trait within a population. This measure can be complex to interpret, as it does not denote that a trait is fixed or unchangeable, as environmental factors can also play a significant role.
Heritability of the Characteristic: “Heritability of the Characteristic” is the degree to which genetic factors explain the observed variability in a trait among individuals.
Expanded Definition
‘Heritability of a Characteristic’ pertains to the quantifiable measure of how much of the variance in observable differences of a specific trait amongst a population can be ascribed to genetic differences. It represents the extent to which genetic factors contribute to the variation or dispersion of a trait in a given population, without making direct assertions about the degree of genetic influence in an individual’s trait manifestation.
Heritability: Heritability is the measure of how much genetic factors contribute to individual differences or variations in a given trait, within certain populations and environments.
Expanded Definition
‘Heritability’ is a scientific term used in the field of genetics, primarily referring to the degree of variation in a population’s traits that can be linked back to genetic differences, rather than variations in environment or lifestyle. This concept is crucial in understanding how much genes influence the probability of certain traits appearing. Heritability, expressed as a ratio from 0 to 1, provides an estimate of this genetic contribution to phenotypic variation. It’s important to note that heritability may fluctuate based on the populations and environments being evaluated. It does not determine or predict individual traits, but rather offers a statistical overview of traits across a given population in a specific environment.
Heroin: Heroin is an intensely addictive opioid drug, synthesized from opium, with its addiction potential doubled that of morphine.
Expanded Definition
‘Heroin’ is a highly potent, extremely addictive narcotic substance derived from the opium poppy plant. Its addictive properties are significantly more profound compared to morphine, another drug extracted from the same plant. Notably, heroin transforms back into morphine once it enters the brain, where it then binds rapidly with opioid receptors. This process triggers intense sensations of euphoria, which contributes to its high potential for addiction. Being an illicit drug, its usage comes with severe health risks including dependency, overdoses, and associated diseases.
Hertz: Hertz is a unit of measurement used to define frequency, specifically the number of cycles occurring in one second.
Expanded Definition
‘Hertz’, often abbreviated as Hz, is defined as the standard unit of frequency in the International System of Units (SI). Conceptually, it measures the number of cycles or oscillations that occur per second in a wave, signal, or other cyclic phenomenon. This unit is applied in a broad spectrum of scientific fields, including physics, acoustics, signal processing, radio and many more. Named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz, this term offers a precise way to quantify the regularity or speed of these repeating events or processes. Essentially, if an event repeats once per second, it has a frequency of 1 Hz. If it repeats 100 times per second, it is said to have a frequency of 100 Hz, and so on.
Heuristic: A heuristic is a quick problem-solving approach that prioritizes speed over accuracy, making it faster but potentially more error-prone than systematic methods like algorithms.
Expanded Definition
‘Heuristic’ refers to a streamlined cognitive strategy or approach that enables swift decision-making or problem-solving processes. This method might sometimes outpace or bypass more meticulous, algorithm-based processes by leveraging mental shortcuts based on practical problem-solving experience, intuition, or common sense. While this method promotes expediency and may be effective in many situations, its reliance on simplifications and presumptions rather than thorough examination can occasionally result in inaccuracies or mistakes. It is therefore considered less reliable than algorithm-based strategies, which follow a step-by-step procedure for calculations or problem-solving, ensuring accuracy despite potentially requiring more time and resources.
Heuristics: Heuristics are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb used to streamline decision-making and problem-solving processes. Though generally effective, their misuse can sometimes result in errors.
Expanded Definition
Heuristics refer to mental approaches or problem-solving methods adopted by individuals to facilitate swift decision-making. These are essentially strategies that streamline complex cognitive processes by converting them into manageable, rule-governed decisions. Such mental shortcuts can expedite the decision-making process and are often effective in dealing with numerous situations. However, the potential for errors arises when these are inaccurately applied, as they may oversimplify or misinterpret complex situations. Two commonly utilized heuristics are the representativeness heuristic and the availability heuristic. The representativeness heuristic involves drawing conclusions based on perceived stereotypes or patterns, while the availability heuristic relies on immediate examples that come to a person’s mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision. These strategies, while inherently practical, should be used judiciously as they can result in cognitive biases.
HEXACO Model: The HEXACO Model is an extension of the Five-Factor Model that additionally explores Honesty-Humility, thus capturing six key dimensions of personality. It offers a more comprehensive understanding of individual differences.
Expanded Definition
The HEXACO Model is a comprehensive framework currently used in psychology that suggests six key dimensions of personality, as opposed to the previous Five-Factor Model. These dimensions include Honesty-Humility, Emotionality, Extraversion, Agreeableness (versus Anger), Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience. It’s notable for its inclusion of Honesty-Humility, a factor largely absent in prior models. This inclusion facilitates a more nuanced understanding of individual variance in ethical or morally relevant behavior, making it an increasingly preferred tool for researchers interested in an exhaustive exploration of human personality differences. This model is not only applied for personality assessment, but also for understanding a broader spectrum of behaviors, attributes, and tendencies of individuals, while remaining accessible and comprehensible for both professionals and the general public.
Hierarchy Of Needs: The ‘Hierarchy of Needs’ is Maslow’s theory of human motivation that organizes essential human needs, varying from basic physiological needs to complex psychological ones, into a sequential pyramid. Needs must be satisfied from the base upwards for an individual to achieve their full potential.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Hierarchy of Needs’ is a theoretical framework conceived by psychologist Abraham Maslow. It visually takes the shape of a pyramid and seeks to explain the pattern through which human motivations generally move. This hierarchy begins at the foundation with physiological needs—the basic needs necessary for human survival, like food and water. Once these basic needs are met, people can move onto the next level: safety needs, which pertain to desires for security and stability. Beyond these levels exist psychosocial needs divided into three categories: social needs (the desire for love, companionship and acceptance), esteem needs (the desire for self-respect, accomplishment, and recognition from others), and self-actualization needs (the desire to reach one’s personal potential). In short, Maslow’s ‘Hierarchy of Needs’ asserts that lower level, physiological, and safety requirements need to be satisfactorily met before humans can fully engage with their higher-order psychological needs. It is an enlightening framework for understanding human motivation and personal growth.
High-Stakes Testing: High-stakes testing refers to the use of test scores in making critical decisions relating to individuals. It’s a testing format where the outcome significantly impacts the test taker’s future.
Expanded Definition
‘High-Stakes Testing’ is a term used in the field of educational assessment to refer to situations where the results of examinations or testing play a significant role in determining important outcomes for individuals. These outcomes could include academic progress, admission to advanced educational programs, certification or licensure in professional fields, or evaluation of performance levels. The ‘high-stakes’ aspect highlights the potential profound impact these tests have on a person’s educational or career trajectory. This necessitates precise and unbiased test designs, along with fair administration and interpretation of test results.
Higher-Order Conditioning: Higher-Order Conditioning is a process where an already conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus to create a secondary, typically less strong, conditioned stimulus. It adds layers to the basic conditioning process.
Expanded Definition
‘Higher-Order Conditioning’ is a psychological process where a previously conditioned stimulus, which has been established to evoke a certain response through classical conditioning, is further associated with a new, neutral stimulus. This association results in the neutral stimulus becoming a second conditioned stimulus, subsequently invoking a similar, yet often less intense, response. Essentially, it’s a multilayered learning process, more complex than standard conditioning, where responses are transferred from one stimulus to a new one without the new stimulus directly participating in the original conditioning procedure. It is referred to as ‘higher-order’ because it involves more than one step in the associative learning process.
Highlight: ‘Highlight’ refers to the act of emphasizing or focusing more intently on specific goals, often by allocating more resources or effort toward their achievement.
Expanded Definition
“Highlight” is commonly understood as a tool used to draw attention to or emphasize a particular area. When applying this context to project management or personal goal setting, ‘highlight’ refers to the strategic act of prioritizing certain objectives over others. This action involves dedicating increased effort, time, and resources towards these selected targets. The aim is to bring these goals to the forefront of a strategy or plan, thereby facilitating an enhanced focus and increased visibility. This approach can help ensure that critical objectives are vigorously pursued and efficiently achieved.
Hindsight Bias: Hindsight Bias is the psychological phenomenon where people inaccurately believe they could have foreseen an event’s outcome after it has occurred.
Expanded Definition
‘Hindsight Bias’ is a psychological phenomenon where individuals believe they could have foreseen an event or outcome after it has already happened, although it was not likely that they would have been able to predict it accurately beforehand. This bias, often termed as the “knew-it-all-along” effect, can lead to distorted assessments of past events and can impact future decision-making processes by creating an illusion of predictability.
Hippocampus: The hippocampus, a component of the limbic system, includes two curved extensions from the amygdala, playing a crucial role in storing long-term memory.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Hippocampus’ is a critical structure nestled within the limbic system, a part of the brain that plays a significant role in the regulation of emotions and certain cognitive functions. It is characterized by two curved appendages, often referred to as ‘horns,’ extending back from the amygdala—an almond-shaped set of neurons noted for emotional processing. The primary function of the hippocampus is to facilitate the transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory, making it indispensable to memory encoding, consolidation, and spatial navigation. Thus, the hippocampus is a crucial component in our ability to form, retain, and recall memories and understand spatial relationships.
Histone Acetyltransferases (HATs) and Histone Deacetylases (HDACs): HATs are enzymes that acetylate histone tails, enabling transcriptional activation, while HDACs deacetylate these histone tails, leading to transcriptional repression.
Expanded Definition
Histone Acetyltransferases (HATs) and Histone Deacetylases (HDACs) are crucial enzymes in the complex world of cellular biology, each playing distinct but complementary roles in regulating gene expression. HATs, which are enzymes responsible for transferring acetyl groups to specific sites on histone tails, perform a crucial function in the maintenance and regulation of chromatin structure – the material that makes up chromosomes. Attached acetyl groups on histones can alter the compactness of the chromatin, leading to an “open” chromatin state that encourages transcriptional activation, essentially enabling certain genes to be more actively expressed. On the other hand, Histone Deacetylases (HDACs) perform the opposite action. They function to remove the attached acetyl groups from the histones, leading to a “closed” or condensed state of chromatin. This closed state reduces transcription activity or gene expression, thereby causing transcriptional repression. In summary, HATs and HDACs both exert control over how, when and to what degree genes are expressed within the cell by regulating the acetylation and deacetylation of histones, thereby modulating the activation and repression of transcription. Together, they contribute to maintaining the fine balance of gene activity within a cell.
Histone Modifications: Histone modifications refer to changes made to the N-terminal “tails” of histone proteins after their synthesis, serving as key players in epigenetic control. Such alterations primarily involve processes like acetylation, phosphorylation, methylation, and others.
Expanded Definition
‘Histone Modifications’ refer to the set of chemical changes done to the ‘tails’ of histone proteins after their initial formation or translation. These tails protrude from the actual histone protein and can undergo several modifications, establishing them as a significant aspect of regulating gene functions – a process known as ‘epigenetic regulation’. Diverse types of histone modifications are recognized, including Acetylation, Phosphorylation, Methylation, Sumoylation, Ubiquitination, and ADP-ribosylation, each influencing the interaction of the histones with DNA and nuclear proteins, thereby affecting the structure of the chromatin and controlling gene expression.
Holist: A Holist is one who advocates for holistic perspective, asserting that complex systems or entities are more than just the combination of their individual components.
Expanded Definition
‘Holist’ refers to an individual or perspective grounded in the philosophy of holism. Holism posits the concept that all systems and entities should be viewed in their entirety, emphasizing the interconnected nature of their components. This viewpoint argues that examining individual components or elements in isolation from the system to which they belong is insufficient because the system’s overall characteristics and behaviors transcend and are more complex than the mere aggregation of its parts. This philosophy is utilized in various fields, including science, medicine, psychology, and ecology, where comprehensive views are essential to understand the full scope and complexities of various phenomena and situations.
Homeostasis: Homeostasis refers to an organism’s inherent ability to regulate its internal environment, maintaining physiological equilibrium.
Expanded Definition
Homeostasis is the process through which living organisms continuously work to maintain an optimal, stable internal environment, despite any changes occurring externally or in the organism’s physical activity level. This state of internal equilibrium ensures the consistency of vital physiological aspects such as body temperature, fluid balance, and pH levels, among others, by implementing adaptive regulatory mechanisms. When these mechanisms precisely and effectively counterbalance the influences that could potentially alter such conditions, the organism achieves homeostasis. In essence, homeostasis is a dynamic biological process, vital for survival and functioning of organisms.
Honeymoon Effect: The ‘Honeymoon Effect’ is the inclination among new spouses to overstate the positive aspects of their relationship.
Expanded Definition
The “Honeymoon Effect” is a psychological phenomenon often observed in recent newlyweds, where they tend to evaluate their partner or their relationship in an extremely positive light. This bias may lead them to overlook flaws and issues, essentially viewing their marital relationship through ‘rose-colored glasses.’ It is believed this effect is due to the novelty and excitement of the new marriage, though it often diminishes over time as the couple settles into their partnership and encounter real-life experiences and challenges.
Hormone: A hormone is a biochemical substance secreted by the body’s endocrine glands that circulates in the bloodstream to regulate physiological processes and behaviors.
Expanded Definition
A hormone is a biochemically active substance produced by the endocrine glands in the body. These substances circulate in the bloodstream, functioning as messengers to coordinate and regulate various essential physiological processes. Although influencing emotions and behaviors is one of their roles, they also play a crucial part in growth and development, metabolism, maintenance of homeostasis, regulation of immune system, and reproductive processes. The precise function of each hormone depends on its specific biochemical structure and the target organ it acts upon.
Host Personality: Host personality refers to the dominant personality that primarily governs an individual’s actions and behaviors.
Expanded Definition
‘Host Personality’ refers to the dominant personality trait or demeanor that predominantly governs one’s behavior, attitudes, and reactions, typically in individuals with Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID). As the primary personality, it manifests more frequently and significantly influences the individual’s interactions and personal identifications more than other emergent personalities or ‘alters’ in the same body. This terminology is primarily used in psychology and psychiatry.
Hostile Sexism: Hostile sexism is the belief in women’s inferiority and incompetence compared to men, manifesting in negative attitudes. It’s a concept reflecting prejudices rooted in perceived gender roles and capacities.
Expanded Definition
‘Hostile Sexism’ is a term that refers to a form of gender bias where women are perceived negatively and deemed subordinate to men. It embodies a set of attitudes and beliefs that not only degrade women but also undervalue their abilities and contributions. This form of prejudice and discrimination characterizes women as being inferior to men in aspects such as cognitive ability, leadership skills, and professional competence, among others. It is a manifestation of aggression and hostility towards women simply due to their gender. Furthermore, it is crucial to note that hostile sexism is not confined to overt actions; it permeates the societal fabric in subtle ways and significantly shapes women’s experiences and opportunities.
Hostility: Hostility is a psychological state characterized by frequent feelings of anger and irritability, typically accompanied by a negative disposition.
Expanded Definition
‘Hostility’ is defined as a recurring behavioral pattern characterized by the propensity to become easily agitated or irritated, displaying frequent anger, and embodying a predominantly negative personal demeanor or attitude. It signifies a consistent state of unfriendliness or opposition, often manifesting through aggressive behaviors or attitudes. This term is typically utilized in psychological, social, and interpersonal contexts, indicating the need for addressing these issues through appropriate channels such as counseling or mental health support.
Hot Cognition: Hot cognition refers to the psychological processes that are driven by emotional and subjective factors.
Expanded Definition
‘Hot Cognition’ is a term used within cognitive psychology and neuroscience, referring to the cognitive activities that are inherently emotional or are affected by one’s subjective preferences, sentiments, and desires. These processes engage the affective dimension of cognition, engendering emotional responses that significantly contribute to decision-making and problem-solving. They contrast with ‘cold cognition,’ which pertains to cognitive processes occurring without any emotional involvement, typically related to impartial and objective thinking. This distinction highlights how emotions can notably shape our thoughts, perceptions, and judgments, making ‘hot cognition’ a pivotal focus for understanding human behavior and decision-making.
HPA Axis: The HPA Axis is a key stress response system where the hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal glands interact.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘HPA Axis’ refers to the coordinated system known as the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis, which plays a pivotal role in the body’s response to stress. This complex communication network involves three primary components: the hypothalamus (a piece of the brain responsible for producing specific hormones), the pituitary gland (a small gland located at the base of the brain involved in hormonal controls), and the adrenal glands (situated atop the kidneys and in charge of releasing hormones in response to stress). During stressful situations, these components interact and result in a sequence of hormonal messages and responses, which ultimately influences various bodily functions such as digestion, immune responses, mood and emotions, sexuality, and energy storage and expenditure.
Hue: Hue is the primary attribute of a color representing its basic identity, essentially what distinguishes one color (like red or blue) from another.
Expanded Definition
“Hue” is a term in color theory that refers to the pure spectrum of colors, which can be observed in a rainbow or the color spectrum, without any addition of white or black color. Essentially, it represents the foundational essence of a color, and any deviations or variations in terms of tint, tone, or shade are made from this base hue. In other words, hue is the term that denotes the identity of a base color – red, blue, green or anything in-between, before it is altered or adjusted by adding various degrees of lightness, darkness or intensity.
Human Factors: ‘Human Factors’ is a psychology discipline that applies psychological theories, particularly about sensation and perception, to enhance technology design and development.
Expanded Definition
“Human Factors” is a specialized discipline within the realm of psychology that primarily focuses on utilizing psychological and cognitive science principles to enhance the design and development of technological systems. This field aims to optimize human-machine interactions by considering factors such as sensation, perception, cognition, and physical capabilities of users. The objective is to make technology more user-friendly, efficient, and safe, thereby maximizing performance and minimizing potential errors and accidents. This interdisciplinary field combines elements of psychology, engineering, design, computer science, and ergonomics to create technology-centric solutions that meet human needs and limitations.
Human Intelligence: Human intelligence is the cognitive capability to learn from experiences, resolve problems, and adapt to new circumstances through reasoning and application.
Expanded Definition
Human Intelligence is regarded as the capacity or innate potential of individuals to process information and apply reasoning. This includes the aptitude to think critically, learn, and derive knowledge from personal experiences or external stimuli. It also encompasses one’s problem-solving skills which involve the ability to analyze difficult situations, develop solutions, and make decisions. Furthermore, adaptability to new scenarios or changes in one’s environment is a critical component of human intelligence. This adaptability involves both cognitive flexibility and resilience in facing unfamiliar circumstances or concepts.
Humanistic Psychology: Humanistic Psychology is a perspective that emphasizes individual autonomy and potential, underlining an optimistic view of human nature.
Expanded Definition
Humanistic Psychology is a psychological perspective that emphasizes an optimistic outlook on human nature and the individual’s significant ability to exercise free will. This approach, rooted in the belief that people naturally strive for self-fulfillment and meaningful existence, posits that humans are inherently good and are capable of self-awareness, personal growth, and self-regulation. Humanistic Psychology contends that an understanding of human behavior should not only involve the objective observation of observable behaviors, but also an exploration of subjective experiences, feelings, and thoughts that form the essence of an individual’s unique perspective of the world.
Humanistic Therapy: Humanistic Therapy is a psychological approach that focuses on promoting an individual’s inherent ability to achieve self-growth and fulfillment.
Expanded Definition
Humanistic Therapy, within the landscape of psychological treatments, is an approach that centrally focuses on the intrinsic potential of an individual to reach self-actualization and fulfillment. It posits an optimistic viewpoint of human nature, asserting that individuals inherently strive towards self-improvement and personal growth. This therapeutic orientation encourages self-exploration and self-understanding by emphasizing the individual’s subjective experiences, free will, and their innate capacity for resilience. Drawing from this ethos, the therapist fosters a non-judgmental and empathetic environment that promotes open communication, facilitating the individual’s pursuit of self-understanding and psychological wellbeing.
Humility: Humility is the self-awareness of one’s strengths and weaknesses, coupled with an ability to acknowledge one’s failures and limitations.
Expanded Definition
‘Humility’ is a self-awareness attribute characterized by a person’s modest evaluation of their own abilities, accomplishments, and potential. It involves acknowledging personal limitations, gaps in knowledge, imperfections, and errors, while simultaneously recognizing the value of others. It encourages individuals to remain open, receptive to learning, apologetic when wrong, and respectful of others’ diverse skills and talents. Humility is not a sign of weakness or low self-esteem; rather, it’s an intellectual virtue reflecting a balanced and realistic understanding of oneself, fostering both personal growth and harmonious interpersonal relationships.
Hypnosis: ‘Hypnosis’ is a state of heightened suggestibility and intense focus, typically induced through a process called hypnotic induction, that results in deep relaxation and possible disconnection from the immediate environment.
Expanded Definition
‘Hypnosis’ can be defined as a specific psychological state characterized by heightened receptivity to external suggestions. This state is typically induced by a technique known as hypnotic induction that prompts deep relaxation and intense concentration on a particular aspect or stimulus. In this condition, an individual experiences a certain disconnection from their immediate surroundings, prioritizing the focal point of their focus. They are more susceptible to suggestions or directives given by another person, which can be a useful tool in therapies or treatments for various psychological and physical conditions. This unique state of consciousness is often accompanied by an overall sense of calm and tranquility.
Hypnotherapy: Hypnotherapy is a treatment approach that utilizes hypnosis to facilitate behavioral or emotional transformations, such as pain reduction or smoking cessation.
Expanded Definition
Hypnotherapy is a therapeutic modality that employs the techniques of hypnosis—including deep relaxation and guided suggestions—as conduits to facilitate positive behavioral or perceptual changes in an individual. It is often used to lessen unwanted symptoms or modify habits, such as reducing levels of pain or aiding in smoking cessation. Through this method, the individual is led to a heightened state of awareness, commonly referred to as a trance, which potentially makes them more receptive to the proposed changes and able to integrate them into their daily life.
Hypochondriasis: Hypochondriasis, a somatoform disorder, is characterized by an individual’s excessive preoccupation with health fears and perceived illness.
Expanded Definition
Hypochondriasis, now typically referred to as illness anxiety disorder in contemporary medical terminology, is a channel of mental health disorders known as somatoform disorders. This condition is characterized by an undue and persistent anxiety about one’s health, where an individual excessively worries about having a serious physical illness. Persons afflicted with this disorder often misinterpret normal bodily sensations or minor health issues as indicators of serious and potentially life-threatening diseases. Despite professional medical reassurances and a lack of actual medical evidence supporting these fears, the person’s concern about their health often remains. This disorder can significantly interfere with both personal and professional aspects of an individual’s daily life.
Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is a central brain region that regulates hormone secretion and eating behaviors.
Expanded Definition
The hypothalamus is a critical region of the brain, structurally nestled toward the base and in the central portion. This scientifically fascinating area holds remarkable responsibilities for various biological functions. Chief among these responsibilities is its capacity for hormone production and secretion, acting in a regulatory sense for the endocrine system. Additionally, the hypothalamus exerts significant influence on behavior related to eating, propelling both feelings of hunger and satiety. Through these key roles – hormone regulation and management of feeding behavior – the hypothalamus performs essential tasks in maintaining the body’s overall homeostasis.
Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a phenomenon, which is then subjected to rigorous testing and verification.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Hypothesis’ is a well-articulated proposition or tentative explanation for observed phenomena or specific events in the natural or social world. It represents an informed conjecture or educated guess that serves as the starting point for further investigation. Researchers use scientific methods including experimentation, data analysis, and empirical research to test a hypothesis and determine its validity. Essentially, it offers predictive statements or causal assumptions that can be subjected to rigorous scrutiny and empirical testing to contribute to a framework of understanding or theory.

I

I: ‘Imaginary Audience’ is a psychological concept prevalent in adolescence, where they perceive themselves to be under constant scrutiny by others due to heightened self-awareness.
Expanded Definition
“I” refers to the concept of ‘Imaginary Audience,’ which is a psychological phenomenon typically occurring during adolescence. This phenomenon is characterized by an intense preoccupation with how one is perceived by others, often leading to a belief that their actions, appearance, and behavior are constantly being observed and evaluated by those around them. While this heightened level of self-consciousness can result in excessive concern about public image and potential judgment from others, it’s crucial to note that this perceived audience is largely imaginary or exaggerated in the teenager’s mind.
Iconic Memory: Iconic memory is the briefest form of memory that retains visual information for approximately 250 milliseconds, hence acting like a visual buffer before the info is transferred to other memory systems.
Expanded Definition
Iconic memory, as a complex psychological concept, can be comprehensively defined as a subtype of sensory memory that is specific to visual information. It serves as a buffer system that momentarily holds visual stimuli for a brief period, typically lasting about a quarter of a second, or 250 milliseconds. During this fleeting timespan, our eyes have the opportunity to process and interpret the visual details of our surroundings before the information either transits to short-term memory or is discarded, hence its rapid decay. This rapid-fire form of memory enables us to smoothly perceive the visual world despite swift eye movements and helps in forming a coherent, continuous stream of visual experience.
Id: The ‘Id’ is a Freudian concept referring to the unorganized, instinctive part of the psyche that seeks immediate satisfaction of basic desires and drives, primarily sexual and aggressive.
Expanded Definition
In the field of psychology, specifically in Freudian psychoanalysis, the ‘Id’ is termed as a profound reservoir of the unconscious mind. It’s primarily composed of primal psychic energy which is driven to fulfill fundamental sexual and aggressive instincts. The Id abides by what Freud termed as the ‘pleasure principle.’ Rather than dealing with delays or obstacles, it seeks instant satisfaction of its needs and wants. This means it necessitates immediate indulgence, having no regard for reality or societal norms. It can be viewed as the instinctual component of personality, influencing our experiences of desire and impulse.
Identical Elements Theory of Transfer: The Identical Elements Theory of Transfer posits that the transferability of knowledge or skills improves with the similarity between the learning and application situations. That is, maximum transfer occurs between scenarios with maximum commonalities.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Identical Elements Theory of Transfer’ is a psychological construct related to learning and skill acquisition. In essence, it postulates that the effectiveness of transferring acquired knowledge or abilities from one context to another is determined by the degree of similarity between these contexts. If the initial learning situation and the secondary application scenario share a large number of identical or similar components, then the transfer of learned information or skills will naturally be more substantial. This theory is instrumental in the field of educational psychology and instructional design, useful in creating teaching strategies that foster meaningful learning transfer.
Identical Twins: Identical twins are two beings arising from the same fertilized egg, sharing almost identical DNA, which makes them ideal for studying diseases without the variables of DNA sequence, age, and sex.
Expanded Definition
‘Identical Twins’ are two separate beings that have developed from the same fertilized egg, or zygote. This shared origin leads to their genetic makeup being either identical or incredibly similar. Their identical genes are what make them physically indistinguishable. Moreover, studying identical twins who display discordance for certain diseases offers a remarkable research opportunity. This is due to the fact that any genetic discrepancies, age, and gender differences are eliminated from the variable pool. As a result, researchers can focus primarily on potential environmental or other non-genetic factors that might influence the development or manifestation of the disease.
Identifiability: ‘Identifiability’ refers to the nervous system’s innate ability to initially respond to and recognize a given situation.
Expanded Definition
‘Identifiability’ can be professionally defined as ‘the capability to identify or categorize a specific scenario or circumstance, which is primarily a response from the nervous system that exhibits the ability to recognize it. This means the understanding unique characteristics of an incident or trigger that enable immediate recognition or categorization.’
Identification: Identification, as per Freud, is how children assimilate their parents’ values within their evolving moral consciousness or superegos.
Expanded Definition
‘Identification’, as defined by Sigmund Freud, represents an integral stage in a child’s psychological development wherein they internalize and adopt their parents’ principles and ideals into their own “superego.” The superego, in Freud’s theory, constitutes the moral compass of an individual, influencing their sense of right and wrong. This assimilation process helps to shape the child’s moral and ethical framework, guiding their behaviors and decision-making as they mature.
Identity: Identity refers to an individual’s self-perception formed through the adolescence stage by exploring and incorporating different societal roles.
Expanded Definition
‘Identity’ refers to an individual’s unique, self-formed perception of who they are, encapsulating personal traits, beliefs, values, and life role. The sense of identity is a continuously evolving construct shaped by an array of external influences and internal decisions. As per Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory, during adolescence, the primary developmental task involves experimenting with and synthesizing different roles (social, academic, familial) to create a consistent and comfortable sense of self. This process crucially contributes to identity formation, signifying maturation and preparing the individual for adult responsibilities and societal roles.
Illusions: Illusions are deceptive visual or sensory perceptions that mislead us into perceiving something inaccurately or seeing things that don’t exist.
Expanded Definition
‘Illusions’ can be defined as a perceptual phenomenon where our cognitive processes, responsible for interpreting the stimuli from our surroundings, are deceived by certain scenarios. As a result of this deceptive condition, we end up perceiving an object or event that doesn’t truly exist, or inaccurately interpret a real concept or occurrence. This often takes place due to the distortion, misconception, or misinterpretation of sensory inputs.
Illusory Correlation: An illusory correlation is a cognitive bias where individuals incorrectly identify a connection between two unrelated events, even though there’s no actual association present.
Expanded Definition
“Illusory Correlation” refers to a cognitive bias whereby individuals erroneously perceive a relationship or association between two events, behaviors, or variables that are not actually correlated. This psychological phenomenon typically occurs when people believe they are seeing meaningful patterns or connections in random or unrelated data. It is a common error in human decision-making and judgment, often reinforcing stereotypes and influencing biased attitudes. The term itself underscores that these perceived correlations are indeed illusory, and highlights the critical importance of objective statistical analysis in determining actual cause-and-effect relationships.
Imagery: Imagery is the process of forming mental images, often employed to enhance memory by associating it with semantic encoding. This tool intensifies cognitive processing, making information easier to remember.
Expanded Definition
‘Imagery’ refers to the conceptual creation of visual representations, or ‘mental pictures’, in the mind. It plays a significant role in cognitive processing, particularly when paired with semantic encoding – a type of information processing involving the explicit memory of meaning in a conscious and intentional manner. These mental images effectively complement semantic encoding because they can enhance the process of information retention. When used synergistically, imagery and semantic encoding, thus, create a powerful tool for more sophisticated and effortful cognitive processing, aiding with better comprehension, learning, and memory recall.
Impact Bias: Impact bias is the cognitive distortion where individuals predict their emotional reactions to future events to be stronger than they actually turn out to be.
Expanded Definition
‘Impact Bias’ is defined as a cognitive bias or psychological tendency where an individual inaccurately predicts the intensity and duration of their emotional reactions to future events. This often leads to an overestimation of the impact of certain events on their future emotional state, whether it’s in relation to positive or negative situations. For instance, individuals may anticipate that a promotion or a break-up could significantly alter their happiness or sadness levels for a prolonged period, whereas in reality, the emotional effect tends to be less intense and more short-lived than anticipated. Understanding this bias is crucial in personal decision-making and emotional planning processes.
Implemental Phase: The ‘Implemental Phase’ refers to the process of setting concrete actions required to achieve a specific goal, accompanied by a mindset focused on goal accomplishment.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Implemental Phase’ is a distinct stage within goal-setting and achievement processes that revolves around detailed action-planning connected to the pursued goal. In this phase, an individual or entity devises specific, concrete strategies that direct and facilitate successful execution of the goal. This involves cultivating a mindset that supports effective implementation of the strategies laid out, fostering goal-oriented behaviors, and overcoming potential obstacles. This phase is instrumental in bridging the gap between goal intention and goal accomplishment, translating the abstract concept of the goal into tangible, realizable actions.
Implicit Association Test: The Implicit Association Test (IAT) is a computer-based measurement tool that gauges the speed at which a participant associates a specific attribute with a concept, thus revealing their automatic biases or predispositions.
Expanded Definition
The Implicit Association Test (IAT) is a psychologically grounded methodology used to examine involuntary cognitive processes or subconscious biases linked to certain concepts. Technically, it operates by measuring the speed at which a participant pairs specific attributes, such as ‘good’ or ‘bad’, to predefined categories, therefore providing an indication of their automatic or ingrained associations. This computer-administered test relies on reaction times to assesses these implicit attitudes a person may have towards various areas such as ethnic groups, displaying potential positive or negative affiliations that might exist beneath conscious recognition. The speed of response aids in revealing whether the participant has easier or more difficult associations, thereby providing insights into their subconscious thoughts and suggestions of implicit bias.
Implicit Attitude: An implicit attitude is an unconscious, unexpressed belief or perception a person holds.
Expanded Definition
An ‘Implicit Attitude’ pertains to an individual’s subconscious or uninstructed belief system or value judgment. This attitude often influences the person’s behavior and decision-making process without their conscious awareness. In other words, it is a subconscious preference or bias that manifests in an individual’s actions or reactions despite not being openly voiced or deliberately conveyed. It typically emerges from past experiences or societal conditioning and can play a significant role in a person’s implicit or unconscious bias towards certain groups or categories.
Implicit Learning: Implicit learning is the subconscious acquisition of knowledge or skills, not intentionally learned and often difficult to articulate.
Expanded Definition
Implicit learning is a subconscious process characterized by the acquisition of knowledge or skills without direct and conscious effort to learn them. This type of learning often involves complex information or patterns that the learner might find challenging to articulate or describe accurately, despite being able to utilize the knowledge or skill effectively in application. Implicit learning is commonly observed in language acquisition or procedural tasks and it is integral to our ability to function smoothly in everyday life.
Implicit Measures of Attitudes: Implicit measures of attitudes are assessment tools that deduce an individual’s viewpoint indirectly, rather than relying on direct self-reporting.
Expanded Definition
“Implicit Measures of Attitudes” is a term that relates to the techniques and tools used within the field of psychology and social sciences to indirectly discern an individual’s beliefs, preferences, or biases. Unlike explicit attitude measures, where participants directly communicate their views, implicit measures use indirect means, such as reaction times, non-verbal cues, or subconscious responses. The purpose is to gain a more accurate representation of attitudes, as these measurements can uncover biases and beliefs that the participants themselves may not be aware of or are reluctant to openly express.
Implicit Memory: Implicit Memory is a form of long-term memory unconsciously encoded and used, subtly influencing a person’s behaviours and thoughts without their explicit awareness or intent.
Expanded Definition
“Implicit memory” is a category of long-term memory encompassing acquired knowledge that doesn’t require conscious effort or deliberate intent to be encoded. These memories, stored subconsciously, significantly influence a person’s thoughts, actions, and behaviors even though they may not be aware of such influences. Implicit memories, also recognized as non-declarative memories, typically pertain to acquired skills, habits, or conditioned responses – instrumental aspects of our automatic behavior. This form of memory relies on specific brain regions such as the amygdala and the cerebellum and is often impervious to memory disorders which affect explicit recall. Therefore, implicit memory is distinguished by its subconscious encoding and recall, its influence on behavior, and its resilience to typical memory disruptions.
Implicit Motives: Implicit motives are subconscious objectives that people are unaware of, making them unmeasurable through self-report methods.
Expanded Definition
“Implicit Motives” refers to underlying drives or goals that an individual may not be overtly conscious of, yet they significantly influence their thoughts, behaviors, and attitudes. These motives are often deeply entrenched in the subconscious mind and can’t be directly acknowledged or identified through introspective self-reporting methods. Essentially, they are hidden incentives that steer an individual’s actions, often revealed indirectly through observation and psychological evaluations.
Imprinting: Imprinting is the early life phase in some animals where they establish significant connections, typically with their caregivers. This vital behavioral process usually occurs within a narrow time frame, known as the critical period.
Expanded Definition
“Imprinting” can be more comprehensively defined as a swift and significant biological process that occurs in certain animals, usually within a critical, or sensitive, period shortly after birth or hatching. This process involves the animal forming essential cognitive and social attachments, primarily to their parental figures or, on occasion, to other proximate stimuli. These formed attachments subsequently guide their behavioral patterns, survival techniques, and social interactions in the later stages of their life. Beyond merely bonding, imprinting is an influential form of learning that lays the foundation for the animal’s understanding of the world and its species-specific behaviors. The psychological and biological mechanisms behind imprinting contribute majorly to our understanding of animal behavior, early cognitive development, and species preservation strategies.
Inattentional Blindness: Inattentional blindness is a psychological lack of awareness where one overlooks prominent items due to focusing on other tasks. It’s essentially missing the obvious due to being engrossed elsewhere.
Expanded Definition
‘Inattentional Blindness’ can be expertly defined as a cognitive phenomenon where an individual fails to perceive an object, event, or stimulus that is within their visual field due to their attention being significantly focused on another task or element. Despite the object’s full visibility, it remains unnoticed, illustrating how our attentional resources are limited and are selectively dedicated based on cognitive processing. This mental blind spot emphasises the integral role of attention in our perception and understanding of our environment.
Incentive: An incentive is a motivating factor, either rewarding or penalizing, that drives behaviors.
Expanded Definition
‘Incentive’ is a term that refers to an external stimulus that either promotes or discourages specific behaviors. These stimuli may be positive, leading towards the encouragement of a particular action, or negative, acting as a deterrent against unwanted behaviors. Incentives play an essential role in shaping individual or group actions and decisions, with broad applications in fields like economics, psychology, and business. Their impacts can be observed in various aspects of life, such as work performance, consumer purchasing habits, and lifestyle choices. Ultimately, incentives are functional tools used to motivate desired behaviors and outcomes.
Incidence: ‘Incidence’ is the calculated rate at which a specific psychological disorder crops up within a defined population.
Expanded Definition
‘Incidence’ is a term utilized predominantly in the field of epidemiology. It denotes the number of newly identified cases of a specific condition, such as a psychological disorder, within a designated population over a given time frame. Unlike prevalence, which considers both old and new cases to measure overall occurrence, incidence strictly focuses on the diagnosis of new cases. Therefore, it provides a direct measure of the risk or probability of developing the specified condition within the defined period.
Incidental Learning: Incidental learning is an unintentional, unplanned form of knowledge acquisition during other activities. It’s spontaneous learning occurring without an aimed effort to learn.
Expanded Definition
‘Incidental Learning’ refers to the process through which knowledge or information is acquired unintentionally or unconsciously as part of an activity, interaction, or experience. It is a form of informal or spontaneous learning where the learner may not even be aware that learning is occurring. Instead of being the outcome of explicit and structured education or training, incidental learning typically results from other activities such as routine tasks, social interactions, or new experiences where the primary objective is not to learn. This type of learning is integral to lifelong learning and complex learning processes, often leading to unexpected or serendipitous insights.
Independent Self: An Independent Self is a concept that perceives individuals as distinct entities possessing consistent personal qualities that shape their actions and who often communicate their feelings to sway others.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘Independent Self’ refers to a psychological perspective that perceives individuals as distinct entities, each possessing a reliable array of personal characteristics or traits. These traits are seen as the primary driving force behind their behavior. This view also acknowledges that people often demonstrate their emotions as a tool to sway or affect other individuals’ actions or decisions, positioning emotional expression as a strategic interpersonal technique. This perspective emphasizes the meaning of personal autonomy, individuality, and self-reliance in discerning human behavior.
Independent Variable: An independent variable is a factor that is deliberately manipulated by a researcher in an experiment to evaluate its effect on a dependent variable.
Expanded Definition
An ‘Independent Variable’ is a scientific term typically used in experimental research settings. It refers to the variable intentionally changed or manipulated by a researcher to examine its impact on the dependent variable. In essence, it’s the presumed cause in any causal relationship under investigation. The changes in this variable are independent of other variables in the experiment, hence its name, and it offers a way to compare changes and draw conclusions on cause-effect relationships.
Individual Differences: ‘Individual Differences’ are the distinct physical or psychological traits that separate one person from another.
Expanded Definition
“Individual Differences” is a term utilized in psychology and other allied fields to refer to the distinctive variations or dissimilarities observable amongst individuals pertaining to physical or psychological characteristics. These variations can span a wide range of elements, encompassing physiological attributes such as height, weight, or eye color, and psychological facets like personality traits, cognitive abilities, or emotional responses. Research in this area is typically aimed at uncovering patterns and understanding the origins and effects of these differences in order to predict individual and group behavior. Therefore, it serves as a foundational concept in developing and validating theories related to human behavior and cognition. These individual differences are critical in shaping our interactions, experiences, and behavior, and thus play a pivotal role in fields from psychology and sociology to education and human resources.
Individualism: Individualism is a concept prioritizing personal autonomy and self-expression, often associated with Western cultures, emphasizing uniqueness of individuals and their independence in making decisions.
Expanded Definition
‘Individualism’ can be intricately defined as a principle or ideology that accentuates the distinctiveness and autonomy of an individual. It cherishes personal freedom, advocating that each person should have liberty to express their opinions and make decisions based on their own beliefs and perspectives. Within Western cultures, this concept plays a significant role, where norms are often centered around the valuation of the self and one’s self-reliance, fostering independence from others. In this context, individualism seeks to underscore the importance of personal aspiration, accomplishment, and uniqueness, seeing the individual, rather than the group, as the primary unit of social, political, and economic concern.
Individuation: Individuation is the process where the conscious and unconscious minds are united, harmonizing various aspects of the psyche.
Expanded Definition
‘Individuation’ can be redefined as the dynamic and ongoing psychological journey that aims to harmonize and unify one’s conscious and unconscious spheres of the mind, thereby fostering a balanced and comprehensive self-awareness. This process capitalizes on the amalgamation of our various mental elements, or components of our psyche, and seeks to achieve a synergy between them. Essentially, it is a pathway toward realizing one’s unique personality and potential in the most holistic, integrated method possible, thus nurturing and promoting individual identity and authenticity.
Industrial Organization (I/O) Psychology: Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology entails the strategic application of psychological strategies and principles to improve productivity and behavior in work environments.
Expanded Definition
Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology pertains to the specialized field of psychology that applies psychological theories, principles, and research methods to enhance the efficiency, productivity, and overall well-being of individuals in a workplace setting. By strategically integrating these psychological applications, I/O Psychologists facilitate a comprehensive understanding and management of various organizational aspects such as human resources, business strategies, behavior analytics, and employee health and job satisfaction. They employ scientific techniques to drive effective decision-making, promote individual and team performance, and cultivate a more cohesive, inclusive, and positive organizational culture.
Infancy: Infancy is the early life phase spanning from birth to the first year, marked by rapid developmental changes.
Expanded Definition
‘Infancy’ is a term in developmental psychology, referring to the initial stage of a human’s life cycle, which commences from the moment of birth and spans until the child’s first birthday. During this foundational period, rapid and significant physical, cognitive, emotional and social development take place. Despite the brevity of this phase compared to other life stages, the experiences and nurturing received during infancy can greatly influence the individual’s health, growth, and developmental trajectory in the ensuing years.
Information Processor: An information processor is a system that converts received information from one format to another.
Expanded Definition
An Information Processor is a system or application designed to receive data, interpret it, and convert it into a different format or structure for further use. It essentially operates by ingesting raw data, applying specified algorithms or processes to it, and producing readable, structured, and optimized information. This process aids in more effective data comprehension, storage, and management. Information processors are integral components in varying fields, including computing, where devices like computers serve as information processors, and in data science, where algorithms function as information processors to extract meaningful insights from vast data sets.
Informational Influence: Informational influence refers to the tendency of individuals to conform to group behavior due to perceived wisdom or knowledge within the group. It’s essentially the concept where people mirror group actions to gain accurate information and understand appropriate behaviors.
Expanded Definition
“Informational Influence” refers to a psychological mechanism where individuals make decisions or modify their behaviors based upon the information they obtain from others around them. Here, individuals rely on the collective knowledge and actions of a group, surmising that the crowd’s choice may be more informed or accurate. This adherence to the general consensus is often dictated by a desire for correctness or an understanding of a situation that they may not have otherwise attained on their own. As such, informational influence is a crucial aspect of social conformity and decision-making processes.
Informative Social Influence: Informative social influence is the process whereby individuals shape their perspectives or actions based on others’ viewpoints or behaviors, considering them as valid assessments of reality.
Expanded Definition
‘Informative Social Influence’ refers to a psychological and social phenomenon where an individual changes their perceptions, behaviors, or understandings based on the insights or information they receive from others. This occurs because the individual values others’ perspectives as credible sources of information and uses this information to shape or redefine their own interpretation of reality. This is a key aspect of how social interactions shape personal beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions, playing a crucial role in group dynamics, consensus-building, decision-making processes, and the formation of social norms.
Informed Consent: Informed consent is detailed information provided to a participant prior to research, outlining the procedures and articulating their rights during the study.
Expanded Definition
‘Informed Consent’ refers to the procedural requirement wherein clear and comprehensive information about a particular research is provided to a participant prior to their involvement. The purpose is to elucidate the methodology, possible risks, benefits, and the overall scope of the research, encouraging informed decision-making. Additionally, it empowers the participant with the knowledge of their rights, allowing them to participate, abstain, or withdraw from the research at any point, thereby promoting transparency and autonomy during the investigation. This is a foundational ethical standard in research studies, particularly those involving human subjects.
Ingroup: An ‘Ingroup’ is the specific circle or community an individual identifies with or belongs, having shared interests, perspectives or characteristics.
Expanded Definition
‘Ingroup’ is a sociological term used to describe a social group to which an individual perceives themselves as belonging. This membership typically promotes a sense of identity and unity among individuals involved, reinforcing their shared values, norms, and beliefs. These groups can take various forms, including familial, social, professional, or cultural affiliations. An individual’s association with an ingroup affects their worldview and social interactions, often influencing their attitudes and behaviors towards members of outgroups, which are groups they do not identify with. Hence, the concept of ‘ingroup’ plays a crucial role in self-identification, social affiliation, and interpersonal dynamics.
Ingroup Bias: Ingroup bias is the often unconscious preference and positive bias towards individuals belonging to one’s own group, resulting in favoritism and discrimination.
Expanded Definition
‘Ingroup Bias’ is a psychological phenomenon and a fundamental aspect of human behavior. It refers to an innate predisposition among individuals to perceive and evaluate members of their own affiliated group (the in-group) more positively and favorably compared to those who belong to different groups (the out-group). This bias is driven by various factors, including the human need for social identity and belonging, and it can manifest in different contexts such as ethnicity, religion, workplace, and peer groups. Despite its innate character, the intensity and expression of ingroup bias can be shaped by social, cultural and individual factors.
Inhibitory: ‘Inhibitory’ refers to neurotransmitters that reduce the probability of a cell’s activation or firing, regulating neuronal activity.
Expanded Definition
Inhibitory, within the context of neuroscience, refers to a type of neurotransmitter – a specific chemical messenger in the brain. These neurotransmitters effectively decrease the likelihood of a neuron (a specialized nerve cell) generating an electrical signal, known as an action potential. In other words, inhibitory neurotransmitters reduce the neuron’s excitability and activity, contributing to a balanced and properly functioning nervous system. By reducing neuronal firing, they play a crucial role in modulating various neuronal processes, affecting behaviors such as mood and cognition.
Inner Ear: The inner ear is a complex system of fluid-filled structures that convert sound waves into electrical signals, which are then transmitted to the brain via the auditory nerve for sound interpretation.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Inner Ear’ is a complex and delicately structured part of our auditory system that is integral to both hearing and balance. It comprises intricate arrangements of fluid-filled cavities and minute organs, all of which play significant roles in transmitting auditory stimuli to the brain. When sound waves enter the ear, they are transduced or transformed into electrical signals the brain can interpret as sound. This transduction process occurs within the inner ear mechanism. The key structures involved include the cochlea, responsible for sound processing, and the vestibular system, controlling balance. These intricate parts work together to relay sensory stimuli via nerve fibers, specifically auditory nerves, to the brain which then interprets these signals as meaningful sound. The inner ear also contains endolymph, a unique fluid medium that assists in the regulation of these processes, ensuring proper auditory perception and balance.
Insight: ‘Insight’ is the awareness a patient gains about the subconscious triggers underlying their symptoms.
Expanded Definition
‘Insight’ is predominantly defined and understood within psychotherapy and medical contexts as the patient’s perceptual awareness of the underlying subconscious factors contributing to their presenting symptoms or psychological conditions. This includes the ability to recognize and apprehend how repressed emotions, unresolved past traumas, or unrecognized patterns of behavior may contribute to their current state of psychological or physical health. It is a substantial stepping-stone towards healing and recovery as it enables self-understanding and fosters the capacity to actively participate in a therapeutic process.
Insight Therapies: Insight therapies are therapeutic approaches that enhance psychological function by illuminating the client’s hidden motives and defenses. They facilitate self-awareness to improve mental wellbeing.
Expanded Definition
‘Insight Therapies’ refer to a broad spectrum of therapeutic approaches in the domain of psychology. These methodologies seek to enhance an individual’s mental well-being by promoting an in-depth understanding of their core motivations and defensive mechanisms. The primary objective of insight therapies is to illuminate potentially unrecognized or misunderstood elements of one’s behavior or thought processes, thereby fostering improved self-awareness, personal growth, and psychological resilience. It’s this focus on introspective inquiry and discovery that often leads to more meaningful behavioral change and improved psychological functioning.
Insomnia: Insomnia is a chronic sleep disorder marked by consistent trouble in falling asleep or maintaining sleep.
Expanded Definition
‘Insomnia’ is a prevalent sleep disorder characterized by a chronic difficulty or inability to either initiate sleep, maintain a steady state of sleep, or experience quality restorative sleep. This disorder, typically associated with a range of diverse causative factors, leads to substantial functional impairment in daily life due to insufficient sleep or poor sleep quality. The persistence of these sleep disturbances, despite having ample opportunity for sleep, is a key determinant in diagnosing insomnia. This condition can either manifest itself as a primary disorder or can result as a secondary condition related to other physical or mental health issues.
Instinct: ‘Instinct’ refers to a species-wide, fixed behavior pattern that is not acquired through learning.
Expanded Definition
‘Instinct’ is a sophisticated behavioral pattern that is both innate and unvarying, consistently exhibited within a particular species. It is not acquired or influenced by personal experience or learning, but is genetically embedded, facilitating the species’ ability to adapt, survive, and reproduce. This inherent behaviour is typically automatic, uncomplicated by conscious thought, and consistent in its expression throughout members of the same species.
Instincts: Instincts are innate behavioral responses hardwired in organisms, designed to aid survival and reproduction.
Expanded Definition
‘Instincts’ are integral, complex behavioral patterns ingrained in a species at the genetic level. These are innate, not learned, and serve to facilitate individual survival and propagate the species by directly aiding in key actions such as hunting, fleeing from danger, and reproducing. Unlike learned behaviors, these primal responses are exhibited consistently across individuals within a species, revealing a fundamental biological regulation for survival and reproduction.
Institutional Review Board (IRB): An Institutional Review Board (IRB) or Ethical Review Board (ERB), is a group formed to analyze and determine the ethical implications and potential benefits versus risks of research carried out within an organization.
Expanded Definition
An Institutional Review Board (IRB), also known as an Ethical Review Board (ERB), is a specially constituted panel, typically comprised of a minimum of five members. This panel is responsible for ensuring the ethical standards and safeguarding the wellbeing of subjects involved in research conducted within its respective institution. The IRB achieves this by reviewing and evaluating the potential risks and benefits associated with the proposed research. The members of this committee are commonly a diverse mix of individuals, including scholars, legal experts, and community members, ensuring a broad range of perspectives regarding potential ethical implications. The fundamental aim of the IRB is to protect the rights and welfare of human subjects in research endeavours.
Instrumental Conditioning: Instrumental conditioning, also known as operant conditioning, is a learning process where behavior is modified based on resulting rewards or punishments. Essentially, it illustrates how consequences shape behavior.
Expanded Definition
Instrumental Conditioning, also referred to as Operant Conditioning, is a fundamental concept in behavioral psychology which involves the development of an association between specific actions and their resultant outcomes. This principle posits that the frequency of a behavior can be increased or decreased depending on how it is followed either by rewards (reinforcement) or by undesirable results (punishment). This form of learning, honed through repeated experiences, enables organisms, including humans, to adapt and optimize behavior according to their environmental context for survival and benefit.
Integrative Psychology: Integrative Psychology is a holistic approach to understanding human behavior by converging mental, physical, and spiritual aspects of an individual’s existence.
Expanded Definition
Integrative Psychology is a comprehensive approach to understanding human behavior and mental processes, bridging the gap between the physical, mental, and spiritual dimensions of human experiences. It incorporates elements of traditional psychological theories while also considering aspects of physical health and spiritual beliefs. This multi-dimensional approach aids in producing a well-rounded understanding of an individual, promoting holistic healing and wellness solutions. It recognizes that each aspect – the mind, the body, and the spirit – are interlinked and each can significantly influence the others. By acknowledging this interconnectedness, Integrative Psychology offers a broader, more inclusive view of human psychology.
Intellectual Disability: An Intellectual Disability is a pervasive disorder characterized by an IQ below 70, persistent from childhood, associated with difficulties in basic life skills and communication.
Expanded Definition
Intellectual Disability is a developmental disorder, characterized by significant limitations in intellectual functioning (as measured by an IQ score under 70) and adaptive behavior. These limitations manifest before the age of 18, affecting the individual’s ability to learn, reason, problem-solve, and process information. It also curtails proficiency in fundamental life skills needed for everyday living, such as self-care, social interaction, and communication. This condition is not static, and with the right support, individuals displaying these symptoms can lead fulfilling lives within their communities.
Intelligence: Intelligence is the mental aptitude to acquire knowledge, solve problems through learning from experiences, and adapt to novel situations.
Expanded Definition
‘Intelligence’ is a mental capacity that involves the faculties to understand from experiences, innovatively tackle issues, and utilize acquired knowledge to adjust effectively to novel scenarios. It is less a singular attribute and more a composite of a range of abilities such as abstract thought, comprehension, communication, memory retention, problem-solving, and learning. Thus, intelligence encapsulates the mind’s nimbleness, its capability to draw on past encounters to handle present situations, its adeptness in understanding complex ideas, and its flexibility to respond to new environments or change.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ): Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is a standardized measure used to assess human intelligence, originally calculated as the mental age over chronological age, multiplied by 100. In modern tests, it assigns an average score of 100 to the typical performance for a specific age.
Expanded Definition
The Intelligence Quotient, better known as IQ, is a metric used to assess human intelligence. This concept was originally conceptualized as a proportion, determined through comparing an individual’s mental age against their chronological, or actual, age, and then multiplying this quotient by 100 to create what we refer to as the IQ score (IQ=ma/ca x 100). In this formula, the term “mental age” was meant to represent the age level at which a person is performing mentally, as based on their cognitive abilities. For example, if a 10-year-old child has the cognitive performance of a 12-year-old, their mental age is reckoned as 12. In contemporary IQ testing, the scale has been normalized so that an average performance, appropriate for a person’s actual age, is assigned a numerical score of 100. IQ scores are distributed around this average, with roughly 95% of scores falling between 70 and 130. An IQ test does not measure knowledge, wisdom, or all types of intelligence, but it’s generally considered a helpful tool for assessing specific cognitive abilities, such as logical reasoning, problem solving, and pattern recognition skills.
Intelligence Test: An intelligence test is a tool employed to numerically evaluate a person’s cognitive abilities and benchmark them against average or established standards.
Expanded Definition
An “Intelligence Test” is a scientifically designed tool employed to evaluate a person’s cognitive capabilities. This examination method aims to measure various facets of a person’s intellectual capacity such as logical reasoning, problem-solving skills, and understanding of concepts, among others. The results are quantified using numerical scores. Those scores are then juxtaposed with the scores of a larger sample population in order to determine the examinee’s intellectual position relative to others. This test is used in many fields, encompassing education, psychology, and employment, to make informed decisions regarding placement, potential, and capacities.
Intensity: Intensity refers to the energy level in a light or sound wave, determining its perceived brightness or loudness, respectively, and is driven by the wave’s amplitude.
Expanded Definition
“Intensity” is a term used in scientific contexts to describe the concentration of energy within a wave of light or sound, which directly impacts how we experience its brightness or loudness. This energy concentration is influenced by the wave’s amplitude – the measurement of its peak energy level. More energy correlates with higher amplitude, resulting in a brighter light or a louder sound, hence greater intensity. This term helps quantify sensory experiences in a more technical and precise manner, contributing to fields like physics, engineering, and audiovisual technology.
Intentional: ‘Intentional’ refers to the conscious decision by an individual to carry out an action they expect will lead to a specific desired result.
Expanded Definition
“Intentional” refers to the conscious and purposeful mindset an individual adopts when deciding to undertake a certain action. This action is often linked to the individual’s subjective belief that it will result in a specific preferred outcome. The individual, termed as the agent, operates with a clear end goal in mind, signifying that the action isn’t accidental or incidental, but rather calculated and deliberate.
Intentional Learning: Intentional learning refers to the purposeful acquisition of knowledge stimulated by an individual’s determined motivation. It’s a motivated learning process driven by one’s goals and purposes.
Expanded Definition
‘Intentional Learning’ is an educational concept that revolves around the premise of purposeful knowledge acquisition. It is learning that is governed by a clear objective, where the learner has a specific goal in mind. Unlike passive or unintentional learning, in intentional learning, the learner proactively seeks, processes, and retains information with a designated intention. This often involves conscious strategic planning, active engagement, reflection, and application of learned material.
Intentionality: Intentionality refers to the conscious, skilled execution of an action derived from an individual’s desires and related beliefs.
Expanded Definition
“Intentionality” is a term that broadly encapsulates an agent’s deliberate act of performing a certain behavior, underscored by skill, cognitive awareness, and the execution of a predetermined plan or intention. It stems from a desire to undertake a particular action, coupled with beliefs that support and justify the course of action. This implies a conscious decision-making process where the agent understands the purpose of their action, can foresee its potential effects, and has the necessary capabilities to carry out the action effectively. To operate with intentionality necessitates not merely an absence of randomness or accident, but a proactive and informed engagement in one’s conduct.
Interaction: Interaction is a dynamic process where the influence of one element relies on the presence of another, like how environmental impacts can depend on genetic factors.
Expanded Definition
‘Interaction’ can be comprehensively defined as the dynamic process that takes place when the impact of a certain element or variable, such as the environment, is contingent on the influence of another variable, such as heredity. This suggests that the ultimate effect is not simply the sum of the separate impacts these factors could have on their own, but a product of their combined influence or interplay. This concept is pivotal in many fields including psychology, sociology, biology, and even physics, emphasizing how different entities or factors can mutually affect or shape one another.
Interdependent Self: The ‘Interdependent Self’ concept suggests individuals adapt their behavior according to varying social situations, typically by regulating emotions to align with others. Essentially, it underscores the influence of social context on human behavior.
Expanded Definition
‘Interdependent Self’ can be comprehensively described as a socio-psychological concept that posits individuals are dynamically shaped by and responsive to their particular social environments. It emphasizes the fluidity of personal identity, asserting that individuals’ attitudes, behaviors, and self-perceptions may fluctuate depending on their current social context. This theory underscores the societal influence as the primary determinant of human behaviors. In order to harmonize with these environments, individuals often exhibit emotional regulation, which involves the deliberate control and moderation of emotional responses to conform to the societal norms and expectations of others. This concept illustrates the inherent connection between human behavior, internal emotional landscape, and the external social context.
Interference: ‘Interference’ refers to the obstructive effect of certain memories on the recall of other specific memories.
Expanded Definition
‘Interference’ is a cognitive phenomenon where it becomes challenging to recall specific memories due to the obstructive influence of other experiences or information stored in the mind. It entails a situation where retrieval of a particular memory is impeded or disrupted due to the overlap or juxtaposition of different memories within the cognitive framework. This primarily occurs when the other memories share similar attributes or are closely associated with the desired memory, which leads to confusion during the process of recollection.
Internal Locus of Control: ‘Internal Locus of Control’ refers to an individual’s belief that their success or failure results from their own actions and efforts, rather than being dictated by external circumstances.
Expanded Definition
‘Internal Locus of Control’ is a psychological concept that refers to an individual’s innate conviction that personal actions and engagement largely influence life outcomes and accomplishments. It signifies a mindset where individuals attribute their success or failure to their own efforts and choices rather than circumstances or external factors. If they encounter failure, individuals with a strong internal locus of control typically attribute it to their own inadequate input or effort, rather than blaming external conditions or factors. This term reflects an individual’s perception of personal control or autonomy over life events and achievements.
Internal Validity: Internal validity is the measure of trustworthiness in the inference of a causal relationship between variables, specifically how reliably the dependent variable changes due to manipulation of the independent variable.
Expanded Definition
“Internal Validity” refers to the degree of confidence we can have in stating that a research study’s observed outcomes, specifically the relationship between the independent and dependent variables, are indeed caused by the variables being tested and not by external factors or biases. This validity is considered high if the findings accurately denote the cause-and-effect relationship with negligible interference from other variables. Essentially, it’s about ensuring that the design, methodology, and analysis of the study allow us to accurately infer that the changes in the dependent variable are solely due to the manipulation of the independent variable.
Interneuron: An interneuron is a type of neuron predominantly found in the central nervous system, tasked with facilitating communication between neurons and integrating sensory information for comprehensive understanding.
Expanded Definition
An ‘Interneuron’ is predominantly found within the Central Nervous System (CNS) and is distinguished as the most prevalent type of neuron present. It primarily serves the intricate purpose of fostering communication between various neurons. This is achieved as interneurons process and interpret diverse neural informations received, which in turn enables the brain to seamlessly integrate and assemble this data into a comprehensive and coherent depiction of the sensory information that is being transmitted. As such, interneurons play a pivotal role in the complex functioning of the nervous system.
Interpersonal: Interpersonal refers to the dynamic emotional interactions that occur between individuals within a group.
Expanded Definition
“Interpersonal” typically refers to the interactions or relationships between individuals. As such, it can be redefined in the context of emotional functions as: “Interpersonal Emotion Dynamics: This refers to the significant function or impact that emotions have in facilitating, regulating, and shaping interactions among individuals within a social group context. It explores how feelings and emotional exchanges influence the quality, nature, and outcomes of individual interactions and relationships.”
Interpersonal Intelligence: Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to decipher and interpret others’ emotions, intentions, and motivations. It’s the adeptness at understanding people’s desires and navigating social interactions effectively.
Expanded Definition
‘Interpersonal Intelligence’ can be comprehensively defined as a cognitive capacity that enables an individual to decipher and comprehend the emotional states, intentions, motivations, and aspirations of other individuals. This form of intelligence pertains to the unique ability to detect and interpret the emotions and sentiments of others, empathize with differing perspectives, anticipate responses, and effectively navigate social interactions. It is fundamentally a key skill in understanding and responding to human behavior, and is critical in fostering effective communication and relationship-building in professional and personal contexts.
Interpretation: Interpretation is the process where a therapist deciphers a patient’s externalized thoughts to comprehend their hidden subconscious issues.
Expanded Definition
‘Interpretation’ refers to a specialized methodological technique in psychotherapy where the therapist carefully analyses and deciphers the thoughts communicated by the patient to gain a deeper comprehension of the latent unconscious issues. This process necessitates an intricate understanding of human psychology and enables the therapist to detect patterns, emotions, and motivations that may not be immediately apparent or consciously recognized by the patient.
Intersexual Selection: ‘Intersexual Selection’ is the evolutionary process driven by one gender’s preferences influencing the traits of the opposite gender, thus shaping their evolutionary adaptations.
Expanded Definition
‘Intersexual Selection’ is a term used in the field of evolutionary biology to describe a particular type of sexual selection. Specifically, this process refers to the evolutionary changes that occur in a species due to the preferential mate selection behaviors of one sex over the other. Essentially, one sex’s mate preferences heavily influence the reproductive success of the opposite sex, thereby leading to a selection pressure that drives certain changes or adaptations over time. This process plays a significant role in the formation of a variety of physical and behavioral traits across species, thereby impacting biodiversity and interspecies dynamics.
Intimacy: Intimacy, in Erikson’s theory, is the capability to forge deep, affectionate bonds, considered a crucial development milestone in late teens and early adulthood.
Expanded Definition
Intimacy, as posited in Erikson’s psychological theory, represents the capacity to establish deep, affectionate connections with others. This attribute is considered a crucial developmental milestone predominantly in the stages of late adolescence and early adulthood. The achievement of intimacy involves fostering trust, open communication, and emotional understanding in relationships, which can contribute to emotional and psychological well-being. Notably, this process is an integral part of growth and maturation process that informs the quality and nature of personal relationships throughout a person’s life.
Intrapersonal: ‘Intrapersonal’ refers to the emotional processes and interactions that occur within an individual’s mind. It is about understanding and managing one’s own emotions and thoughts.
Expanded Definition
‘Intrapersonal’ refers to the processes and interactions that occur internally within an individual, specifically in the realm of emotions. It pertains to the roles emotions play in influencing our thoughts, behaviors, and attitudes on a personal level. This includes the manner in which we interpret and manage our feelings, our level of self-awareness concerning our emotions, and how our emotions affect our personal decision-making and psychological state. In essence, intrapersonal encompasses the relationship we have with ourselves, specifically focusing on the emotional aspect.
Intrapersonal Intelligence: Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to self-reflect and comprehend one’s own emotions and behavior. It represents an individual’s skill in self-awareness and self-management.
Expanded Definition
‘Intrapersonal Intelligence’ is a term that refers to an individual’s ability to have a deep understanding of oneself. This incorporates not simply recognizing but analyzing one’s own emotions, thoughts, values, strengths, and weaknesses. It involves a strong self-awareness, self-regulation, and an effective ability to manage one’s emotional responses. This kind of intelligence plays a crucial role in enabling introspection and self-reflection, thus allowing individuals to make mindful decisions guided by their internal perspectives. It also speaks to an individual’s capacity to understand their motivations, goals, and psychological state, serving as a fundamental tool in personal growth and self-development.
Intrasexual Competition: Intrasexual competition refers to the competitive interactions within a single sex for mating access to the opposite sex, where the winners secure more mating opportunities.
Expanded Definition
Intrasexual Competition refers to a specific form of sexual selection whereby individuals of the same sex engage in competitive behaviors or strategies. These competitions are commonly found throughout various species, including humans, and are primarily driven by the pursuit of maximizing reproductive success. The ultimate reward for the winners of these competitions is privileged or preferential mating access to individuals of the opposite sex. This preferential access can help ensure their genes are more widely or successfully passed onto the next generation. The nature of these competitions can vary greatly, ranging from direct physical confrontations to subtle displays of physical attributes or resources, all designed to surpass rivals in attracting or securing mates.
Intrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic motivation refers to the personal fulfillment and enjoyment derived from performing a task, with the motivation rooted in the process and pursuit of a goal rather than the outcome.
Expanded Definition
“Intrinsic Motivation” refers to the inherent, self-propelling drive within an individual stimulating them to engage and invest in activities for their own sake. This form of motivation does not rely on external rewards or stimuli, but rather, it is sparked by the personal enjoyment, satisfaction, or intellectual stimulation derived from the process itself. It is the driving force of actions that are perceived as inherently valuable, beneficial, and worthwhile, nourishing the desire to pursue a goal, not for external gains, but due to the intrinsic joy and fulfillment derived from the journey towards its achievement.
Introspection: Introspection is a technique used in psychology to gather insight into one’s mental processes by observing and reporting conscious thoughts and experiences during intellectual tasks.
Expanded Definition
“Introspection” is a methodological approach initially employed by structuralist psychologists in an attempt to chart and understand the landscape of human consciousness. It involves eliciting subjective, experiential narratives from research participants as they engage in particular mental activities. Researchers using introspection ask participants to meticulously articulate their thoughts, perceptions, emotions, and sensations while executing these cognitive tasks, so as to gain an in-depth perspective of their conscious experiences. Although rooted in structuralist perspectives, introspection remains a crucial tool in varied fields of psychological research, opening pathways for deeper insights into the multifaceted nature of conscious human experience.
Introvert: An introvert is an individual primarily focused on their inner thoughts and feelings rather than external stimulation. They are typically introspective and gain energy from solitude.
Expanded Definition
An ‘Introvert’ is typically characterized as an individual who predominantly focuses on their inner thoughts and feelings rather than seeking out external stimulation. They derive energy from solitude and quiet reflection, often exhibiting a preference for solitary activities over social interactions. Introverts are not necessarily shy or antisocial, but they may need periods of alone time to recharge after prolonged social exposure. They also tend to process information internally and profoundly.
Intuition: Intuition is an automatic, instant response or thought, distinct from deliberate, conscious thinking.
Expanded Definition
Intuition is the cognitive process through which individuals form immediate insights or understandings without engaging in deliberate, analytical thought or formal reasoning. It is an innate mental capacity that allows for understanding and decision-making to occur spontaneously and seamlessly, contrasting with conscious reasoning which typically requires effortful cognitive deliberation. Often subtitled as a ‘gut feeling’, intuition is the subconscious mind’s way of synthesizing information quickly for prompt or instinctual conclusions or actions. It’s important to note, however, that while intuition can sometimes guide accurate decisions, it may also lead to biases and errors due to its non-rational nature.
Intuitive: ‘Intuitive’ refers to someone who perceives multiple outcomes in scenarios, often relying on gut feelings, yet may overlook practical details and lack focus on the present.
Expanded Definition
“Intuitive” refers to a cognitive process where decisions, understanding, or knowledge come about without conscious reasoning, often perceived as ‘hunches’ or ‘gut feelings’. This means possessing a knack for perceiving potential and multifaceted solutions or outcomes within a given situation, often beyond the readily apparent. It is not uncommon for individuals with a high degree of intuition to exhibit impatience with mundane or excessively detailed tasks as they are typically inclined toward a creative, broad-strokes approach rather than meticulous management of details. This can occasionally be misinterpreted as impracticality or absent-mindedness. The intuitive process, while not always grounded in tangible facts or details, can form an essential component of decision making, innovation, and problem-solving.
Inverted U Hypothesis: The Inverted U Hypothesis suggests that moderate stress can foster growth, but beyond a certain threshold, it becomes counterproductive and detrimental.
Expanded Definition
The Inverted U Hypothesis, also known as the Yerkes-Dodson Law, proposes an optimal level of stress or arousal for performance, indicating that a certain amount of stress can be beneficial, fostering growth and enhancing productivity or performance. However, beyond this optimal point, any additional stress negatively impacts performance, leading to a decline or detriment. This relationship between stress intensity and performance forms an ‘inverted U’ shape graphically, with peak performance occurring at mid-level stress, and performance diminishing at very low or very high stress levels. The model also suggests a person’s ability to manage stress plays a role in determining their optimal stress point.
IQ: IQ, or Intelligence Quotient, is a quantifiable assessment of an individual’s cognitive abilities, factoring in their age.
Expanded Definition
“IQ, or Intelligence Quotient, is a quantifiable metric that evaluates an individual’s cognitive ability in relation to their age group. This evaluation is typically based on standardized tests specifically designed for this purpose. The score aims to provide a measure of a person’s intellectual capacity compared to their peers of the same age. It’s important to note that while it assesses aspects such as logic, reasoning, problem-solving, and comprehension capabilities, it does not represent the entirety of an individual’s intellectual or cognitive abilities.”
Iris: The iris is the pigmented part of the eye responsible for adjusting the pupil’s size to regulate light entry.
Expanded Definition
“The ‘Iris’ is a specialized, circular structure located within the eye that is discernible by its color, which can range from hues of blue, green, brown, and others. Its primary function is to control the diameter and size of the pupil- the central, black circular opening- thereby regulating the amount of light that enters the eye. It achieves this through the dynamic process of constriction and dilation: the iris constricts or narrows in response to high light intensity to reduce light entry, whereas it dilates or widens in low light conditions to enable more light to penetrate into the eye. This involuntary process, influenced by the surrounding brightness, aids in optimizing visual acuity across varying light conditions.”

J

James-Lange Theory of Emotion: The James-Lange Theory of Emotion postulates that our identification of emotions is shaped by our physiological responses to stimuli, suggesting that our bodily reactions actually determine the emotions we experience.
Expanded Definition
The James-Lange Theory of Emotion is a psychological hypothesis co-developed by two scholars, William James and Carl Lange. This theory suggests a direct linkage between physiological arousal and the experience of emotions. According to this theory, when a person encounters an emotionally charged event, it first induces a physiological response, such as increased heart rate or sweaty palms. The brain then interprets this physiological activity, and only after that interpretation does the person experience what we commonly understand as emotion. In essence, the James-Lange theory posits that our emotional responses are largely dependent on how our body responds to external stimuli, proposing an integrated perception of arousal and emotion rather than viewing them as separate entities.
Jet Lag: Jet lag is the physical and cognitive exhaustion experienced as the body adapts to a shift in time zones following long-distance travel.
Expanded Definition
‘Jet Lag’ is a temporary sleep disorder characterized by symptoms such as fatigue, disorientation, difficulty concentrating, and disturbed sleep. This condition is typically experienced by individuals who traverse multiple time zones during long-distance travels, such as airplane flights. The body’s internal biological clock, or circadian rhythm, which governs functions such as sleepiness and hunger, is disrupted during such frequent or rapid transitions, leading to these discomforting symptoms. Though the duration may vary based on the number of time zones crossed, jet lag is usually short-lived and can resolve as the individual’s body clock adapts to the new time zone.
Job Analysis: Job Analysis is a systematic examination to identify the key competencies, like skills, knowledge, abilities, and traits, needed for a specific role.
Expanded Definition
‘Job Analysis’ is a systematic procedure utilized to gain a comprehensive understanding of a specific job role. This process involves discerning the key component that a job role entails, including, but not limited to, the necessary knowledge, skills, abilities, and personal characteristics (also known as KSAPs) that an individual must possess to effectively perform the job. The purpose of a job analysis is to clearly define the duties, responsibilities, and requirements of a job to ensure that it caters to the needs of the serving organization and helps in the selection, training, and performance evaluation of the potential employees. This procedure holds paramount importance in an effective Human Resource Management system.
Joint Attention: Joint attention is a social communication behavior where two individuals consciously focus on the same object or event, recognizing that they share this focus.
Expanded Definition
‘Joint Attention’ is a critical cognitive process and a fundamental aspect of social interaction, broadly defined as the shared focus of two individuals on the same object or event with the mutual awareness of each other’s attention. This phenomenon involves complex cognitive and social skills, such as understanding another’s perspective, non-verbal communication, and reciprocal interaction. Joint attention typically develops in early childhood and serves as a foundation for language acquisition, social cognition, and interpersonal relationships.
Just World Phenomenon: ‘Just World Phenomenon’ is the psychological concept depicting the inclination for individuals to assume that life’s outcomes are a direct result of one’s actions, echoing the proverb ‘you reap what you sow’.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Just World Phenomenon’ refers to a cognitive bias in which individuals generally hold the belief that the world operates on a basis of fairness, with people ultimately receiving outcomes directly correlating to their actions or behavior. This concept implies that individuals who conduct themselves virtuously and responsibly are rewarded, while those who engage in negative or harmful behavior face deserved consequences. This bias often influences the way people perceive and interpret situations around them, shaping their understanding of justice, retribution, and causality in a complex society. However, this viewpoint does not always account for the multifaceted nature of life’s circumstances, such as instances when unjust outcomes occur to morally upright individuals, and vice versa.
Justice: Justice, as outlined in the Belmont Report, is the ethical commitment to ensuring fair distribution of risks and benefits among various societal groups.
Expanded Definition
‘Justice’ as outlined in the Belmont Report, which is a foundational ethical guide for researchers, precisely recommends fairness and equity in the allocation of risks and benefits amongst various societal factions. In other words, it suggests neither exploitation of vulnerable groups nor exclusion of those who could benefit. Essentially, this principle of ‘Justice’ calls for equitable distribution of burdens and benefits to prevent uneven impacts or favouritism, ensuring that all groups within society receive equal treatment. This relates directly to notions of social justice and fairness, upholding that all individuals, regardless of their social positioning or group membership, have rights to be protected and benefits to be shared.

K

Kin Selection: Kin Selection is an evolutionary strategy that favors the reproductive success of an organism’s relatives, even at a cost to the organism’s own survival and reproduction.
Expanded Definition
Kin selection is a key concept in evolutionary biology, postulating that organisms have a higher predisposition to engage in behaviors that favor the survival and reproductive success of their genetic relatives. The theory proposes that the frequency of altruistic behavior increases with the degree of genetic relatedness, implying that organisms are more likely to aid those who share a greater percentage of their genes. These behaviors, despite possibly being detrimental to the individual’s own survival, contribute to the propagation of shared genes in the population, thereby indirectly fostering the individual’s genetic legacy.
Kinesthesis: Kinesthesis refers to the perception of one’s body parts’ positioning and movements.
Expanded Definition
‘Kinesthesis’, also known as proprioception, refers to the sensory system incorporated within an individual’s body that provides information about the relative positions of various body parts and the movement they make. This mechanism can monitor muscle activity and joint positioning, enabling the brain to track body posture, orientation, balance, and physical coordination. This awareness allows individuals to execute motor tasks with precision without the constant need for visual confirmation. It is a key element in everyday activities such as walking, driving, eating, and many sports.
Knocked Out: ‘Knocked out’ refers to the process of intentionally removing or deactivating specific genes in the DNA sequence during genetic engineering.
Expanded Definition
‘Knocked Out’ refers to a specific genetic protocol in which certain genes are intentionally deactivated or eliminated during the DNA creation or modification process. This strategic alteration, used in genetic research, allows scientists to study the effects of removing these genes, thus providing valuable insight into their functions and the possible consequences when those genes are inactive or absent in the organism’s genome.

L

Lack of Executive Control: ‘Lack of Executive Control’ refers to the challenges in understanding data and utilizing it in decision-making processes.
Expanded Definition
‘Lack of Executive Control’ refers to a cognitive issue where an individual encounters challenges in understanding, processing, and utilizing information effectively to make informed decisions. This can impact one’s ability to engage in strategic planning, problem-solving, prioritizing, and apply real-time reasoning – fundamental capabilities to executive functioning. The executive control is encompassed in the brain’s frontal lobe, and its deficiency might lead to difficulties with focus, emotional regulation, task completion, and several other complex cognitive processes.
Language: Language is a systematic method of using symbols to convey meaning, enabling the exchange of information and ideas through spoken or written forms.
Expanded Definition
‘Language’ is defined as a structured system of communication that utilizes various patterns of symbols, sounds, or gestures to convey information, emotions, and nuances of thought in a coherent and comprehensible way. It facilitates the ability to express our intelligence and share our thoughts, ideas, and knowledge with others through various modes, including speaking, reading, and writing. This complex system is what primarily distinguishes our species, as it enables rich, nuanced interactions, fostering social cooperation and the exchange of groundbreaking ideas.
Late Adulthood: ‘Late Adulthood’ is the last stage of human life typically starting in the 60s, marking the senior years.
Expanded Definition
‘Late Adulthood’ is a term utilized in developmental psychology and gerontology to denote the final period in the human lifespan. It is typically characterized as commencing around the age of 60 or 65 years, often coinciding with retirement from active employment. This stage is marked by distinct biological, psychological, and socio-emotional changes including, among others, physical decline, cognitive adjustments, shifting roles within social and familial structures, as well as the handling of critical existential issues related to mortality. As each individual ages differently, experiences during late adulthood can vary significantly.
Latent Content: ‘Latent content’ is the subconscious or underlying meaning of a dream, often associated with repressed desires or fantasies.
Expanded Definition
‘Latent Content’ refers to the underlying, symbolic and often unconscious meanings or themes embedded within dreams. It is a concept primarily associated with psychoanalysis, suggesting that our dreams carry significant interpretations that go beyond their apparent narration. Rather than depicting literal scenarios or events, dreams may represent unresolved desires, repressed emotions, or complex psychological states in a symbolic form. The process of unravelling these hidden messages generates what is known as the ‘latent content’ of the dream. It emphasizes the analysis of symbolic elements within the dream to infer the individual’s subconscious mind workings.
Latent Learning: Latent Learning is a form of learning where knowledge is gained but not immediately displayed until a motivation arises to showcase it. It’s essentially learning that’s not visible until stirred by a relevant incentive.
Expanded Definition
‘Latent Learning’ is a cognitive psychology term referring to the process where learning takes place, but the evidence of this learning is not immediately obvious or visible. This knowledge or skill acquired remains hidden or ‘latent’ until a specific situation or incentive triggers its demonstration. This concept suggests that individuals can learn from their environment and experiences, even when they do not exhibit changes in behavior immediately following the learning process. The use of this latent knowledge becomes apparent when appropriate stimuli or motivations surface.
Law of Disuse: The ‘Law of Disuse’ refers to the gradual weakening of associative connections or learned skills due to lack of use or practice.
Expanded Definition
The “Law of Disuse” can be more precisely defined as the psychological principle asserting that an established mental or behavioral association tends to weaken over time in the absence of consistent engagement or use. In simpler terms, if an acquired skill, information, or habit is not regularly practiced or applied, it diminishes gradually, making recall or execution more difficult. The magnitude of this attenuation typically correlates with the length of non-use, implying that longer periods of inactivity lead to more significant reductions in proficiency or recall.
Law of Effect: The Law of Effect states that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are likely to be repeated, and those followed by negative outcomes are likely to be avoided. Essentially, it indicates that the consequences of our actions help shape our future behaviour.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Law of Effect’ is a psychological principle that posits the strength of a behavior is directly influenced by its consequences. This theory, rooted in the field of behavioral psychology, proposes that behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to be repeated in the future, while behaviors followed by unfavorable outcomes are less likely to be repeated. This principle underscores the natural inclination towards attempts at beneficial outcomes and avoidance of harmful ones. In more contemporary terms, the ‘Law of Effect’ refers to the understanding that behavioral responses are systematically affected by their results or consequences, serving as a fundamental aspect of learning and behavior modification.
Law of Readiness: The ‘Law of Readiness’ is the concept that preparedness and appropriate mental conditioning enhances the efficiency of actions or responses. In other words, performance improves when an individual is mentally prepared to act.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Law of Readiness’ can be professionally defined as a principle in psychology and education that suggests the efficacy and willingness of an individual to perform a task or engage in an activity is significantly influenced by their mental and emotional preparedness. It emphasizes that responses and connections are greatly optimized when the individual is in a ready, conducive state. It also implies that forcing an action without readiness may lead to ineffective outcomes, or even create a counterproductive aversion to the task at hand.
Law of Recency: The Law of Recency posits that the most recently performed action has the highest probability of being repeated.
Expanded Definition
The “Law of Recency” is a principles in psychology and education asserting that the most recently learned information or experienced action is more likely to be remembered and repeated in the near future than older, less recent information or actions. This principle underscores the significance of frequent practice and review, especially in learning and behavioral contexts, as it enhances the probability of retaining the latest information and replicating recent behaviors.
Law of Use: The ‘Law of Use’ stipulates that repetitively exercising a connection bolsters its strength.
Expanded Definition
The “Law of Use” is a fundamental principle that outlines the dynamics of how associations or connections, especially in the realm of learning and memory, are strengthened over time through repetition and consistent usage. This law implies that the frequency and consistency with which a particular mental association or skill is used can directly influence and enhance its strength and effectiveness, thereby making recall or execution of this association or skill more efficient and effortless. This principle is commonly applied in various fields including psychology, behavioral neuroscience, and education.
Laws: ‘Laws’, in psychology, refer to universal principles that are applicable to all scenarios within a specific area of study.
Expanded Definition
‘Laws’, within the context of psychology, refer to broad, foundational principles considered universal and applicable to all scenarios within a specific area of investigation. These principles, or laws, function as a framework for understanding, analyzing and predicting certain behavioral or mental phenomena, regardless of the specific variables in a given situation. They serve as the underlying bedrock upon which more specific theories and hypotheses are constructed. Essentially, psychological ‘laws’ aim to provide consistency and predictability within the vast varieties of human thought and behavior in a particular domain of psychological study.
Learned Helplessness: ‘Learned helplessness’ refers to a state of powerlessness induced by repeated unfavorable experiences, causing an individual or animal to perceive they have no control over the situation.
Expanded Definition
‘Learned Helplessness’ refers to a psychological state where an individual, after recurrent exposure to uncontrollable and undesirable events, develops a sense of powerlessness. This state often leads to an inability to recognize or respond to opportunities to avert such events in the future. It’s a phenomenon observed in both humans and animals. It suggests persistent resignation and hopelessness learnt from repeated experience of failure or adversity, leading to diminished proactive behavior and potential impairment in learning and performance.
Learning: Learning is a sustained modification in behavior resulting from practical experiences.
Expanded Definition
‘Learning’ is broadly classified as a sustained and constructive modification in an organism’s behavior patterns, primarily attributable to its cumulative experiences. This definition emphasizes two essential facets of learning: permanence and experience. ‘Permanence’ underscores that true learning effects lasting behavioral transformations rather than transient changes. ‘Experience’, on the other hand, highlights that these changes are nurtured through interactions with one’s environment, rather than being inherent or genetically programmed. From a comprehensive perspective, learning entails the systematic assimilation of new knowledge, skills, attitudes, and insights, which subsequently shape and refine the organism’s actions and reactions.
Lens: A lens is a device that concentrates or disperses light rays, specifically onto the retina in visual systems.
Expanded Definition
A ‘lens’ is a scientifically designed and meticulously crafted optical component, typically made of transparent material like glass or plastic. Its main function is to converge or diverge incoming light rays. Specifically in the context of the human eye or camera systems, the lens plays a crucial role in gathering the incident light and precisely focusing it onto the retina or the image sensor, respectively. This process aids significantly in producing a comprehensible and clear visual representation of the observed scene or object.
Lesion: A lesion is a damaged or impaired region in bodily tissue, such as the brain, that occurs due to injury or disease.
Expanded Definition
A ‘lesion’ is a term utilized in the field of medicine to refer to an area of damage or dysfunction within bodily tissue, caused by disease or trauma. It represents any structural change within these tissues brought about by injury or disease. Specifically, when discussing ‘brain lesions’, we are referring to areas of abnormal tissue within the brain. These can be the consequence of numerous factors, like congenital anomalies, illness, or experimental manipulation. This damaged brain tissue may affect the typical function of the brain, resulting in an array of neurological signs and symptoms, depending on the size and location of the lesion.
Lesions: ‘Lesions’ are damaged regions in the brain caused by factors such as surgeries, strokes, accidents, or tumors.
Expanded Definition
‘Lesions’ are defined as regions within an organ or tissue that have suffered significant damage due to a variety of causes. In specific reference to brain lesions, these are areas within the brain’s complex structures that have undergone damage due to various factors. These can include surgical interventions, cerebrovascular incidents like strokes, physical trauma from incidents like falls or vehicular accidents, gunshot wounds, or pathological conditions like tumors. The impact of such lesions on cognitive functions and overall health can vary widely depending on their location, size, and the nature of the damage.
Letter of Recommendation Effect: The ‘Letter of Recommendation Effect’ is the bias where informants tend to give overly positive assessments, often exaggerating merits and downplaying faults.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Letter of Recommendation Effect’ describes a bias observed in scenarios where advisors or informants, such as references for job applications or academic admissions, tend to overstate or embellish their reports in a favourable manner. This results in the creation of exceptionally positive evaluations, creating an unrealistic and potentially misleading profile of the individual being reviewed. This inclination stems from a myriad of factors, including maintaining professional relationships, avoiding conflict, or personal biases. It is essential to consider this effect while interpreting such recommendations for more accurate assessments.
Levels of Analysis: ‘Levels of Analysis’ refers to the various perspectives from which a single occurrence can be scientifically examined, ranging from microscopic to macroscopic viewpoints.
Expanded Definition
‘Levels of Analysis’ refers to the distinct degrees or layers at which a singular event, phenomenon, or data set may be examined or interpreted by researchers, scholars, or scientists. This concept stipulates that an event can be understood from multiple perspectives, each providing unique and valuable insights. These layered perspectives can range from individual, group to organizational or societal levels. Employing this multifaceted approach ensures a comprehensive understanding, contributing to a more robust and well-rounded analysis.
Levels of Explanation: ‘Levels of Explanation’ refers to the varying viewpoints utilized to analyze behavior, ranging from biological influences at the basic level, through individual abilities and traits at the intermediate level, to socio-cultural dynamics at the broadest level.
Expanded Definition
‘Levels of Explanation’ pertains to the varying lenses through which we comprehend behavior. This concept operates under the principle that different levels of analysis provide distinct viewpoints, each revealing specific aspects of behavior. The lower levels of explanation primarily focus on biological contributions to behavior, such as genetic factors or neurological activity. This level is predominantly explored through biologically-oriented fields like neuroscience or genetics. The middle levels zoom out slightly to examining individual traits, abilities, and personal characteristics. This level tends to delve into psychology, exploring cognitive processes, personality traits, and individual development. The highest level of explanation shifts the focus further outward to societal influences on behavior. It deals with social groups, organizations, and cultures, uncovering how societal norms, cultural values, and interactions within and between various groups shape behavior. This level of analysis is typically in the domain of social psychology and sociology. Each level offers valuable insights, and a holistic understanding of behavior can be achieved by incorporating all three.
Lexical Hypothesis: The Lexical Hypothesis posits that key personality traits are embodied in our vocabulary for describing others.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Lexical Hypothesis’ is a theoretical postulate stating that the most critical and universally acknowledged attributes of personality are embedded within our language. When we describe individuals using various traits or characteristics, these descriptors eventually became part of our common vernacular, reflecting vital elements of human personality. The hypothesis thus proposes a systematic approach to personality study by examining the language people use when they describe each other. It is a foundational idea in the field of personality psychology, driving the creation of standard personality measurements and assessments.
Limbic System: The limbic system is a neural network situated between the brain stem and the cerebral hemispheres, responsible for regulating emotional responses and memory, comprising key structures like the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus.
Expanded Definition
The Limbic System is a complex set of structures found in the brain that lies on both sides of the thalamus, directly beneath the cerebrum. It is a central part of our nervous system, playing a critical role in managing and interpreting our emotional responses and the formation and preservation of memories. Some key structures within this system include the amygdala, which primarily controls our emotional responses, the hypothalamus, responsible for maintaining the body’s homeostasis, and the hippocampus, which is at the forefront in storing and recalling memories. Moreover, these structures interact synergistically to influence various physical and psychological functions ranging from hormonal regulation to sensory perception.
Limited Capacity: ‘Limited Capacity’ refers to the finite cognitive resources humans possess for processing information at any given time.
Expanded Definition
‘Limited Capacity’ is a theoretical concept in cognitive psychology, which acknowledges that the human brain has a finite ability to process information or perform tasks concurrently. It suggests that the availability of mental resources to handle cognitive tasks is not limitless or indefinite, but rather constricted. Therefore, at any given instance, the number of tasks one can precisely focus on or comprehend is restricted by this cognitive limitation. This concept greatly influences the way we understand and design processes related to multitasking, information processing, attention span, and memory encoding.
Limiting Condition: A “limiting condition” refers to the variation in findings of a research study due to different cultural contexts. It involves the discrepancies in results driven by cultural diversity.
Expanded Definition
‘Limiting Condition’ refers to a circumstance in a research study wherein the obtained results display variability or discrepancies when applied to or interpreted across different cultural contexts. This situation underscores cultural diversity’s potential influence on research outcomes, and it often poses challenges in generalizing the study’s findings universally. It serves as a reminder for researchers to consider cultural variables and their potential impact while designing, analyzing, and interpreting their studies.
Linear Relationship: A Linear Relationship refers to a relation between variables where changes in one variable correspond proportionately to changes in another, creating a straight line on a scatter plot.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Linear Relationship’ refers to a statistical term whereby two variables display a direct proportionality to each other. This means that a consistent change in one variable results in a consistent incremental or decremental change in the other variable. This relationship can be graphically represented on a scatter plot, where the data points can be closely aligned with a straight line, indicating a high degree of linearity. The line of best fit or regression line is used in this context to describe and quantify the linear relationship between the variables. The slope of this line defines the rate of change between the variables, thereby reflecting the relationship’s strength and direction.
Linguistic Determinism: Linguistic determinism is the theory suggesting that an individual’s language shapes their thoughts and perceptions.
Expanded Definition
‘Linguistic Determinism’ is a theory advanced by linguist Benjamin Lee Whorf, which posits that the specific language we speak significantly influences our thoughts, perceptions, and cognitive processes. According to this principle, our language isn’t just a tool for expressing thoughts, rather it shapes the very thoughts we wish to express. The structure and vocabulary of our native language, therefore, play integral roles in shaping our understanding of the world around us. This implies that speakers of different languages may perceive and think about the world in fundamentally distinct ways.
Linguistic Intergroup Bias: ‘Linguistic Intergroup Bias’ refers to the predisposition to describe positive aspects of one’s own group in abstract terms, while using the same kind of language when discussing negative aspects of other groups.
Expanded Definition
‘Linguistic Intergroup Bias’ refers to a cognitive bias where individuals tend to use differing linguistic descriptions depending on their affiliation with the group in question. When discussing their own group (ingroup), positive attributes are often described in more abstract or interpretative terms, showcasing general beliefs or attitudes. On the other hand, when they describe an outgroup (those not part of their own group), negative aspects are frequently conveyed in abstract language, obscuring specific actions or behaviors. This subtle manipulation of language contributes to validating one’s positive ingroup perceptions, while reinforcing negative stereotypes about outgroups.
Linguistic Relativity: ‘Linguistic Relativity’ posits that language structures shape the way we think and perceive reality. It suggests our cognitive processes are constrained by our language’s specific characteristics.
Expanded Definition
‘Linguistic Relativity,’ also known as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, is an intellectual concept that proposes a link between human cognition and the structure of the language used by those individuals. Essentially, this theory suggests that the specific language we speak not only influences but can also place certain limitations on how we perceive and interpret the world around us. In more tangible terms, it suggests that the vocabulary, grammar, and phonetic structures inherent to the language we use shape our thinking patterns, cognitive processes, and even worldview. However, it’s important to understand that while this theory does suggest influence and potential limitations due to language, it does not imply absolute restriction. Our ability to conceptualize and comprehend is not solely bound by the language we use, but rather, it emphasizes that language is a significant factor in shaping our cognitive perceptions and interpretation of reality.
Lobotomy: A lobotomy is a now-infrequently performed psychosurgery that involves severing the connections between the frontal lobes and the emotion-regulating areas of the brain, originally used to manage highly emotional or violent patients.
Expanded Definition
A lobotomy is a psychosurgical procedure, pioneered by Egas Moniz, which is now seldom performed. Originally, it was used as a treatment method for highly emotional or violently unpredictable patients. The procedure involved the severing of neural pathways between the frontal lobes and the sections of the brain associated with the regulation of emotion. This was intended to moderate extreme emotional states or behaviors, however, it is rarely used today due to advancements in psychiatric medication and psychological therapies.
Long-Term Memory: Long-term memory is the brain’s capacity for retaining information over extended periods, from days to years, facilitated by three core processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Expanded Definition
‘Long-Term Memory’ refers to the phase of our memory system which functions as a permanent repository for information, capable of retaining that data over extended durations ranging from days to an entire lifetime. The functioning of long-term memory is predicated upon three interconnected processes. These include encoding, which is the first step and involves the initial reception and conversion of information into a format that can be processed by the brain. Second is storage, which facilitates the preservation of this encoded information over time for future use. Lastly, retrieval refers to the ability to access and bring into consciousness the stored information relevant to the current task or request. The effectiveness and accuracy of long-term memory can be influenced by several factors, such as the strength of the original encoding, the number and spacing of repetitions, contextual factors, and the person’s mental and physical health.
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) is the process whereby consistent, high-frequency neuronal stimulation enhances synaptic strength between neurons.
Expanded Definition
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) is a critical process related to the functioning of the brain often associated with aspects of learning and memory. It refers to the process whereby the synaptic connections, which are the information transmitting sites between neurons (nerve cells) in the brain, become more efficient due to repeated and frequent stimulation. This synaptic strengthening essentially increases the ability for one neuron to influence another, meaning that over time, the frequent neuronal activity leads to an improved communication between these two cells. In other words, the more two neurons interact, the stronger the link between them becomes. This fundamental phenomenon underpins how our brains can adapt, learn, and encode experiences into memory by modifying the strength of connections between neurons.
Longitudinal Research Designs: Longitudinal research designs are methodologies that track the same sample individuals across an extensive time period, frequently through various developmental stages.
Expanded Definition
‘Longitudinal Research Designs’ refer to scientific research methodologies wherein a particular set of individuals, or a sample, is observed and studied extensively over an extended duration of time. This method is designed to collect data at different intervals or ‘waves’. The objective is to observe changes or continuities in the sample’s behavior or characteristics through various stages of their development or life. This design provides a comprehensive view of the impact of time on the phenomena under study, offering key insights into patterns, trends, and causal relationships.
Loudness: Loudness refers to the perceived intensity or magnitude of a sound by the human ear.
Expanded Definition
‘Loudness’ is a term often used in acoustics that refers to a person’s subjective perception of the intensity or magnitude of sound. It does not solely relate to the measurable, physical property of sound known as ‘volume’, but instead, it correlates with multiple factors including sound pressure level, frequency, and duration. Therefore, ‘loudness’ can be described as the psychological correlate of physical strength (amplitude) of the auditory stimuli, which may vary among individuals due to the complexities of human auditory perception. In essence, it is how ‘loud’ or ‘soft’ a sound seems to an individual listener.
LSD: LSD or lysergic acid diethylamide, often referred to as ‘acid’, is a potent drug known for inducing hallucinations.
Expanded Definition
LSD, an acronym for Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, is a potent psychoactive substance known for its powerful effects on human cognition and sensory perception. Often referred to colloquially as ‘acid’, this drug induces intense experiences known as ‘trips’, that can significantly alter one’s perception of time and reality. Please be advised that it’s classified by most nations as an illicit substance due to potential health risks and unpredictable psychological effects.
Lymphocytes: Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell integral to immune response, with B lymphocytes producing antibodies against bacteria and T lymphocytes targeting cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.
Expanded Definition
‘Lymphocytes’ are defined as one of the two primary types of white blood cells that play a critical role in the body’s immune defense mechanism. They come in two major varieties, both with specific functions in combating diseases. The first kind, known as B lymphocytes or B cells, originate in the bone marrow. They serve a vital role in the body’s adaptive immune response by producing and releasing antibodies. These antibodies are specialized proteins that can recognize and neutralize bacteria, aiding in the fight against bacterial infections. The second variety, T lymphocytes or T cells, primarily form in a small organ called the thymus located in the upper chest, though they can also develop in other lymphatic tissues. These cells are essential in combating a range of diseases and harmful agents. They specialize in detecting and destroying cancer cells and cells infected with viruses. Furthermore, they help in managing immune responses to foreign substances, including allergens and transplanted tissues. Together, B cells and T cells constitute a vital part of the immune system, providing a balanced and effective defense against a wide spectrum of health threats.

M

Ma: ‘Ma’ is a Japanese term referring to the intentional gaps or intervals, be it in space or time, providing room for interpretation or anticipation.
Expanded Definition
“Ma” is a nuanced term derived from Japanese culture that encompasses the concept of spatial or temporal interval. It can be interpreted as the “space” between objects, principles, or elements, denoting the significant void that generates unique perspectives or interaction possibilities. Alternatively, it can refer to the “pause” in activities or conversations, emphasizing the critical role of silence or breaks in establishing rhythm, enhancing comprehension, or allowing thoughtful reflection. Thus, “Ma” essentially represents the dynamic interplay between presence and absence, suggesting that emptiness or gaps can bear inherent value or meaning.
Maintenance Rehearsal: Maintenance rehearsal is the act of repetitively reviewing information to retain it in memory.
Expanded Definition
‘Maintenance Rehearsal’ is a cognitive strategy that entails the repetitive review, either internally or verbally, of specific information with the objective of ensuring its retention within one’s short-term memory. It is a fundamental component of memory retention strategies, often employed for tasks such as memorizing phone numbers or simple lists. However, the depth at which the information is processed is relatively superficial, as it mainly focuses on the repetition of the material rather than understanding or associating it with other knowledge. Therefore, while it can aid in the immediate recall of information, it may not necessarily contribute to long-term memory consolidation.
Major Depressive Disorder: Major Depressive Disorder is a mental condition marked by persistent low mood, low self-worth, and a diminished interest in activities typically found pleasurable.
Expanded Definition
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), also known as Clinical Depression, is a serious mental health condition that manifests itself through persistent feelings of intense sadness, a sense of hopelessness, and a lack of interest in activities that were once found enjoyable. Accompanied by a marked decrease in self-esteem, individuals with MDD may struggle with daily activities due to an overwhelming sense of despondency. This mental disorder goes beyond the normal ups and downs of life, and its symptoms can lead to significant impairment in social, occupational, educational, or other important areas of life. Treatment often involves a combination of counseling, psychological therapy, and medication.
Major Life: “Major Life” refers to significant, stress-inducing incidents (like a death in the family or a natural disaster) which heighten one’s susceptibility to illness.
Expanded Definition
‘Major Life Stressors’ refer to significant and highly stressful occurrences (for instance, the demise of a close family member, enduring a natural disaster) that significantly heighten the risk of experiencing physical or psychological illness. These events typically require considerable adaptation and coping skills due to the profound impact they have on an individual’s day-to-day life and overall wellbeing.
Maladaptive: “Maladaptive” refers to any behavior that adversely impacts an individual’s ability to function in important aspects of life or causes significant distress.
Expanded Definition
“Maladaptive” is a term that refers to specific types of behaviors that, instead of aiding an individual in responding to their needs or life situations, prove counterproductive causing harm or significant inconvenience. Such behaviors often lead to emotional distress, such as anxiety or depression, or physical suffering. They also cause dysfunction, impairing the individual’s ability to successfully navigate significant areas of daily life, such as personal relationships, work or school environments, or self-care responsibilities. Overall, maladaptive behaviors hinder a person’s ability to adjust healthily to particular circumstances or conditions.
Mandala: A mandala is a symbolic representation of completeness and perfect self, signifying entirety and balance.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Mandala’ is a term derived from Sanskrit, a classical Indian language, translating to ‘circle’. It is considered a universal symbol indicative of wholeness, completeness, and intrinsic perfection. In various spiritual and philosophical traditions, particularly in Eastern religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism, a Mandala serves as a visual representation of the universe and human consciousness. It is often intricately designed with geometric patterns and multiple layers, each carrying significant meaning. These designs tend to be symmetrical, reflecting balance and harmony. Furthermore, the usage of Mandalas often extends into psychological practices as a tool for introspection and self-expression, given its symbolism of the ‘self’, allowing individuals to explore their inner thoughts and emotions while creating or meditating on a Mandala.
Mania: Mania is a mental condition characterized by excessive energy and unrealistic optimism, often seen in bipolar disorder.
Expanded Definition
‘Mania’ is a term utilized within the field of psychology and psychiatry referring to an intense psychological condition characterized by excessively high energy or activity levels, frequently associated with euphoric and overly optimistic moods. It’s a core component of bipolar disorder, although it can manifest independently. Symptoms frequently manifest as rapid and erratic speech, racing thoughts, impulsive and risky behavior, and reduced need for sleep without experiencing fatigue. However, while it might seem positive or productive due to the heightened mood and energy, mania can lead to damaging life decisions, damage relationships, and is often followed by a depressive episode, emphasizing the necessity for professional intervention.
Manifest Content: Manifest content is the actual imagery and events of a dream as they are remembered by the dreamer, which may seem superficial and without deeper meaning.
Expanded Definition
‘Manifest Content’ is a term primarily employed in the field of dream analysis, representing the literal, remembered sequences and scenarios that occur in a dream. It is the immediate recallable material of a dream– the events, characters, locations, and actions, as opposed to the symbolic or latent meanings. While it may seem superficial or devoid of intricate substance, any decipherable meaning is derived from analyzing these overt elements through a process such as psychoanalysis.
Maturation: Maturation refers to the biological growth processes facilitating organized behavioral changes, largely independent of external experiences.
Expanded Definition
‘Maturation’ is a term used in biology to describe the natural process of growth and development, which follows a specific and orderly sequence, resulting in changes in behavior and physical attributes. It is a largely intrinsic and predetermined process, not significantly altered or influenced by individual experiences or environmental factors. The pace and extent of maturation may vary among individuals but the sequence of this process typically remains consistent within a species. This concept is fundamental in understanding key aspects of developmental biology, psychology, and neuroscience.
Maximum Observed Score: The Maximum Observed Score refers to the highest recorded value for a given variable in a dataset.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘Maximum Observed Score’ refers to the highest value identified within a specific set of data for a particular variable. This variable could represent any qualitative or quantitative parameter within a study or research domain. As a statistical concept, the maximum observed score is critical in understanding the data range and potential outliers, thereby serving as a vital guide to further data analysis and interpretation.
Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT): The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) is a comprehensive evaluation tool with 141 items that assesses the four main components of Emotional Intelligence using eight specific tasks.
Expanded Definition
The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) is a comprehensive evaluation tool designed to quantitatively assess an individual’s Emotional Intelligence (EI). It does so by utilizing 141 distinct evaluative prompts that collectively gauge an individual’s proficiency in EI’s four primary domains. Each of these domains encapsulates key emotional competencies derived from the widely-acknowledged four-branch model of Emotion Intelligence. To ensure a comprehensive evaluation, these four domains are further divided into eight discrete tasks, each focusing on specific emotional skills within its parent domain. This evidence-based construct ensures a thorough understanding of an individual’s emotional abilities, offering valuable insights into their Emotional Intelligence.
McGurk Effect: The McGurk Effect is a perceptual phenomenon where the integration of conflicting auditory and visual speech inputs leads to misjudged syllables. It highlights how our senses can influence each other to produce incorrect perceptions.
Expanded Definition
The McGurk Effect refers to a psychological phenomenon wherein an individual’s auditory perception is influenced by conflicting visual stimuli during speech communication. This perceptual discrepancy manifests when one’s interpretation of a spoken sound is incongruently paired with visual articulation of a different sound. Consequently, the brain attempts to reconcile this discrepancy, often resulting in the perception of a third, distinct sound. As such, the McGurk Effect demonstrates the integral role of visual cues in speech perception and underlines the multimodal nature of human communication. This is a testament to the brain’s remarkable ability to integrate sensory information from diverse sources, providing a comprehensive perspective on our surroundings.
Mean: The ‘Mean’ is the sum of all scores divided by the quantity of those scores, serving as an average value in a distribution.
Expanded Definition
‘Mean’ is defined as a statistical parameter which represents the central or typical value in a set of data. In simpler terms, it’s the arithmetic average. It is derived by summing all individual data points in the distribution, subsequently dividing the sum by the total number of data points. The result provides a general indication of the data set’s overall trend, despite possible disparities or outliers within the data. This makes it one of the fundamental measures of central tendency in statistics, along with median and mode.
Means: ‘Means’ refers to the tools or strategies used to achieve desired outcomes or objectives.
Expanded Definition
‘Means’ refers to the procedures, methods, tools, or resources employed to achieve a certain objective or goal. These might encompass physical items such as tools or equipment, intellectual resources such as knowledge or skills, or strategic activities such as planning or implementation. The term denotes any instrumental component that aids in the progression towards a desired outcome.
Measured Variables: Measured variables are quantifiable features in a study or experiment, symbolizing the key concepts being analyzed. They are numerical representations of theoretical constructs.
Expanded Definition
‘Measured Variables’ can be comprehensively defined as specific quantities or factors in a research study or other data-driven context that are translated into numerical form. They stand as quantitative representations of intangible or theoretical concepts, making them accessible and interpretable for analysis. These can include attributes such as satisfaction, intelligence or motivation, and are typically gauged through precise tools or instruments, such as surveys or tests, to ensure a reliable, meaningful output. It is through the quantification of these initially abstract variables that hypothesis testing, statistical analysis, and meaningful data interpretation become possible.
Medial Temporal Lobes: The Medial Temporal Lobes are inner areas of the temporal lobes, housing structures like the hippocampus, crucial for memory processing.
Expanded Definition
The Medial Temporal Lobes refer to the inward-facing regions of the brain’s temporal lobes, which are positioned on either side of the brain above the ears. This anatomical area encompasses critical substructures, the most notable of which is the hippocampus. This area plays pivotal roles in composite functions, including memory processing, spatial navigation, and emotional response. Furthermore, damage to the medial temporal lobes has been linked with Alzheimer’s disease and other forms of dementia, underscoring their importance in cognitive function.
Median: The median is the middle value in a distribution, splitting the data set into two halves with equal quantities above and below it.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘Median,’ in the field of statistics, refers to the middle value in a dataset when arranged in ascending order. It represents a central position in the data distribution, so that exactly half of the values in the set fall below the median and half are above it. It is a valuable measure of central tendency when dealing with skewed distributions, as it isn’t influenced by extremely high or low values.
Medical Model: The Medical Model is the approach that attributes diseases to physical causes, which can be identified, managed, usually cured, predominantly through hospital-based treatment.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Medical Model’ is a framework predominantly employed in healthcare settings, which asserts that disorders or diseases are attributable to physical or biological causes. It posits the premise that such diseases can be identified via systematic diagnostic procedures and subsequently treated or even eliminated. These treatments are often conducted in a hospital setting, using a range of methods that may extend from pharmaceutical interventions to complicated surgical procedures. The medical model primarily focuses on the elimination of symptoms rather than the underlying causative factor, with the ultimate goal being the restoration of individual health and well-being. It provides a path for evidence-based treatment protocols, giving healthcare providers a systematic approach to consultancy, diagnosis, and treatment- planning while improving patient care outcomes. It is also noted for its clarity and utility in facilitating medical advances. However, it’s worth noting that this model, while proven to be effective on numerous occasions, tends to overlook the potential psychological and social factors that could contribute significantly to a person’s overall health condition.
Meditation: Meditation is a practice centered on directing focus towards a specific object, word, or personal respiration, aiming to eliminate external distractions, enhance inner awareness, and foster relaxation and wellbeing.
Expanded Definition
‘Meditation’ can be defined as a set of practices where one deliberately concentrates their attention on a specific subject or phenomenon, such as an object, a mantra, or their own breathing pattern. The primary objective of these techniques is to temporarily set aside the distractions and stimuli of the external environment. By doing so, the individual can explore their internal psychological and emotional states more thoroughly. One key outcome of these practices is usually a heightened state of tranquility and well-being, providing the individual with both mental and physical relaxation. Additionally, frequent meditation can potentially lead to longer-term benefits like improved focus, stress reduction, and enhanced self-awareness.
Medulla: The medulla is a part of the brain stem that regulates vital functions such as breathing and heart rate.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Medulla Oblongata’, often referred to simply as the ‘Medulla’, denotes a critical section of the brain stem primarily responsible for regulating several involuntary functions crucial to human survival. It oversees cardiac mechanisms, administering the heart’s rhythm and rate, and respiratory functions, supervising the frequency and depth of respiration. As such, it serves as the control hub for the autonomic nervous system, managing our bodies’ automatic responses without conscious intervention. Given its functions, any impairment to the medulla can lead to major health complications necessitating immediate medical attention.
Melatonin: Melatonin is a hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles, often heightening feelings of sleepiness.
Expanded Definition
Melatonin is a naturally occurring hormone, predominantly produced by the pineal gland in the brain, recognized primarily for its role in regulating sleep-wake cycles. It is influenced by the circadian rhythms under the modulation of light and darkness, with its production and release typically increasing in the evening to promote sleep, and decreasing in the early morning to facilitate wakefulness. Besides its pivotal role in managing sleep patterns, melatonin is also associated with a variety of biological functions including regulation of mood, immune function, and antioxidant activity.
Memory: Memory is the cognitive process that enables the storage and recall of information.
Expanded Definition
Memory refers to the cognitive function or mental process that allows individuals to encode, store, and subsequently recall information and past experiences in the human brain. It serves as an essential component of learning and decision-making processes, enabling us to interpret and respond to the world around us based on our collected experiences. This capability is not limited to retaining the data but also involves the retrieval of information when needed. Memory can be divided into short-term or working memory, which retains recent information, and long-term memory, which stores information from past experiences, knowledge, or learned skills. The process of memory involves three key stages: encoding or taking in the information, storage for future use, and retrieval or recall when the information is needed.
Memory Stages: ‘Memory stages’ refer to the three primary steps in memory processing: capturing sensory input, transferring it to short-term memory, and then consolidating it into long-term memory.
Expanded Definition
‘Memory Stages’ refers to the crucial sequential process through which information and experiences are encoded, stored, and retrieved in the human brain. This process comprises three distinct stages—sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. The sensory memory serves as the initial filtering system, which momentarily retains the impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended. Short-term memory, also known as working memory, temporarily stores and manages information required for cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension. The final stage, long-term memory, involves the durable and often lifelong storage of information. Each stage has varying capacities and durations, and they work in harmony, allowing us to perceive, process, and recall information effectively.
Memory Traces: ‘Memory traces’ refer to neurophysiological changes signifying the encoding, storage, and retrieval of events, essentially forming the basis for memory consolidation.
Expanded Definition
‘Memory Traces,’ also known as ‘engrams,’ refer to the physical embodiment of memories within the brain. This concept represents the intricate neurophysiological changes that occur in our nervous system, primarily in the brain, when we perceive, learn, or recall an event. Such changes might involve the formation of new synaptic connections or the strengthening of existing ones between neurons. Simply put, memory traces are the biological footprints of our experiences, underlining our capacity to remember and learn. It’s a crucial aspect of cognitive science, yet it’s also a complex and continually developing field of research.
Menarche: Menarche is the onset of a girl’s first menstrual cycle, generally experienced during early adolescence.
Expanded Definition
‘Menarche’ is defined as the onset of a female’s first menstrual cycle, marking a significant physiological milestone in her journey towards reproductive maturity. This event typically occurs in adolescence, around the ages of 12 to 13 years on average, but can vary based on factors such as genetic propensity and overall health status. The commencement of menarche signifies the body’s reproductive readiness by stimulating the monthly shedding of the uterine lining and represents an integral part of the female reproductive system.
Mnemonics: Mnemonics are techniques or tools used to enhance memory recall, often through the use of vivid imagery or structured methods.
Expanded Definition
‘Mnemonics’ refers to a set of tools and techniques designed to improve and strengthen an individual’s ability to retain and recall information. Particularly, these methods leverage the power of vivid visualization, associations, organizational structures, patterns, and other cognitive devices to facilitate efficient encoding, storage, and retrieval of memories. Mnemonics are widely used in many fields, including education, psychology, and neuroscience, as a practicable strategy to optimize the learning and memorization process, thereby boosting cognitive performance and intellectual capacity.
Menopause: Menopause is the biological stage in a woman’s life when menstruation stops, typically around the age of 50.
Expanded Definition
Menopause is a biological event that marks the end of a woman’s potential reproductive years, typically occurring around the age of 50, but the age can vary. It is officially identified when a woman has not had a menstrual period for a full year. This transition is a result of the decrease in the ovaries’ production of hormones, namely estrogen and progesterone, which regulate the menstrual cycle. Symptoms often accompany this physiological change, which can include hot flashes, mood changes, sleep disturbances, and changes in sexual desire, among others. Understanding menopause is essential as it is a significant life phase for women, impacting various aspects of health and well-being.
Mental Age: Mental age is an intelligence metric indicating the age level at which a person operates intellectually, established by correlating their performance on an intelligence test with the average performance of individuals at different chronological ages.
Expanded Definition
‘Mental Age’ is a concept introduced by the pioneering psychologist Alfred Binet, intended to quantify human intelligence based upon test performance. The term refers to the chronological age that generally aligns with an individual’s demonstrated level of intellectual capability. For instance, if a child’s cognitive abilities are equivalent to the median performance of 8-year-olds in the same standardized tests, we would say this child has a ‘mental age’ of 8. The concept allows for a comparative understanding of an individual’s cognitive development relative to their peer group. Do note that the mental age may not always align with the biological age and various other factors can influence the intellectual development of a person.
Mental Set: A mental set is the inclination to solve a problem using a specific strategy, usually one that has previously proven effective.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Mental Set’ can be professionally defined as a cognitive predisposition where an individual leans towards a specific problem-solving strategy or response, particularly one that has previously yielded positive outcomes. This concept represents a mental framework guiding an individual’s approach towards problem-solving, influenced by past experiences and learned patterns. It’s important to note that while a mental set can often aid in resolving issues more efficiently, it can occasionally hinder creative thinking or the implementation of novel strategies when confronting new, unprecedented challenges.
Mere-Exposure Effects: Mere-Exposure Effect refers to the psychological phenomenon where people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them. It’s the phenomenon where repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to enhanced liking for it.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Mere-Exposure Effect’ is a psychological phenomenon where individuals tend to develop a preference for certain stimuli, such as people, objects, or ideas simply due to their familiarity with them. This occurrence, also known as the familiarity principle, suggests that repeated exposure to a particular stimulus enhances our overall perception of it, leading us to form more positive attitudes over time. Thus, our familiarity with the stimulus indirectly influences our judgment and decisions towards it.
Meta-Analysis: Meta-analysis is a statistical method that synthesizes outcomes from multiple studies to draw a comprehensive conclusion. It enhances the accuracy of data interpretation by pooling results of several independent studies.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Meta-Analysis’ is a comprehensive, advanced statistical approach that synthesizes the findings from multiple independent studies addressing a similar research question. This method is particularly useful in obtaining a more reliable and robust estimate of an effect than an individual study. It systematically collects, quantifies, and combines relevant empirical data, promoting the identification of common trends or differences. It can also explore underlying factors causing variations among study results, thereby providing greater overall insight into the issue in question. Ultimately, a meta-analysis aims to lend a higher level of evidence, enhance decision-making, and set the direction for future research.
Metacognition: Metacognition is the awareness and management of one’s own cognitive processes, including learning and memory.
Expanded Definition
Metacognition is the conceptual term used in cognitive psychology to refer to an individual’s self-awareness and understanding of their own thought processes. Encompassing more than just consciousness about one’s thinking, it involves the active management and regulation of cognitive functions such as learning and memory. This includes an individual’s ability to effectively oversee and guide their own learning by setting goals, planning strategies, monitoring progress and adjusting tactics as necessary. It is essentially the process of thinking about thinking, which allows for adaptation and improvement in learning practices based on self-understanding and self-evaluation.
Methamphetamine: Methamphetamine is a highly addictive stimulant that accelerates the body’s functions and modifies moods, which over prolonged usage can lower natural dopamine levels.
Expanded Definition
Methamphetamine is a highly potent and addictive psychostimulant drug that acts upon the central nervous system. It escalates bodily functionalities by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature, and metabolism, in addition to creating alterations in mood and energy levels. Chronic use of methamphetamine is associated with detrimental consequences to the brain’s dopamine system, which could potentially lead to a permanent decrease in the base-level concentration of dopamine, a neurotransmitter critical for motivation, reward, and pleasure.
Methodologies: ‘Methodologies’ are strategies or systems used to structure, plan and control the process of research or investigation. They simplify the overall procedure by providing a step-by-step guide on how research should be conducted.
Expanded Definition
‘Methodologies’ may be broadly defined as the structured, detailed, and systematic approaches or strategies employed in a research study. This encompasses the underlying theoretical principles, processes, methods, techniques, and tools used to assess or examine a given subject or phenomenon. These methodologies guide researchers in the decision-making process, from the conception of the research question, through data collection and analysis, to the interpretation of the results and conclusions. These comprehensive plans and procedures ensure the reliability, validity, and applicability of the research findings.
Middle Adulthood: Middle adulthood refers to the period of life between 45-65 years, marking the mid-phase of an individual’s age journey.
Expanded Definition
“Middle Adulthood” refers to a particular life stage typically encompassing individuals between the ages of 45 and 65. This period, seen as the midpoint of adult life, is characterized by ongoing physical, emotional, and social development. In this stage, individuals often experience settled profession, expansion of responsibilities, active participation within the community, and an increased focus on health maintenance. The definition, however, is fluid, and these ages may vary depending on socio-cultural and personal factors.
Middle Ear: The middle ear is the section between the eardrum and cochlea, housing three small bones — hammer, anvil, and stirrup — that amplify eardrum vibrations onto the cochlea’s oval window.
Expanded Definition
The middle ear refers to the small, air-filled cavity situated between the eardrum, also known as the tympanic membrane, and the cochlea, a part of the inner ear. It contains three tiny, interconnected bones, called ossicles, including the malleus (also known as the hammer), the incus (anvil), and the stapes (stirrup). The primary function of these ossicles is to amplify and transmit the mechanical vibrations from the eardrum, caused by incoming sound waves, to the fluid-filled cochlea via the oval window, which is a membrane-covered opening leading from the middle ear to the inner ear. This transformation from airborne sound waves to fluid-mediated vibrations within the cochlea is a key process in the auditory system that enables the perception of sound.
Mimicry: Mimicry refers to the unconscious replication of another’s actions or behaviors.
Expanded Definition
‘Mimicry’ is a psychological or behavioral concept which entails the replication or imitation of the actions, mannerisms, or behaviors of another individual or entity. This act is often inherently subconscious, meaning the individuals performing the mimicry may not be directly aware of their actions. This phenomenon is not only observed in human and social behaviors, but also widely across various species in the animal kingdom as a survival strategy.
Mind–Body Connection: The mind-body connection refers to the interplay between emotional states and physical health, acknowledging how emotions can significantly impact bodily functions.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Mind-Body Connection’ can be described as the intimate and complex relationship between our mental, emotional and psychological states, and our physical health and well-being. It encapsulates the concept that our thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and attitudes can positively or negatively influence our biological functions. Consequently, physical health can impact mental and emotional states. This dynamic interplay between the mind and body affects overall health and wellness, demonstrating the need for a holistic approach in health management. Researchers in fields such as psychoneuroimmunology are now conducting studies to further understand this pivotal connection.
Mindfulness: Mindfulness is the act of consciously focusing and evaluating one’s ongoing thoughts, assessing their validity or relevance.
Expanded Definition
‘Mindfulness’ is a psychological practice that involves an intensified ability to focus on and consciously assess one’s thoughts and experiences in the present moment. It is a state of heightened mental clarity and self-awareness, allowing one to observe the stream of thoughts flowing through the mind and to cognitively evaluate these thoughts without immediate judgment or reaction. This concept encourages thoughtful consideration on whether one agrees with, challenges or simply acknowledges the presence of these thoughts. Mindfulness aims to promote a balanced and non-reactive mental state, thereby fostering overall emotional well-being and improved cognitive function.
Minimal Risk Research: Minimal Risk Research refers to studies where the potential harm or discomfort faced by participants is no greater than those typically experienced in everyday life or standard health checks.
Expanded Definition
‘Minimal Risk Research’ is defined as any study or project wherein the potential hazards that participants might face don’t exceed those typically encountered in day-to-day activities or during commonplace medical screenings and check-ups. This classification of research involves endangerment levels that are nominal and comparable to those of an individual’s ordinary life experiences, indicating that the likelihood and severity of harm or discomfort are no greater in the research procedure than those ordinary risks people undertake daily or in regular doctor’s visits for routine health evaluations.
Minimum Observed Score: The Minimum Observed Score is the lowest value noted for a specific variable in a data set.
Expanded Definition
‘Minimum Observed Score’ is a statistical term referring to the smallest value identified in a set of data for a particular variable. This metric plays an integral role in data analysis as it establishes the lower limit of the data range, contributing to a comprehensive understanding of data variability and distribution. In other words, it is the lowest data point noticed within the observed values, related to a specific investigation or measure.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a frequently utilized and extensively researched personality assessment tool, primarily designed to diagnose emotional disorders, but is now employed for diverse screening purposes.
Expanded Definition
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a renowned psychological assessment tool that dominates the field in terms of extensive research conducted and varied clinical applicability. Initially engineered to diagnose potential emotional disorders, its usefulness has broadened over time to encompass a wide spectrum of psychological assessments. This extends beyond clinical psychology, delving into employment screenings, risk assessments for certain professions, legal cases, and other areas where personality evaluation might be relevant. Utilizing a series of true-or-false questions targeting different psychological constructs, it provides a meticulously nuanced understanding of an individual’s personality traits and potential issues. It’s crucial to note that while the MMPI’s breadth of use is far-reaching, it is often most effective and reliable when employed within its original purpose – to detect and better understand emotional disorders.
Mirror Neurons: Mirror neurons are brain cells that activate during both the execution and observation of specific actions, demonstrating a neurological basis for imitation and empathy.
Expanded Definition
‘Mirror neurons’ are a specialized type of brain cells, first discovered in primates, that activate or “fire” not only when the individual performs a specific activity but also when the individual observes another entity conducting that same activity. This dual activation suggests that these neurons “mirror” the behavior of others, playing a potentially significant role in understanding and imitating others’ actions, as well as facilitating social cognition and empathy. These neurons are thought to be an essential component in the brain’s ability to interpret and respond to social cues.
Mirror-Image Perceptions: ‘Mirror-image perceptions’ are reciprocal beliefs typically seen in adversaries, where each perceives itself as moral and peaceful but sees the other as malevolent and hostile.
Expanded Definition
‘Mirror-Image Perceptions’ pertains to the psychological phenomenon commonly observed in parties engaged in conflict, where each participant views itself as embodying positive, commendable attributes – such as morality and non-aggression. Simultaneously, these participants perceive their adversaries as the embodiment of negative and undesirable qualities, typically identifying them as unethical or even hostile. This diametrically opposing perception is manifestly recurring, hence the term ‘mirror-image’. This concept underscores the importance of understanding subjective interpretations and biases in conflicts, which can significantly sway the perception of one’s own actions versus the actions of others.
Misattribution of Arousal: Misattribution of arousal refers to the erroneous identification of the cause of one’s emotional state or physiological excitement. It’s when you attribute the feelings you’re experiencing to the wrong source.
Expanded Definition
“Misattribution of Arousal” refers to the psychological phenomenon where individuals inaccurately identify the origin or cause of their emotional state or physiological reactions. This term is typically used within the field of psychology to discuss situations where people experience a certain level of excitement, stress, or heightened senses, but attribute it to an incorrect source. This misidentification can lead to altered perceptions and behaviors as individuals respond not to the actual source of their arousal, but to what they mistakenly believe to be causing it. This concept is pivotal in understanding human emotional responses and decision-making processes.
Misinformation Effect: The Misinformation Effect refers to the distortion of a memory due to post-event inaccurate information, influencing the recollection of the original event, often seen in settings such as interviews, lineups, or court trials.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Misinformation Effect’ is a cognitive bias where a person’s recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate due to post-event information. In other words, it refers to the phenomenological occurrence in which the recall of an original event is distorted by the influence of newly introduced, incorrect or misleading information. This usually happens when there is a temporal gap between the occurrence of the actual event and the subsequent memory recall stage; this intervening period could involve interviews, conversations or reading about the event, during which false or misleading details might be inadvertently introduced. For instance, it often becomes critical in legal contexts where a witness’s recollection of a crime can be altered by subsequent exposure to inaccuracies presented in the form of misleading questions, conversations or media reports. Consequently, this inaccurate account can eventually be remembered as a part of the original event, thus leading to potential errors in the courtroom testimony.
Mixed and Trait Models: Mixed and Trait Models refer to the perspective that Emotional Intelligence (EI) is an amalgamation of self-assessed emotional abilities, individual personality characteristics, and attitudes.
Expanded Definition
‘Mixed and Trait Models’ are conceptual frameworks that perceive Emotional Intelligence (EI) as a compound construct. Under these models, EI encompasses a blend of self-assessed emotional competencies, innate personality characteristics, and personal attitudes or viewpoints. This suggests that an individual’s emotional intelligence can be influenced and shaped by their self-perception of their ability to identify, understand, and manage emotions alongside their inherent personality traits and attitudes. These models also reinforce the notion that emotional intelligence is multidimensional, varying between individuals akin to personality traits, and can impact behavior and attitudes.
Mock Witnesses: A mock witness is a research participant who simulates the role of an eyewitness in an experiment.
Expanded Definition
‘Mock Witnesses’ are individuals selected in a research setting who are designated to portray the role of an eyewitness. Utilized predominantly within studies relating to the legal and psychological fields, these individuals provide researchers with invaluable insights into various aspects of eye-witness behaviors, memory retention/re-call abilities, credibility under scrutiny, and decision influencing factors. This mock setup is crucial for replicating real-life scenarios under controlled conditions.
Mode: The ‘Mode’ refers to the most repeated or commonly occurring value in a data set.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘Mode’ in statistics refers specifically to the most often-encountered or most frequently occurring value in a particular data set or distribution. It provides a quantitative measure to represent the most common value in the collection. It’s important to note that a data set may have one mode (unimodal), more than one mode (multimodal), or no mode at all, depending on the frequency distribution of distinct elements in the set. The mode is one of the central tendencies used in descriptive statistics alongside mean and median.
Modeling: Modeling is the act of replicating or mimicking a particular behavior that has been observed.
Expanded Definition
“Modeling” is a scientific and systematic approach that involves the meticulous observation of a particular behavior, typically exhibited in a real-life context or a controlled environment. The process then extends to replicating or mimicking this distinct behavior. The purpose of modeling typically involves understanding the complexities of this behavior, testing hypotheses surrounding it, or reproducing it for training, simulation, or predictive purposes. This concept, employed across a variety of disciplines such as psychology, computer science, and economics, often depends on a sophisticated blend of observational analysis, interpretation, and replication techniques.
Molecular Genetics: Molecular Genetics is the scientific exploration of gene configurations and their relationships to specific character traits.
Expanded Definition
Molecular Genetics is a specialized field within the larger area of genetics that focuses on the study of the structure and function of genes at a molecular level. The scope of this discipline extends beyond linking genes to personality traits; it also involves the analysis of the genetic make-up of organisms and the vast array of biological processes impacted by genetic information. This includes gene regulation, gene expression, DNA mutations and variations, heredity, and how these factors influence physiological traits and functions. Thus, molecular genetics is integral to understanding the molecular mechanisms of genetic diseases, traits inheritance, development, adaptation, and evolution. Notably, advancements in this field have facilitated breakthroughs in medical genetics, personalized medicine, genetic engineering, and gene therapy.
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs): MAOIs are the first generation of antidepressants that boost the levels of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine at neuronal junctions.
Expanded Definition
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs) are a class of psychiatric drugs originally introduced to serve as antidepressants. They operate by blocking the action of the enzyme monoamine oxidase, hence the name. This enzyme is responsible for breaking down neurotransmitters like serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine in the brain. By inhibiting its function, MAOIs increase the availability of these neurotransmitters in the synaptic gap – the junction between neurons. The enhanced presence of these neurotransmitters contributes to mood regulation and alleviation of depressive symptoms.
Monochronic (M-time): Monochronic, or M-Time, refers to cultures or individuals who favor completing tasks sequentially, focusing on one thing at a time usually within rigid schedules.
Expanded Definition
‘Monochronic time’, often abbreviated as ‘M-time’, is a concept prevalent in societies known as ‘clock-time cultures.’ These cultures prioritize precision, scheduling, and structure, typically in line with the societal norms of Western industrialized countries. Here, time is viewed as a tangible resource that can be lost, saved or spent. In the context of monochronic time, emphasis is given to accomplishing tasks sequentially or focusing on one task at a time. This allows for a methodical, linear approach to work and problem solving. It reflects a cultural preference for linear processes, prioritizing punctuality, thorough completion of each task before proceeding to the next, and a strong adherence to pre-set plans and schedules.
Monocular Cues: Monocular cues are visual indicators of depth and distance that can be perceived by a single eye, including aspects like overlapping objects (interposition) and converging lines (linear perspective).
Expanded Definition
‘Monocular Cues’ refer to visual indicators that facilitate depth perception – the ability to assess distance and three-dimensional characteristics using only one eye. Such cues include interposition, wherein closer objects overlap those farther away, and linear perspective, where parallel lines seem to converge as they recede into the distance. These cues do not require binocular vision, i.e., the use of both eyes, to interpret depth and spatial relationships in an environment, making them particularly crucial in circumstances where only one eye is usable or when viewing an image with inherent depth, like a photograph or painting.
Monocular Depth Cues: Monocular depth cues are visual indicators used by one eye to perceive spatial relations and depth. They simplify 3D understanding through a singular vision perspective.
Expanded Definition
‘Monocular Depth Cues’ refers to the perceptual phenomena which allows us to interpret and understand the depth and three-dimensional structures in the surrounding environment using a single eye. These cues, intrinsic to our visual perception, are not reliant on the use of both eyes, instead, they effectively utilize aspects such as perspective, texture gradients, shadows, relative size, motion parallax, and aerial perspective to ascertain depth and distance. This enables individuals, even with the use of just one eye, to navigate and interact with their environment in a precise and informed manner.
Mood: Mood refers to the pervasive and sustained emotional state that subtly underlines our daily experiences, whether positive or negative.
Expanded Definition
‘Mood’ can be meticulously described as the underlying emotional state, typically either positive or negative, that persistently influences a person’s perceptions, experiences, and behaviors throughout daily life. Its impact is systemic, subtly coloring our interactions, thoughts and decisions. It’s not an immediate response to a specific event, but rather a prolonged, less intense emotional state that doesn’t necessarily require a specific stimulus and can influence emotion and behavior over extended period of times.
Mood (or Affective) Disorders: Mood disorders are psychological conditions where an individual’s negative emotional state adversely impacts their physical, perceptional, social, and cognitive functionalities.
Expanded Definition
“Mood or Affective Disorders refer to a category of mental health disorders primarily characterized by significant changes or fluctuations in a person’s mood that profoundly influence their cognition, perception, physical wellbeing, and social interactions. These mood alterations can present as persistent feelings of sadness, emptiness, or disproportionately intense or prolonged emotional responses to events. As a result, these disorders can negatively impact an individual’s daily functioning, relationships, and overall quality of life.”
Mood-Congruent Memory: Mood-Congruent Memory is the psychological phenomenon where an individual is more likely to remember information or experiences that match their current emotional state.
Expanded Definition
‘Mood-Congruent Memory’ refers to the cognitive phenomenon where an individual is more likely to recall memories that match their current emotional state. For instance, when a person is in a joyful mood, they tend to recollect pleasant experiences, whereas during phases of sadness, they may recall past events that were negative or disappointing. This theory suggests a synergy between memory and emotion, indicating our present mood can serve as a filter for memory recall, predominantly summoning those memories that are emotionally congruent with our existing state.
Moon Illusion: The Moon Illusion is the perceptual phenomenon where the Moon appears larger near the horizon than at its zenith, despite having the same retinal image size.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Moon Illusion’ refers to the optical phenomenon where the moon appears significantly larger, approximately 50% more, to the human eye when it is near the landscape horizon, in contrast to when it is viewed at its zenith or directly overhead. Intriguingly, the moon’s size and the image it casts on our retinas remains consistent in both scenarios, making this a fascinating study of human perception rather than celestial mechanics or change in physical parameters.
Morality: Morality refers to the collective consensus on what is considered appropriate or ethical behavior within a specific cultural context.
Expanded Definition
‘Morality’ represents the established guidelines or principles within a specific culture or society which dictate the acceptable behaviors, actions, or decisions. These standards, broadly recognized and accepted as ‘right’ or ‘proper’ within the given context, serve as a compass informing individual or collective conduct. They address complex issues from ethics, fairness, justice to respect, embodying societal expectations and shaping the behavior and decision-making processes of those within that particular ethnic, religious, or regional group. Thus, morality functions as an essential societal tool, creating a coherent community fabric and fostering mutual understanding, respect and cooperation.
Morpheme: A morpheme is the smallest, meaningful linguistic unit in a language, usually consisting of a combination of phonemes.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Morpheme’ is a linguistic term that refers to the smallest, individual unit of a language that carries semantic meaning. It is composed of one or more phonemes, which are the basic sounds of a language. This unit of language cannot be further divided without losing or altering its meaning. It forms the essential building block in the structure of words, playing a crucial role in constructing and modifying words to convey different but related meanings. Morphemes can stand alone as individual words or can be attached to other words, helping to create the rich complexity and subtlety of language.
Morphine: Morphine is a potent, opium-derived narcotic used for pain relief, noted for its strong addictive properties, though less so than heroin.
Expanded Definition
Morphine is a potent pharmaceutical substance primarily utilized for its powerful analgesic, or pain-relieving, properties. It is derived from the opium poppy plant, making it a member of the opioid class of drugs. While morphine is highly effective in managing severe pain, it has a significant potential for addiction and dependence due to its effects on the brain’s reward pathways. It should be noted, though it has a lower addictive potential compared to heroin, another opiate, misuse of morphine can still lead to serious health and social consequences. As a result, morphine use is strictly regulated under medical supervision.
Motivated Skepticism: Motivated skepticism is the tendency to critically scrutinize information that contradicts our preexisting beliefs, regardless of the evidence’s reliability.
Expanded Definition
‘Motivated Skepticism’ is a cognitive phenomenon whereby individuals express doubt or exhibit skepticism towards information or evidence that challenges their pre-existing beliefs and preferences, irrespective of the compelling strength or robustness of this contrary evidence. This bias tends to skew the evaluation process, as these individuals are more likely to question the credibility and trustworthiness of the conflicting information, often without valid justification, merely because it contradicts their desired perspectives. Motivated skepticism thus presents a barrier to unbiased decision-making and objective reasoning.
Motivation: Motivation is the inner stimulus that kick-starts and steers actions.
Expanded Definition
‘Motivation’ refers to the inner psychological stimulus that prompts, regulates, and maintains certain forms of behavior. It can be perceived as the essential force that triggers individuals to act towards achieving specific goals, leading to actions being tackled with focus, persistence, and enthusiasm. This concept resides at the crux of many aspects of human behavior, including decision making, goal setting, problem solving, and more. ‘Motivation’ is an integral part of how and why we respond the way we do in certain conditions or towards particular objectives. It is rooted in our desires, needs, and beliefs, stimulating us to continuously evolve, learn, and reach our maximum potential.
Motivation Theory: Motivation Theory suggests that tasks are fundamentally dull and to encourage their completion, it’s necessary to offer incentives and ensure strict supervision.
Expanded Definition
‘Motivation Theory’ is a foundational concept in management and psychology that explores the psychological mechanisms propelling individuals to achieve their goals. Contrary to the idea that it views all work as mundane and only manageable through close supervision and incentives, various motivation theories propose diverse perspectives on what fuels motivation. These can range from biological and psychological needs, the pursuit of personal satisfaction, achievement and growth, to the balancing of fairness and equity. Theories may encompass extrinsic motivators like rewards, or intrinsic motivators such as personal fulfillment and interest. The primary goal of studying motivation theory is to comprehend what drives individuals to engage in particular behaviors, enabling improved performance management and employee satisfaction in a work context.
Motor Cortex: The Motor Cortex is the brain region responsible for controlling voluntary body movements via signals to the cerebellum and spinal cord.
Expanded Definition
The Motor Cortex is a specific region of the cerebral cortex – a critical component of the brain that plays a pivotal role in coordinating bodily movements. By transmitting neural signals to both the cerebellum and the spinal cord, the Motor Cortex harnesses control over the voluntary movements of our muscles. In essence, it serves as a primary hub, converting our brain’s abstract intents for motion into concrete, coordinated physical actions. It plays a crucial role in complex movements like precision tasks, and is fundamental to our physical interaction with our environment.
Motor Neuron (or Efferent Neuron): A motor neuron, or efferent neuron, is a nerve cell controlling muscle contractions and glandular outputs.
Expanded Definition
A Motor Neuron or Efferent Neuron is a specialized type of nerve cell. Its primary function is to transmit signals, in form of electrical impulses, from the central nervous system to peripheral body areas such as muscles and glands. This transmission facilitates various muscle movements and gland secretion processes, providing an essential link between cognitive thought, sensory input, and bodily response or action.
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): MRI is a medical imaging technique utilizing magnetic fields and radio waves to generate detailed images of soft tissues such as the brain.
Expanded Definition
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a sophisticated and non-invasive imaging technique used in the medical field. Utilizing strong magnetic fields and radio frequency pulses, the MRI system creates highly detailed images of various body structures with a particular focus on soft tissues. The MRI machine generates data that is then processed by a computer to produce high-resolution images, which reflect the composition and relative locations of different tissues within the body. This technology is particularly advantageous for examining brain anatomy as it can provide clear pictures of different types of tissue, including the gray and white matter, and differentiate between healthy tissues and abnormalities.
Mueller-Lyer Illusion: The Mueller-Lyer Illusion is a visual deception where identical line segments seem different lengths due to the influence of attached angle lines, showcasing the inadequacy of single-eye depth perception.
Expanded Definition
The Mueller-Lyer Illusion is a well-recognized optical phenomenon in which two line segments of identical length are perceived differently due to the addition of arrow-like appendages at their ends. The illusion tricks the brain into perceiving one line as longer than another, even when they are of the same length. This discrepancy in perception arises from the inadequacy of monocular depth cues, which are visual signals processed by one eye that help us judge depth and distance. In simple terms, the Mueller-Lyer Illusion calls attention to the ways our visual perception can be influenced or distorted, despite the physical reality being consistent.
Multiple Regression: Multiple regression is a statistical method used to predict a single outcome using multiple independent variables, based on their interrelationships. It is essentially an extension of simple linear regression that involves more than one predictor.
Expanded Definition
‘Multiple Regression’ is a sophisticated statistical methodology that is leveraged to understand the relationship between one dependent (or outcome) variable and two or more independent (or predictor) variables. It is an extension of simple linear regression that involves more predictors, providing a more comprehensive analysis. By examining the correlation coefficients among the variables, multiple regression enables the prediction of the outcome variable. This prediction is based upon the values of the multiple predictor variables. This technique is widely used in predictive analytics and forecasting across disciplines in business, social sciences, health, and more due to its ability to provide deep insights into the complex interrelationships among multiple variables.
Multiple Response: “Multiple Response” refers to an organism’s behavioral strategy of attempting varying actions or responses to achieve a desired outcome, based on the trial and error method.
Expanded Definition
“Multiple Response” refers to a behavioral principle primarily observed in animal behavior studies, where an animal engages in a variety of actions or behaviors (also known as responses) when its initial response does not achieve a particular outcome or desired state of affairs. This method, often described as trial and error, involves testing multiple solutions to find one that is successful, illustrating the animal’s adaptability and problem-solving capabilities.
Multiply Determined: ‘Multiply Determined’ refers to a behavior influenced by numerous factors across various explanatory levels. It signifies the complex interplay of elements that shape specific conduct.
Expanded Definition
‘Multiply Determined’ refers to a concept primarily encountered in the behavioral and social sciences, indicating that a particular behavior or reaction is influenced by an array of distinct factors. These factors can be seen operating across multiple layers or levels of explanation, including individual psychology, interpersonal interactions, societal norms, and broader cultural contexts. In essence, this term underscores the complex, multifaceted nature of behavioral formation, acknowledging that behavior is rarely – if ever – the product of a single, isolated cause or influence.
Mutation: A mutation is an unanticipated alteration in gene replication that results in genomic variance.
Expanded Definition
A ‘mutation’ can be comprehensively defined as ‘an alteration in the genetic material of an organism’. This genetic material, made up of DNA, holds the instructions for the organism’s growth, development, and functioning. The mutation occurs due to an error in the DNA replication process, and these errors can happen arbitrarily or due to external environmental factors like radiation or certain chemicals. This change in genetic material can lead to variations in the organism’s characteristics, potentially bringing about phenotypic changes, or observable changes in physical characteristics and behavior. However, it’s important to highlight that not all mutations result in noticeable or harmful effects, and some can even be beneficial, contributing to the organism’s adaptability and evolution.
Myelin Sheath: The Myelin Sheath is a lipid-rich coating on neuronal axons, enhancing electrical impulse transmission speed and serving as insulation.
Expanded Definition
A Myelin Sheath is a specialized architecture of fatty tissue that envelops the axon – the long, threadlike portion of a neuron responsible for transmitting nerve impulses. Functioning as an insulating layer, the Myelin Sheath segregates the axon from surrounding electrical activity, ensuring signal integrity and decreasing the likelihood of signal interference or ‘cross-talk’ between adjacent neurons. Furthermore, the Myelin Sheath is instrumental in enhancing the speed and efficiency of electrical signal transmission along the axon. This acceleration in signal transmission is achieved through a process called saltatory conduction, where the signal essentially ‘jumps’ between gaps in the Myelin Sheath, known as Nodes of Ranvier. In summary, the Myelin Sheath plays a pivotal role in preserving and enhancing neuronal communication.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is a psychological assessment tool used to gauge an individual’s personality traits to understand their perception and decision-making processes.
Expanded Definition
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a scientifically-based assessment tool developed to identify an individual’s personality type, strengths, and preferences. This comprehensive tool is based on Carl Jung’s theory of psychological types and is designed to illustrate the significant personal differences in how individuals engage with the world, gather information, make decisions, and structure their environment. By interpreting these distinct psychometric patterns, the MBTI helps individuals gain increased awareness about themselves and their mode of operation, fostering better understanding and communication in both personal and professional relationships.
Mystery: A mystery refers to something that is unexplained or unknown, frequently implying a complex or perplexing circumstance or phenomena.
Expanded Definition
“Mystery” is a term generally used to illustrate something that is difficult to understand, explain, or ascertain. When referenced in the context of ‘Life is a great mystery,’ it means that life, with its numerous complexities, unanticipated turns, and uncertainties, often remains beyond full comprehension. In essence, life presents a grand enigma that continually poses questions, evokes curiosity, and baffles human understanding with its intricacies and unpredictability.

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Narcolepsy: Narcolepsy is a neurological condition that causes profound daytime drowsiness and sudden attacks of sleep.
Expanded Definition
Narcolepsy is a chronic neurological disorder that impairs the brain’s ability to regulate sleep-wake cycles. This condition is often characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness (EDA), where individuals experience persistent drowsiness and an uncontrollable propensity to fall asleep during the day, often at inappropriate times. This can be associated with sudden loss of muscle tone (cataplexy), sleep paralysis, and hallucinations. Although the cause is not entirely understood, it may be related to abnormally low levels of a brain hormone known as hypocretin, which plays a critical role in sleep and wakefulness. Narcolepsy can significantly impact an individual’s daily life, but with appropriate management and medication, most people with the condition continue to lead full, rich lives.
Natural Improvement: ‘Natural Improvement’ refers to the inherent potential for individuals to progressively enhance their condition or wellbeing without the need for intervention or treatment.
Expanded Definition
‘Natural Improvement’ refers to the inherent potential of individuals to experience progress or enhancement in their condition or state over a specific period, regardless of the absence of any formal intervention or treatment. This concept highlights the human body’s self-regulating capacity to heal, adapt, or improve naturally, independent of medical or therapeutic measures. However, it’s essential to note that while natural improvement does occur, the rate and extent of improvement may significantly vary based on individual specifics such as age, genetic factors, overall health status, and environmental influences.
Natural Selection: Natural selection is the evolutionary process whereby individuals with favorable heritable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce.
Expanded Definition
Natural selection is the fundamental principle of evolution, first identified by Charles Darwin. It refers to the process through which species evolve over time due to variances in their inherited characteristics. The term ‘differential reproductive success’ implies that some individuals in a species are more successful at reproducing and passing on their genes than others, as a result of these heritable differences. These variations could range from physical traits to behaviors and survival strategies. When these characteristics provide a particular advantage for survival or reproduction in a given environment, they are more likely to be passed on to following generations – this is the essence of natural selection. Over time, these advantageous traits become more common in the population, leading to evolutionary changes in the species.
Naturalistic Observations: Naturalistic observation is a research method where subjects are studied in their natural environment without any altered surroundings or interventions. It’s an unobtrusive, in-situ analysis of everyday situations.
Expanded Definition
Naturalistic Observation refers to a research methodology in which scientists conduct studies in a natural or real-world context, as opposed to a controlled laboratory setting. This type of research entails the systematic observation and recording of behaviors, events, or interactions as they organically unfold. This method allows researchers to gather data about behaviors in their usual context, providing a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the phenomena under study. It is commonly utilized in the fields of psychology, anthropology, and sociology. Despite its potential for rich, realistic data, it also presents challenges like lack of control over extraneous variables and potential observer bias.
Nature Approach to Language: The ‘Nature Approach to Language’ is the perspective asserting that human brains possess an inherent mechanism for acquiring language, encompassing a universal grammar found in all human language.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Nature Approach to Language’, also known as ‘nativism’, theorizes that human beings are inherently equipped with a specialized cognitive machinery, often referred to as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). This innate mechanism is encoded with a Universal Grammar, an underlying framework that supposedly governs the structure of all human languages. This approach posits that language learning is not solely dependent on environmental factors, but it is an inherent capability of the human brain that allows us to learn, construct, and understand language naturally from a young age, regardless of cultural or linguistic variations.
Nature-Nurture Issue: The ‘Nature-Nurture Issue’ examines the interplay between genetic inheritance and environmental influences in shaping psychological traits and behaviors. It debates the extent to which our genes (nature) and experiences (nurture) determine or contribute to our behavior and development.
Expanded Definition
The nature-nurture debate is a profound and enduring discussion within the scientific and psychological community regarding the interplay of genetic and environmental factors in shaping an individual’s psychological traits and behaviors. Essentially, this discourse seeks to answer the extent of influence that heredity (nature) and experiences or environment (nurture) yield in forming personal attributes such as intelligence, personality, and mental health among others. Contemporary research recognizes that the interaction between these two elements isthe main driver of individual development, suggesting that no characteristic is determined solely by genes or environment, rather it’s the complex interweaving of these factors.
Near-Death Experience: A near-death experience refers to a unique psychological event characterized by altered consciousness, often correlating with hallucinatory phenomena, reported after a near-fatal incident.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Near-Death Experience’ is a term used to describe a unique phenomenon encountered by some individuals who have come close to death, most typically due to conditions like cardiac arrest. This event, often characterized by an altered state of consciousness, bears similarities to hallucinations triggered by psychoactive substances. However, participants report vivid and structured experiences including elements such as moving through a tunnel, encountering spiritual entities, or revisiting past memories. The phenomenology of near-death experiences is consistently reported across cultures and is considered to have significant psychological impacts on individuals. Despite considerable scientific intrigue, definitive explanations for this phenomenon remain elusive, requiring multidimensional investigations across neurology, psychology, and even philosophy.
Nearsighted: Nearsightedness, or myopia, is a condition where the eye over-refracts incoming light, causing images to focus before reaching the retina, leading to blurred distance vision.
Expanded Definition
“Nearsightedness”, clinically referred to as myopia, is a common type of refractive eye disorder. In a normal eye, light enters and is correctly focused on the retina, the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye, to form clear images. However, in a nearsighted eye, the light rays are inaccurately refracted, causing them to converge at a focal point in front of the retina, rather than directly on it. This irregularity often results from an elongated eyeball or excessive curvature of the cornea. Consequently, this leads to blurred distance vision, while close objects appear clearly. Accompanying symptoms may include frequent squinting, eye strain, or headaches. It’s a condition that can be effectively corrected with prescription glasses, contact lenses, or refractive surgery.
Need for Closure: Need for Closure is the inherent human tendency to seek resolution or finality, typically driven by a disfavor for ambiguity.
Expanded Definition
‘Need for Closure’ is a psychological term that refers to an individual’s inclination to seek a definitive answer, resolution, or conclusion to a question, situation, or decision-making process. This need often arises from the discomfort or stress caused by uncertainty, inducing a pressing urge in individuals to resolve ambiguity and achieve clarity. This drive, however, can vary among individuals, with some displaying a higher need for closure than others. Those with a high need for closure tend to crave predictability, prefer order and structure, and typically avoid ambiguous situations. Conversely, individuals with a low need for closure can tolerate ambiguity and may explore multiple and often complex solutions before reaching a conclusion.
Need to Belong: The Need to Belong refers to inherent human urge to form social connections and maintain close relationships.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Need to Belong’ can be defined as an intrinsic psychological requirement inherent in humans, emphasising the desire to establish and maintain meaningful interpersonal relationships. It encompasses the fundamental motivation to interact socially, form familial bonds, and engage in collectively beneficial activities. This psychological necessity is rooted in a core aspect of human behavior, stemming from our evolutionary past as cooperative beings, and serves as a vital component in promoting wellness and maintaining mental health.
Negative Linear Relationship: A negative linear relationship is when an increase in one variable typically corresponds with a decrease in the other variable.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Negative Linear Relationship’ refers to a correlation pattern between two variables where an increase in one variable coincides with a decrease in the other variable. Specifically, when the variable with higher-than-average values is paired with the variable having lower-than-average values, it establishes this inverse or negative relationship. This relationship is termed ‘linear’ because the rate of change between these variables remains constant and can be graphically represented as a straight line sloping downward on a scatter plot.
Negative Reinforcement: Negative reinforcement is a psychological concept where an undesirable element is removed to bolster a particular behavior. It’s using subtraction of unpleasant factors to motivate certain responses.
Expanded Definition
Negative Reinforcement is a concept within the field of behavior psychology, which refers to the motivational technique of removing an undesired or unpleasant factor from a situation in the aim to reinforce or increase the frequency of a certain behavior. Essentially, this involves the extinction of a detrimental stimulus with the objective of promoting a positive behavioral response. It’s crucial to note that negative reinforcement is not a form of punishment, but rather a tactic employed to strengthen desirable actions or behaviors.
Negative State Relief Model: The Negative State Relief Model posits that individuals often engage in altruistic behaviors to alleviate their own distress or negative emotions. It is a psychological perspective arguing that self-oriented motives primarily drive helping behavior.
Expanded Definition
The Negative State Relief Model is a psychological theory that postulates that individuals are often motivated to engage in prosocial behavior, such as helping others, as a means to mitigate their own negative emotions or distressed state. In this framework, providing assistance to others is perceived as a self-soothing strategy that can uplift one’s mood or alleviate feelings of discomfort or sadness. Hence, this model suggests that acts of helping can be driven primarily by a personal intention to restore one’s own emotional equilibrium.
Nerves: Nerves are groups of neurons working together to transmit signals throughout the body.
Expanded Definition
‘Nerves’ can be defined as complex groups of structured, interconnected neurons or nerve fibers, which act in tandem to transmit signals or messages throughout the body. These nerve fibers send messages via electrical impulses, working cohesively to facilitate communication between the brain, spinal cord, and other parts of the body. This enables essential physiological functions such as movement, sensory perception, and responses to various stimuli.
Nervous System: The nervous system is a complex network of specialized cells that facilitate communication between the brain and all body parts.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Nervous System’ is a complex and extensive network consisting of an estimated 100 billion uniquely specialized neurons, or nerve cells, intricately interconnected. It serves as the body’s primary communication system, transmitting messages between the brain and all other body parts. It uses electric and chemical signals to regulate, coordinate and integrate bodily functions, enabling responses to internal and external environmental changes. The nervous system essentially oversees human consciousness, sensing, thought, learning, memory, and emotions, making it crucial to all aspects of human life.
Neural Correlates of Consciousness (NCC): Neural Correlates of Consciousness (NCC) aims to connect brain activity with subjective human experiences, deriving physical interpretation from cognitive processes.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘Neural Correlates of Consciousness (NCC)’ refers to the scientifically-driven endeavor to associate specific patterns of brain function with the distinctly subjective and personal experiences of an individual in their perceivable reality. It aims to build connections between certain brain activities and the manifestation of conscious awareness, thereby exploring how our mental states or experiences intersect with physical neurological processes. This multidisciplinary study area marries neuroscience with psychology, philosophy, and cognitive sciences, among others. The ultimate goal is to understand the architecture of the brain and the way it produces and shapes a unique consciousness, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of the human mind and awareness.
Neurogenesis: Neurogenesis is the process of creating new neurons from neural stem cells, contributing to brain cell growth and development.
Expanded Definition
Neurogenesis refers to the intricate biological process by which new neurons, or nerve cells, are generated from neural stem cells. This process involves a series of sequential biological activities that encompass the initiation, progression, and finalization of new neuronal cell growth. The majority of this process takes place during the prenatal period, but it also continues throughout adulthood, particularly in specific regions of the brain such as the hippocampus – a region vital for learning and memory functions. Understanding neurogenesis contributes significantly to scientific enquiry, especially in areas such as brain development, cognitive functionality, neural plasticity, and the potential treatment of neurological disorders.
Neuroimaging: Neuroimaging refers to the application of specialized techniques for visualizing the structural and functional aspects of the live brain.
Expanded Definition
‘Neuroimaging’ can be comprehensively defined as an area of medical science that entails the employment of advanced and varied technological methods designed to visually capture, analyze and elucidate the intricate structure, active functionalities and complex pathways of the living human brain. These techniques theoretically and practically enable researchers and clinicians to closely observe neurological and psychiatric conditions, track brain development and aging, and explore the underlying neural mechanisms of cognition and emotion, indebting invaluable insights into the mind and brain health.
Neuron: A neuron is a specialized cell in the nervous system designed to process and transmit signals.
Expanded Definition
A neuron, also referred to as a nerve cell, is a crucial component of the nervous system. It is specialized to process and transmit information through electrical and chemical signals within the body. Equipped with dendrites and axons, these cells take up sensory input, integrate it within the cell body and convey the necessary response through nerve impulses to other neurons, muscle cells, or gland cells. This significant biological process assists in regulating numerous functions, including cognitive abilities, muscle movements, and bodily responses to external stimuli.
Neurophilosophy: Neurophilosophy is the study that regards the neural underpinnings of consciousness as its causal basis, viewing consciousness as a characteristic of a complex, adaptable, and extensively interlinked biological system that is state-dependent.
Expanded Definition
‘Neurophilosophy’ is a multidisciplinary field of study that integrates principles of neuroscience and philosophy. This field takes the approach that consciousness is not a standalone phenomenon, but rather an effect stemming from the interactions within our brain’s complex network of neurons. It views consciousness as a state-dependent property, meaning it changes depending on various states like awake, asleep, or under anesthesia. It belongs to a sophisticated, adaptive, and highly interconnected biological system, the specifics of which are not entirely defined yet. Neurophilosophy seeks to bridge the gap between our understanding of the biological brain and our subjective experience of consciousness.
Neuroplasticity: Neuroplasticity is the capacity of the brain to modify its organization, both structurally and functionally, in response to learning or injury. It underpins adaptation to novel experiences and memory formation.
Expanded Definition
Neuroplasticity, often described as the brain’s adaptability, represents the physiological changes that occur within our brain’s structure and functionality due to learning, experiences or following an injury. It underpins the concept that our brain is not a fixed organ, but a dynamic entity, continuously shaping and reshaping itself in response to stimuli and experiences. This remarkable property makes it possible for the brain to reinforce pathways for retention of new information, memorization and learning, or to carve new pathways to adapt to changes, such as physical injuries or alterations in the environment. The concept of neuroplasticity provides a foundational understanding of how we can continue learning and adapting throughout our lifespan.
Neurosis: Neurosis refers to a range of psychological conditions that disrupt a person’s thinking and behavior, causing significant distress or impairment in their daily life.
Expanded Definition
‘Neurosis’ is a term traditionally used in psychology to describe a class of functional mental disorders involving chronic distress but neither delusions nor hallucinations. It’s an umbrella term that includes various conditions such as anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and depression. Contrary to the oversimplified definition of a force that shatters personality, neurosis actually involves recurring, yet manageable, patterns of thought or behavior that could potentially disrupt the individual’s normal functioning or well-being, but does not involve a complete breakdown of personality or disconnect from reality. Please note that the term “neurosis” is not as frequently used in modern psychiatric classification systems as it was in the past. It has largely been replaced by more specific diagnoses that better articulate these psychological conditions.
Neuroticism: Neuroticism is a psychological characteristic marked by a propensity towards negative emotional states like anger, anxiety, and depression, coupled with heightened sensitivity in social situations.
Expanded Definition
Neuroticism, in the realm of psychology, is characterized as a fundamental personality trait within the syndrome model of the Five-Factor Personality Framework. Individuals scoring high on this trait are more likely to frequently undergo negative emotions, encompassing feelings such as anger, anxiety, irritation, and depression. They also tend to demonstrate hypersensitivity within interpersonal relationships. This sensitivity often showcases itself as an heightened awareness towards the feelings of others, potentially leading to misunderstanding or overreaction to the actions of those around them. High neuroticism is often linked to mood disorders and other psychological problems, but it does not universally imply a mental health issue. It is simply one element within a broad set of personality dynamics.
Neurotransmitter: A neurotransmitter is a chemical substance that mediates signal transmission between neurons by fitting into receptor sites on receiving cells, akin to a lock and key mechanism.
Expanded Definition
A neurotransmitter is a specialized type of chemical messenger exclusively involved in transmitting signals within the nervous system. These substances are released from small structures at the end of neurons, known as terminal buttons. The release occurs when an electrical signal arrives at the end of a neuron, prompting the neurotransmitter to cross a microscopic gap called a synapse, to reach the next neuron. On the other side of the synapse, the receiving neuron has structures called dendrites, which contain receptors designed to receive these neurotransmitters. This receptor-neurotransmitter interaction works on a mechanism similar to a ‘lock and key’ model, where only specific neurotransmitters (keys) can bind to certain receptors (locks). This process helps in the transfer and interpretation of information within the brain and larger nervous system.
Nicotine: Nicotine is a natural insect repelling compound derived from nightshade plants, including tobacco.
Expanded Definition
Nicotine is classified as a psychoactive substance, which means it can alter one’s mental state by changing the way the brain works. Primarily located in the tobacco plant and other species within the nightshade family, this chemical compound functions as a natural insect deterrent, protecting the plants from pests. Nicotine stimulates the release of neurotransmitters, which can lead to both stimulating and sedating effects depending on its dosage. Its addictive properties have significant implications for tobacco product use and public health. Despite its harmful nature, nicotine is also studied for potential therapeutic uses due to its effects on the nervous system.
Night Terrors: Night Terrors are a sleep disorder that occurs in deep sleep, typically within a few hours of falling asleep, causing individuals to intensely exhibit fear, yet rarely retaining memory of the event.
Expanded Definition
‘Night Terrors’ is a term used to refer to a particular type of sleep disorder that is distinguished by intense arousal and observable manifestations of extreme fear. This condition differs from typical nightmares as it transpires during the deep, non-REM sleep known as Stage 4 sleep. This generally occurs within the initial two to three hours of the sleep cycle. One key characteristic of night terrors, setting them apart from nightmares, is that the individual rarely retains any memory of the episode upon awakening. This sleep phenomenon can significantly disrupt normal sleep patterns and quality of life, making it a relevant focus of clinical and psychological research.
No Relationship: ‘No Relationship’ refers to the state where changes in one variable do not impact or are not connected to changes in another variable, thus making the variables independent.
Expanded Definition
“No Relationship” in statistical or research parlance refers to a condition where two variables do not influence or interact with each other in any measureable way. This means changes in one variable do not lead to any predictable changes in the other variable, thus they are said to operate independently. The lack of association or correlation between these variables suggests no observed effect or impact on one another. Importantly, the concept of “No Relationship” is fundamental to understanding the dynamics and implications of statistical independence.
Node of Ranvier: A Node of Ranvier is a gap in the myelin sheath of a neuron, facilitating rapid conduction of nerve impulses along the axon.
Expanded Definition
The Node of Ranvier, named after French anatomist Louis-Antoine Ranvier, is an exposed area between segments of the myelin sheath that enwraps the axons of neurons. These minute interruptions in the myelin sheath serve as points of electrical excitation and play a critical role in facilitating the rapid and efficient transmission of nerve impulses. Here, ions can rush in and out of the neuron, accelerating the propagation of electrical signals along the neuron’s axon. This specific pathway of conducting signals is termed as ‘saltatory conduction.’ By enabling this leap-frog style of impulse transmission, the Nodes of Ranvier significantly increase the speed at which information travels through our nervous system.
Non-Rapid Eye Movement (non-REM) Sleep: Non-REM sleep is a deep sleep state with slow brainwaves split into three stages (N1, N2, N3), wherein conscious-related (declarative) memory is processed.
Expanded Definition
Non-Rapid Eye Movement (non-REM) sleep is a vital component of the sleep cycle that engages slow brain wave activity. Non-REM sleep is distinguished by its depth of sleep and comprises three sequential stages: – Stage N1: This is the lightest stage of sleep, serving as the transition phase from wakefulness to deeper sleep. – Stage N2: This intermediate stage signifies that a person has entered a state of true sleep, as heart rate slows down and body temperature lowers. – Stage N3: Known as deep sleep, this is when the body recovers and recuperates, with brain waves at their slowest existing as delta waves. Crucially, non-REM sleep plays an essential role in declarative memory function, which pertains to the memory of facts, events, or knowledge that can be consciously recalled. It is during this phase where the brain processes and consolidates the information accumulated during wakefulness, solidifying these memories for future access.
Nonassociative Learning: Nonassociative learning is the behavioral change that occurs due to repeated exposure to a single stimulus. It’s a fundamental learning process where repetitive encounter impacts behavior.
Expanded Definition
Nonassociative learning is a fundamental process of cognition, defined as the alteration in an individual’s behavioral response that arises from the repeated exposure to a sole, isolated stimulus. This type of learning does not rely on an association between different stimuli or between a stimulus and a behavior, as commonly found in other learning processes. Instead, it often involves habituation – a decrease in response due to continuous engagement with the stimulus, or sensitization – an increased response over time. Engaging an audience or individual with nonassociative learning methods requires patience, repetition, and the strategic use of single stimuli.
Nonconscious: ‘Nonconscious’ refers to subconscious or unintentional behaviors or motives, throughout which an individual continues a pursuit without realizing its purpose or even its existence.
Expanded Definition
‘Nonconscious’ refers to psychological and cognitive processes that occur without an individual’s explicit awareness. This term typically identifies attitudes, motivations, or goals that influence an individual’s behavior in ways they may not recognize or understand. An individual acting on nonconscious motivations may pursue certain objectives unaware of the underlying drive, potentially remaining oblivious to the fact that they are even striving towards it. This concept plays a substantial role in various areas of psychological and behavioral studies.
Nonlinear Relationship: A nonlinear relationship refers to the association between two variables that doesn’t follow a straight-line trend, indicating a complex pattern that may involve multiple variables, variations, or levels of change.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Nonlinear Relationship’ refers to a statistical relationship or correlation between two or more variables where the data does not follow a single straight line. Rather, it exhibits variability, curvatures, or other complex patterns. This implies that the response of a variable ‘y’ to changes in another variable ‘x’ is not constant, but instead changes in relation to the value of ‘x’. Nonlinear relationships can be more accurately depicted using mathematical functions such as polynomial equations or logarithmic models. This concept becomes pivotal in advanced analytics and data science for modeling real-world scenarios where relationships are unlikely to be linear.
Nonshared Environment: Nonshared environment refers to individual experiences and influences, not related to genetics or shared environment, which contribute to differences in traits among identical twins or family members.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘Nonshared Environment’ refers to the unique experiences and situations that contribute to the differences observed between identical twins or siblings in the same family. Despite having identical genetic material and often growing up in the same household (which account for heritability and shared environmental factors, respectively), identical twins or siblings may express dissimilar traits. This divergence may be attributed to nonshared environmental influences, which can include personal experiences, individual interpretation of events, unique interactions, and particular life circumstances. Thus, nonshared environmental factors play a vital role in shaping individual differences within genetic boundaries and shared familial environments.
Nonspecific Treatment Effects: Nonspecific treatment effects refer to patient improvement over time due to attendance at therapy sessions, irrespective of specific therapeutic interventions used.
Expanded Definition
‘Nonspecific Treatment Effects’ refer to therapeutic outcomes that aren’t directly attributable to the specific interventions or methodologies employed during therapy sessions. Instead, they are attributed to secondary factors such as the therapeutic environment, rapport with the therapist, or the patient’s belief in the efficacy of therapy. These effects indicate an improvement in the patient’s condition over time, simply through the act of attending therapy, regardless of the treatment specifics. Such effects, while beneficial, can complicate the understanding of what is truly effective within a therapy intervention, as changes may not be directly tied to the treatment itself.
Nonverbal Communication: Nonverbal communication is the conveyance of information, emotions, or ideas via gestures, body language, and expressions, rather than using spoken or written words.
Expanded Definition
Nonverbal Communication refers to the process of transmitting information, conveying thoughts, and expressing emotions without the use of verbal language. It encompasses a variety of signals such as body language, facial expressions, eye contact, space management, touch, gestures, posture, tone of voice, and physical appearance. Understood universally, regardless of language differences, it forms an integral part of human interaction, enhancing the understanding and interpretation of verbal messages, and often providing more insight than spoken words alone. These nonverbal cues can boost or jeopardize the effectiveness and authenticity of communication, therefore understanding and harnessing them is critical in various personal and professional domains.
Norm: A norm is a widely adhered to guideline or standard dictating social or institutional behavior.
Expanded Definition
A ‘norm’ can be defined as an implicit or explicit standard, guideline, or rule, which is comprehensively understood and agreed upon within a specific community, group, or society. These norms establish an expected benchmark for behavior, often functioning as a social contract that governs the actions of members. Ranging from formal laws to unspoken customs and traditions, norms shape social interactions by distinguishing between acceptable and unacceptable conduct, thereby facilitating coherence, predictability, and stability in social engagement.
Normal Distribution: Normal Distribution is a bell-shaped, symmetric statistical distribution with the majority of observations clustered around the central mean.
Expanded Definition
Normal Distribution, commonly known as Gaussian Distribution, is a statistical concept that describes a distinct pattern of data distribution. This pattern is characterized by its bell-shaped curve where the majority of data points or observations cluster around the central value, otherwise known as the mean or average. This distribution exhibits symmetry, suggesting that the data points are evenly distributed around the mean, forming mirror images on either side. It is widely used in statistical analysis due to its property that approximately 68% of data falls within one standard deviation from the mean and about 95% within two standard deviations, making it easier to predict the probability of occurrence of a specific event or value.
Normal Distribution (or Bell Curve): Normal Distribution, also known as the Bell Curve, is a statistical concept where data values cluster around the mean, tapering off symmetrically towards the extremes.
Expanded Definition
A Normal Distribution, also known as a Bell Curve due to its characteristic shape, represents a statistical phenomenon occurring in numerous natural and social sciences. This distribution showcases data points that are closely grouped around the mean (average), displaying a symmetrical pattern about the central value. Recognizable by its convex curve, the highest frequency of occurrences (the mode) lies at the center. As you move away in either direction from the mean – towards the ends or “tails” of the curve – the frequencies of occurrences considerably decrease, indicating fewer data points at extreme values. This pattern suggests that most data points are near the mean, with the occurrence decreasing proportionally as you deviate from the average, resulting in less common extreme values.
Normative Influence: ‘Normative Influence’ refers to the behavioral adaptation where individuals conform to societal standards or group norms to gain acceptance or avoid disapproval. In other words, it’s the pressure to align with group expectations for fear of social rejection.
Expanded Definition
‘Normative Influence’ refers to the psychological and social phenomenon where individuals conform to group norms or behaviors primarily due to the apprehension about societal judgment and acceptance. This urge to conform arises from the individual’s intent to be favorably perceived by others, fostering a sense of belonging and affirmation within the social group. It is a significant driver in human behavior, often influencing decision making and ethical considerations.
NREM Sleep: NREM Sleep, short for non-rapid eye movement sleep, refers to all sleep phases excluding the REM (rapid eye movement) stage.
Expanded Definition
Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep, often abbreviated as NREM Sleep, refers to a significant portion of a typical sleep cycle that does not involve the Rapid Eye Movement (REM) phase. This component of sleep is distinct from REM sleep, which is primarily known for being the stage in which dreams commonly occur. NREM sleep encompasses multiple stages of sleep, each with unique physiological and neurological characteristics. NREM sleep begins when we first fall asleep and alternates with REM sleep throughout the night. It plays a vital role in restful and restorative sleep, contributing to physical recovery, growth and development, and cognitive functions such as memory consolidation.
Nuremberg Code: The Nuremberg Code is a crucial ethical guide from 1947, outlining 10 principles for human subject research, notably stressing informed consent and careful risk-benefit analysis.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Nuremberg Code’, established in 1947, comprises a comprehensive list of 10 fundamental principles explicitly designed to guide the ethical conduct of experimental research involving human participants. Emphasizing the primacy of the subject’s welfare and rights, these principles underscore two critical aspects: ‘informed consent’ and the ‘risk-benefit analysis’. ‘Informed consent’ advocates for the voluntary participation of subjects, who must be adequately informed about the purpose, methods, and potential risks and benefits of the research. The ‘risk-benefit analysis’ stipulates that the anticipated benefits of the research should significantly outweigh any possible hazards or discomfort to the research subjects. These principles, collectively known as the Nuremberg Code, play a critical role in ensuring the ethical treatment of human subjects in research.

O

Obedience: Obedience refers to adhering to instructions or directives given by those in power. It involves compliance to authority’s requests or commands.
Expanded Definition
‘Obedience’ can be comprehensively defined as the act of complying or adhering to the instructions, mandates, or commands issued by individuals who possess recognized authority or power. It involves a conscious decision to acquiesce to directives, thereby reflecting respect towards the structure and rules established by such authoritative figures. This concept is central to various societal, organizational, and relational structures, facilitating an orderly and cooperative functioning. However, the complexity of this term also encompasses the nuanced exploration of personal autonomy, morals, and ethics in the face of authoritative command.
Object Permanence: Object permanence is the cognitive understanding that objects continue to exist, even when they’re out of sight.
Expanded Definition
‘Object Permanence’ is a vital stage in a child’s cognitive development, referring to their acquired understanding that objects or individuals continue to exist, even when they cannot be seen, heard, or otherwise sensed. This concept forms a cornerstone of spatial awareness and relationships, implying the child’s crescendoing ability to form mental representations and understand the constancy in their environment. The development of object permanence is usually observed in infancy and is a key element in Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
Objective: ‘Objective’ refers to an unbiased perspective that is not influenced by personal feelings or prejudices. It’s the unbiased analysis or decision-making that is based on factual information.
Expanded Definition
‘Objective’ pertains to the ability to perceive, assess, and respond to situations or information without the influence of personal feelings, opinions, or biases. It underscores the principle of impartiality, where decisions are based solely on factual data and logical reasoning. This concept is fundamental in diverse fields, including science, journalism, law, and business, to ensure informed, rational, and unbiased practices or conclusions.
Observational Learning: ‘Observational learning’ is the process through which individuals grasp new skills or acquire knowledge by studying others’ actions.
Expanded Definition
Observational Learning, also referred to as social learning or modelling, is a form of learning that transpires when an individual assimilates new information or behaviors by watching others. This process involves several stages including attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation. It’s a fundamental part of cognitive development. The observer’s awareness and understanding allow for the mimicry or replication of behaviors, skills, or attitudes, demonstrating learning without a direct reinforcement necessarily occurring. This form of learning is widely used in various contexts ranging from academic environments to professional training and personal development.
Obsessions: Obsessions are recurring patterns of thoughts or urgencies, typically intruding into one’s consciousness, that may be distressing or difficult to manage.
Expanded Definition
‘Obsessions’ are typically defined as intrusive, persistent, and recurrent cognitive patterns, thoughts, or mental images. They often evoke feelings of anxiety and discomfort, causing an individual to engage in particular actions or ‘compulsions’ in order to alleviate the distress. These thoughts aren’t merely excessive worries about real-life problems, but are often irrational or over-exaggerated concerns. The individual usually recognizes that these obsessions are a product of their own mind and not grounded in reality. This psychological phenomenon is often associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) but could be present in various mental health conditions.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a psychological condition characterized by persistent upsetting thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive actions (compulsions) performed to mitigate these thoughts.
Expanded Definition
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a clinically recognized psychological condition most commonly characterized by intrusive, persistent, and distressing thoughts (known as obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or mental acts an individual feels compelled to perform (referred to as compulsions). The person consciously attempts these behaviors, either in response to obsessions or according to rigidly applied rules, with the objective of preventing perceived negative outcomes, providing temporary relief from the associated anxiety or fear. The immense strain that these compulsions potentially place on the individual’s daily life and functionality is a hallmark of OCD diagnosis. It’s important to note that a diagnosis comes from a licensed mental health professional and involves a thorough assessment of symptoms and their impact on the person’s quality of life. The understanding of OCD continues to evolve in the field of psychiatry and mental health care.
Occipital Lobe: The Occipital Lobe, also known as the visual cortex, processes and interprets visual data.
Expanded Definition
The Occipital Lobe is an integral component of our brain, often referred to as the “visual cortex.” Its primary role involves processing visual stimuli that our eyes capture. This section of the brain translates raw visual signals sent from the eyes into meaningful information, allowing us to recognize and interpret what we see. It contributes significantly to our ability to understand things like color, shape, and spatial recognition, making it a crucial element of our overall visual perception and understanding. In essence, the Occipital Lobe transforms light and patterns that our eyes see into a cohesive mental picture that makes sense to us.
Oedipus Complex: The Oedipus Complex, as per Freud, refers to a male child’s subconscious romantic attraction to his mother and concurrent rivalry with his father.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Oedipus Complex’ is a theory proposed by Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis. It suggests that during a specific stage of a child’s psychosexual development, typically between the ages of three and six years, a boy may begin to develop unconscious sexual desires for his mother along with feelings of rivalry toward his father, whom he views as competition for the mother’s affections. This condition gets its name from the Greek myth in which Oedipus kills his father and marries his mother. It is crucial to note that the Oedipus Complex is a theoretical construct, not a universally accepted or diagnosable condition. Freud suggested that the successful resolution of this complex is crucial to a child’s development into a well-adjusted adult.
Olfactory Membrane: The olfactory membrane is a section of the upper nasal passage packed with up to 20 million receptor cells that detect smells.
Expanded Definition
The olfactory membrane, also referred to as the olfactory epithelium, is a specialized tissue situated within the upper part of the nasal cavity. Penetrated by approximately 10 to 20 million receptor cells, this membrane plays a crucial role in our sense of smell. These receptor cells are neurons specifically equipped to detect odor molecules, enabling the brain to interpret different smells. The location and structure of the olfactory membrane allows it to facilitate our olfactory system’s essential role in the perception and interpretation of airborne odors.
Olfactory Receptor Cells: Olfactory receptor cells are sensory cells within the olfactory membrane that feature receptor proteins on tentacle-like extensions, enabling sensing and transmission of smell signals.
Expanded Definition
‘Olfactory Receptor Cells’ can be defined as specialized sensory cells integrated within the olfactory membrane, which is a delicate tissue that resides within the nasal cavity. These cells possess unique, tentacle-like extensions, technically known as cilia, which extend into the mucus-coated airways. The cilia are coated with receptor proteins that specialize in capturing odor molecules. It’s these receptor proteins that enable the cells to detect a diverse range of smells, which is then translated into sensory signals that the brain perceives as different odors.
One-Word Stage: The One-Word Stage refers to the period between 1-2 years of age when a child communicates primarily with individual words.
Expanded Definition
The ‘One-Word Stage’ refers to a phase in a child’s language acquisition and speech development process, typically occurring between the ages of one to two years. During this stage, a child primarily uses singular words to express or communicate their needs, emotions, observations, or requests. This significant phase is crucial for the child’s cognitive and language skills growth, as it signals the start of active engagement in verbal communication, but is usually characterized by limited vocabulary. Each standalone word the child uses often holds a broader or more complex meaning, reflecting an early understanding of language’s fundamental elements.
Open Ended Questions: Open-ended questions are inquiry types that prompt respondents to answer using their own phrasing or narratives, encouraging detailed, personalized responses.
Expanded Definition
‘Open-ended questions’ refer to a mode of inquiry in research and conversations that encourages respondents to articulate detailed, personalized responses in their own language, rather than selecting from preset answers. This type of question facilitates a deeper, more nuanced understanding of respondents’ perspectives, insights, and experiences by granting them the freedom to express their thoughts comprehensively and creatively.
Openness: Openness is an inclination towards embracing novel concepts, artistic expressions, emotions, and behaviours.
Expanded Definition
‘Openness,’ within psychological and personality contexts, refers to an individual’s propensity or inclination towards seeking and appreciating diverse types of experiences. This includes being receptive to new or novel theories, aesthetics, values, emotions, and behavioral patterns. It is a key personality trait denoting a person’s flexibility and adaptability in considering or embracing unfamiliar perspectives or experiences, thus affecting their cognitive exploration and engagement within social and cultural realms.
Operant: Operant is a behavior influenced by its aftermath, such as a rat’s lever-pressing that is determined by the reward it receives.
Expanded Definition
‘Operant’ is a term used predominantly in Psychology, particularly within the behavioral sciences, to specify a type of behavior which is governed by its subsequent outcomes or consequences. This cyclical process forms the backbone of ‘Operant Conditioning’; a fundamental theory of learning established by B.F. Skinner. Skinner’s rat experiment is a classic illustration of this concept. Here, a rat would press a lever within its cage, which would subsequently trigger the release of a food pellet (reinforcer). The rat soon learns that pressing the lever (operant behavior) results in food (consequence). Consequently, the rat would repeatedly press the lever to obtain food, forming a linkage between behavior (lever-pressing) and its consequence (food reinforcement). Therefore, an ‘Operant’ refers to any behavior that is voluntarily initiated by an organism (like an animal or human), and is consequently influenced either positively or negatively by the outcomes that it leads to.
Operant Chamber: An Operant Chamber, or Skinner box, is a research tool in operant conditioning studies that includes a manipulable bar or key that allows an animal to earn rewards, often food or water, while their interactions are recorded and analyzed.
Expanded Definition
An Operant Chamber, also frequently referred to as a Skinner Box, is a specialized apparatus used in behavioral research, specifically within the paradigm of operant conditioning. This chamber is designed to house an animal subject, most commonly a rat or a pigeon, and it features a bar or a key which the subject can interact with. When the subject manipulates this bar or key, it triggers the dispensation of a reward, often in the form of food or water. The purpose of this setup is to study and measure the animal’s responses to specific stimuli in a controlled environment. A mechanism is attached to the chamber to precisely record the frequency of the subject’s interactions with the bar or key, creating a quantifiable dataset for analysis on the conditioning process and its influence on the animal’s behavior. Thus, the Operant Chamber is an essential tool in understanding how learning through consequences works.
Operant Conditioning: Operant conditioning is a learning process in which behavior is influenced or modified by rewards or punishments, with the individual learning to associate their actions with these consequences. It is essentially about learning via the consequences of one’s behavior.
Expanded Definition
Operant Conditioning is a psychological theory and method of learning that focuses on the modification of an individual’s voluntary behavior. Named by B.F. Skinner, it’s a process in which behaviors can be encouraged or discouraged through positive or negative reinforcements or punishments following the behavior. A simple way to remember this is by associating “operate” with “action.” Therefore, operant conditioning is all about learning from the consequences of our actions and is often applied in behavioral psychology and behavior modification programs. Also referred to as instrumental conditioning, it emphasizes the cause-and-effect relationship between one’s behavior and its consequences, often utilized for fostering desired habits or overcoming unwanted ones.
Operational Definition: An operational definition is a detailed explanation that specifies how a particular concept or variable is quantified or measured in a study or experiment.
Expanded Definition
An ‘Operational Definition’ refers to a comprehensive and detailed explanation that elucidates how a theoretical or abstract concept is transformed into a metric or quantifiable variable. It outlines the specific procedures or operations used to measure or define a concept within a study or experiment. By transforming these abstract concepts into measurable variables, it promotes clear interpretation and accurate understanding of the results, thereby rendering consistency and replicability in research.
Opiates: Opiates are substances derived from opium, including morphine and heroin, used for their pain-relieving and anxiety-reducing properties by disrupting neural activity.
Expanded Definition
‘Opiates’ is a term that encompasses the naturally-derived substances from the poppy plant, namely opium, and its derivatives including morphine, and heroin. Functioning as potent psychoactive drugs, these compounds interact with, and depress, the central nervous system. As a result, they result in diminished neural activity, providing a temporary alleviation of pain and anxiety. Due to their assertions on the brain’s reward system, they also possess a high risk of dependency, necessitating careful medical administration and monitoring.
Opioids: Opioids are substances that amplify signals in opioid receptor neurons in one’s brain and digestive system, resulting in feelings of intense happiness, pain relief, slowed respiration, and constipation.
Expanded Definition
Opioids are a class of substances that interact with the body’s opioid receptors, which are primarily located in the brain and digestive system. These substances enhance the receptor activity influencing a range of physiological responses. They can induce feelings of intense pleasure or euphoria and provide pain relief, which is scientifically referred to as ‘analgesia.’ Regarding other physiological effects, opioids can lead to reduced respiratory function, resulting in slower breathing rates. They can also interfere with the digestive system’s normal rhythmic activity, which often leads to constipation. Despite their potential medical uses, opioids carry a high risk for addiction and misuse due to their euphoric effects.
Opium: Opium is the dehydrated sap obtained from the immature seed pod of the opium poppy plant.
Expanded Definition
Opium is a substance primarily derived from the dried latex or sap present within the unripe seed pods of the Opium Poppy plant, scientifically known as Papaver somniferum. This potent natural substance, when extracted and dried, is primarily used in medicinal and sometimes recreational contexts due to its strong analgesic or pain-relieving properties. The process of extraction typically involves incising the unripe pods and allowing the sap to seep out and harden, resulting in a brown, highly potent and potentially addictive substance commonly known as opium. This natural compound forms the basic foundation for several pharmaceutical opioids and is also unfortunately abused as a narcotic drug in various forms.
Opponent-Process Color Theory: Opponent-Process Color Theory refers to the concept that our perception of color is determined by three color pairings: red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white, a framework through which we interpret sensory information.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Opponent-Process Color Theory’ is a conceptual framework suggesting that human visual perception of color is not based on three primary colors – red, green, and blue – but rather, it operates on a system of three opposing color pairs: red vs green, yellow vs blue, and white vs black. This theory asserts that when we perceive color, we analyze sensory data through this contrasting relationship, asserting that we cannot perceive both colors of each opposing pair simultaneously. For instance, we cannot perceive a ‘reddish-green’ or ‘yellowish-blue.’ This opines our perception of one color in each pair inhibits our perception of its opposing color, hence offering a nuanced understanding of how we interpret and differentiate colors in our environment.
Optic Nerve: The Optic Nerve is a conduit of ganglion neurons responsible for transmitting huge amounts of visual data from the eye to the brain through the thalamus.
Expanded Definition
The optic nerve is a crucial part of the visual system, composed of approximately one to two million neurons, namely ganglion cells. These ganglion cells are responsible for transmitting a substantial quantity of visual data from the retina to the brain. This transmission occurs via the thalamus, a significant relay station in the brain that filters and then forwards information to the cerebral cortex. Thus, the optic nerve essentially functions as a conduit for visual sensory input, facilitating our ability to see and interpret our surroundings.
Optimism: Optimism is a habitual mindset that anticipates favorable results, or, it’s an inclination towards seeing the bright side of situations.
Expanded Definition
“Optimism” is a psychological attribute characterized by an individual’s overarching inclination to anticipate favorable results or outcomes in their lives. It is a mindset that influences a person’s perspective to veer towards expecting the best possible scenario in any given situation. Individuals with high levels of optimism often view challenges as temporary setbacks, hence, they are more resilient in overcoming adversities. They have a belief that their actions would be successful, contributing to increased positivity, wellbeing, and overall life satisfaction.
Ossicles: Ossicles are the trio of small bones, specifically the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup), placed in the middle ear playing a crucial role in transmitting sound.
Expanded Definition
‘Ossicles’ refers to the trio of minuscule bones that reside in the mid-region of the human ear. These comprise of the malleus, more commonly known as the hammer; the incus, often referred to as the anvil; and the stapes, also known as the stirrup. These bones play a crucial role in the process of auditory perception. They effectively transmit sounds by transforming vibrational energy received from the eardrum into mechanical energy, which is then converted to nerve signals and transmitted to the brain. Efficient functioning of the ossicles is integral to our ability to hear clearly and accurately.
Other Race Effect: The Other Race Effect refers to the cognitive bias where individuals recognize faces belonging to their own race more accurately compared to those from different races.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘Other Race Effect’ refers to a psychologically observed phenomenon where individuals are typically more proficient in remembering and differentiating faces from their own racial or ethnic group compared to those from different races or ethnicities. This cognitive bias can lead to less accurate recall of faces that belong to racial or ethnic groups other than one’s own. Its occurrence is generally attributed to sociocultural conditioning and lack of exposure to diverse groups, which impacts the development of facial recognition skills.
Other-Oriented Empathy: Other-Oriented Empathy refers to the profound ability of an individual to emotionally connect with, understand, and empathize with the distressed, compelled by a strong sense of social responsibility and a moral urge to provide aid.
Expanded Definition
“Other-Oriented Empathy” is a distinct trait whereby an individual exhibits a pronounced sense of social responsibility. It involves the capacity to vicariously experience and connect emotionally with those who are in distress. This trait enables an individual to accurately comprehend the adversities faced by others, further fostering a profound moral commitment to extend assistance. It signifies a poignant understanding and emotional bond with people in distress, driven by an enhanced moral commitment to serve others.
Outcome Research: Outcome Research is the evaluation of the impacts and effectiveness of healthcare interventions and treatments to establish the efficacy of varied therapies.
Expanded Definition
Outcome Research refers to the systematic investigation and assessment of the impacts or results of various healthcare interventions or treatments. This type of research aims to understand the end results of particular health care practices and interventions. It primarily focuses on whether a treatment works (effectiveness), when it is considered against other treatments (comparative effectiveness), and what happens in the real world outside clinical trials (effectiveness versus efficacy). The ultimate goal is to ensure that healthcare decisions are grounded in comprehensive, credible, and contextually relevant evidence, enhancing patient care and wellbeing.
Outgroup: An ‘Outgroup’ is a community or assembly that an individual identifies as non-membership or separate from, usually established by contrasting characteristics or interests.
Expanded Definition
An ‘Outgroup’ in sociological and psychological context, refers to a social group with which an individual does not identify or feel a sense of membership. Contrasted with an ‘Ingroup,’ to which a person typically feels a sense of belonging, the perception of an outgroup often galvanizes feelings of difference and separation. It’s integral in discussions of social behavior and intergroup dynamics, playing a significant role in areas such as bias, prejudice, and discrimination.
Outliers: “Outliers” are unique, extreme values that significantly deviate from the rest in a data set.
Expanded Definition
‘Outliers’ are defined as values or data points in a set that significantly deviate from the other observations. These points lie exceptionally above or below the rest, suggesting a variance that considerably surpasses the standard distribution. Outliers can occur due to factors such as measurement errors, biased sampling, or inherent variability in the data. They are particularly important in statistical analyses, as their presence can often substantially influence the derived outcomes and skew interpretations, necessitating proper detection and management methods. However, outliers can also reveal valuable insights about a phenomenon, prompting deeper investigations.
Oval Window: The Oval Window is the thin, membranous barrier located at the entrance of the cochlea in the inner ear.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Oval Window’ is a specialized, thin membrane located at the entrance of the cochlea, which is an organ in the inner ear responsible for interpreting sounds into nerve impulses. This oval-shaped window plays a critical role in the process of sound transmission, where it receives vibratory signals from the stapes, one of the three tiny bones in the middle ear. By moving in response to these vibrations, the Oval Window creates fluid waves within the cochlea, enabling the conversion of acoustic signals into electrical signals that can be processed by our brain.
Ovaries: Ovaries are the female reproductive organs that generate eggs and release the hormones estrogen and progesterone.
Expanded Definition
‘Ovaries’ refers to the primary reproductive organs in female biological systems, situated in the pelvic region. These vital glands have a dual function. Firstly, they are responsible for the production of ova or ‘eggs’, which form a crucial element of the fertilization process in sexual reproduction. Secondly, they are the primary source of the female sex hormones, namely estrogen and progesterone. These hormones play a significant role in regulating various aspects of female fertility, menstrual cycle, and elements of secondary sexual characteristics. Thus, the ovaries are a fundamental component in the reproductive and endocrine systems within the female body.
Overconfidence: Overconfidence is the excessive certainty in one’s abilities to recall events or make accurate judgments.
Expanded Definition
Overconfidence is a psychological construct denoting an individual’s inflated belief or excessive certainty in their own abilities, memory accuracy, or decision-making prowess. It’s a perceptual bias where one’s confidence in their own judgments, knowledge, or skills disproportionately surpasses the objective accuracy of those assessments. While a healthy level of self-assurance is beneficial, overconfidence can potentially lead to faulty judgments, mistaken assumptions, and potential risks if the individual’s skills or knowledge are not as robust as they perceive them to be.
Overconfident: Overconfidence refers to the state of excessively trusting one’s own abilities or judgment beyond what is objectively justified.
Expanded Definition
‘Overconfidence’ is a psychological bias where an individual’s self-assurance in their capacities or judgments significantly exceeds the accuracy of these assessments when objectively measured. It implies a subjective overestimation of one’s abilities that surpasses what is rationally justified by the available evidence. This tendency often leads to an underestimation of risks or challenges, potentially resulting in poor decision-making.
Overextensions: Overextensions refer to linguistic errors most often made by children, where a word is incorrectly used to represent a wider range of objects or concepts than it is conventionally meant to.
Expanded Definition
Overextensions is a language development phenomenon commonly observed in children, wherein a specific word is incorrectly used more broadly than its correct usage. This usually happens when children are in their early stages of language acquisition. For example, a child may refer to all animals as “doggie” or all round objects as “ball”. This misapplication demonstrates their budding cognitive abilities, as they classify and relate new information to known concepts. Over time, as their understanding grows, so too does the specificity and accuracy of their language use. Despite the inherent errors, overextensions are a normal and important part of language development.
Overlearning: Overlearning refers to the process of persistently studying or practicing beyond the point of initial mastery, enhancing retention and performance.
Expanded Definition
“Overlearning” is a psychological concept referring to the methodical practice of continuously studying or rehearsing material well beyond the point of initial mastery. It is based on the idea that repeated exposure to information or skills can solidify one’s knowledge or proficiency, leading to more rapid recall and increased performance stability even under stress or distraction. Overlearning is often used in educational settings and skill acquisition strategies to promote long-term retention and automaticity; however, it must be balanced carefully with the risk of cognitive overload.
Ovulation: Ovulation is the process where a matured egg is released from the ovary into the fallopian tube.
Expanded Definition
Ovulation is a vital process in the female reproductive system that refers to the maturation and subsequent release of an ovum, or egg cell, from one of the woman’s two ovaries. This typically cyclical event — the centerpiece of the menstrual cycle — involves the egg, the largest human cell by size, becoming ready for potential fertilization. Once the egg reaches this mature state, it is discharged from the ovary and enters the nearby fallopian tube. Here, it can potentially meet with sperm to result in conception or otherwise progress through to menstruation. The safe and timely passage of the egg during ovulation is crucial to natural reproduction.

P

Pace of Life: ‘Pace of Life’ refers to the rate at which individuals experience changes and events, influenced by personal temperament, cultural norms, geographical location, timing, and activities.
Expanded Definition
‘Pace of Life’ refers to the rate at which transformations and occurrences transpire in an individual’s life. This pace is substantially influenced by various factors, including individual disposition, societal expectations, and cultural norms. It can fluctuate significantly across different locations, periods, and activities. Essentially, it encompasses how swiftly or slowly one perceives and experiences the progression of life, governed by their personal and environmental circumstances.
Pancreas: The pancreas is a key component of the endocrine system that generates hormones to manage the body’s energy production and storage.
Expanded Definition
The pancreas is a vital organ that forms part of the endocrine system – a network in the body responsible for producing and disseminating hormones. This glandular structure is located in the abdomen and plays a crucial role in the regulation of the body’s energy resources. The pancreas, through its production of hormones such as insulin and glucagon, maintains the balance of glucose, which is a primary source of energy for the body. It facilitates a continual supply of fuel to carry out biological functions and uphold the body’s energy reserves. This multifunctional organ also aids in the digestion process, thereby ensuring efficient nutrient absorption. As such, the pancreas plays a fundamental part in maintaining overall bodily health.
Panic Disorder: Panic Disorder is a mental condition marked by recurring anxiety attacks, which cause profound behavioral alterations in the individual’s life.
Expanded Definition
Panic Disorder is a type of mental health condition that manifests as recurring, unexpected episodes of intense fear and anxiety. These episodes, often referred to as panic attacks, can occur without warning and trigger severe physical reactions that may feel like a heart attack. The hallmark feature of Panic Disorder is not the panic attacks themselves but rather the persistent worry and behavior changes due to the anticipation of future attacks. This fear can be so intense that it interferes with an individual’s normal daily activities and may induce avoidance behavior, steering clear of situations or places associated with past panic attacks. This disorder requires professional diagnosis and treatment, and with proper management, individuals can lead normal, fulfilling lives.
Paradigm: A paradigm is a dominant framework or model that directs a specific field of study, establishing accepted norms and methods.
Expanded Definition
A ‘paradigm’ is a prevailing conceptual framework or model that serves as a guide in a specific field of study or discipline. It refers to a set of accepted theories, postulates, methodologies, and general perspectives that define how problems should be understood and solved within that area. This construct represents the accepted norms and standard practices and is typically well-established and widely accepted by practitioners and scholars in that field. The paradigm influences the questions that are asked, the methods employed in investigation and the interpretation of findings in that realm of knowledge. As such, it is fundamental to shaping the trajectory and advancement of the discipline.
Parallel Processing: Parallel processing refers to the computational method where multiple calculations occur simultaneously, similar to the human brain’s information processing, differing from the sequential approach seen in many computers.
Expanded Definition
Parallel processing refers to a computational method in which multiple tasks related to a problem are executed concurrently, which potentially speeds up the completion time and enhances overall efficiency. This methodology mirrors the brain’s innate capacity to process several pieces of data simultaneously across multiple areas. In computational terms, it distinguishes from the more common serial processing approach, where tasks are performed in a linear, sequential manner. While serial processing resembles conscious problem-solving where we tackle one problem at a time, parallel processing aligns with subconscious activities where several functions occur at once. It’s a fundamental feature in high-performance computing and is widely used in a range of applications, from data mining and machine learning to scientific computing. Despite its complexity, it offers breakthrough computational power and efficiency, evoking a profound impact on both scientific and commercial computing landscape.
Parapsychology: Parapsychology is the scientific investigation of unexplained interactions that supposedly occur between individuals and their environment, such as extrasensory perception (ESP) and psychokinesis.
Expanded Definition
Parapsychology is a field of study that investigates phenomena that are not currently explained by conventional scientific understanding. These unexplained phenomena often fall under the category of ‘paranormal’ and primarily encompass occurrences such as Extra-Sensory Perception (ESP), which refers to the ability to gather information beyond the scope of the traditional five senses, and psychokinesis, a purported ability that allows individuals to influence or manipulate physical systems without any physical interaction. Despite its controversial status within the wider scientific community, parapsychology seeks to use rigorous and systematic methods of inquiry to explore these anomalous phenomena.
Parasympathetic Nervous System: The Parasympathetic Nervous System is a part of the autonomic nervous system that moderates bodily functions, typically slowing heart rate and respiration, aiding in recovery and restoration post-stress or high-exertion events.
Expanded Definition
The Parasympathetic Nervous System can be defined as a major component of the autonomic nervous system, whose primary role is to regulate and balance the body’s rest-and-digest functions. This is accomplished by slowing down the heart rate, reducing the rate of breathing, and facilitating digestion and nutrient absorption. It counteracts the activities provoked by its counterpart, the sympathetic nervous system, which instigates the body’s fight-or-flight response during periods of stress or danger. The parasympathetic nervous system essentially aids the body in returning to a state of calm and equilibrium after such arousal.
Parathyroid Gland: The parathyroid gland is an endocrine organ that regulates the body’s calcium levels and energy utilization, in coordination with the thyroid gland.
Expanded Definition
The parathyroid gland is a small endocrine system organ located in the neck, typically situated near the thyroid. Its primary function is to regulate the body’s calcium levels, a factor critical for the normal functioning of the heart, nervous system, kidneys, and bones. This is accomplished by the secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH), which influences calcium and phosphate metabolism. The gland also interacts with the thyroid gland to determine the rate of energy utilization in the body. In effect, the parathyroid gland plays an indispensable role in balancing our body’s calcium concentration and sustaining overall metabolic energy efficiency.
Parenting Styles: Parenting styles are the strategies and approaches used by parents to interact and guide their child’s development.
Expanded Definition
‘Parenting Styles’ refers to the distinctive combinations of attitudes, behaviors, and communication patterns that parents exhibit in relation to their children. They shape the overall emotional climate of parent-child engagements, influencing not only the nature of these interactions, but also informing the strategies parents employ to guide, socialize, and educate their children. These styles have significant impacts on a child’s development, including their social skills, academic performance, psychological wellbeing, and self-perception. The concept underscores the complexity of parenting as it involves a diverse array of factors and approaches, reflecting the interplay of parental beliefs, values, cultural context, and individual child characteristics.
Parietal Lobe: The parietal lobe, often termed the somatosensory cortex, is a brain region responsible for processing tactile and sensory information.
Expanded Definition
The Parietal Lobe is a designated region of the brain that spans from the central area to the posterior structure of the skull. Prominently recognized as the somatosensory cortex, this lobe plays a vital role in the perception and interpretation of tactile sensory information or, in simpler terms, sensations related to touch. It functions as a processing center for somatic sensations, allowing us to feel things like temperature, pressure, vibration and pain, thereby facilitating complex interactions with the surrounding environment. Hence, the Parietal Lobe significantly contributes to our sensory awareness and perception.
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Partial (intermittent) reinforcement is a process where behavior is rewarded intermittently instead of consistently, leading to slower behavior adoption but a higher resistance to behavior extinction.
Expanded Definition
Partial or intermittent reinforcement refers to a behavioral training method where a response is reinforced only a fraction of the time. Compared to continuous reinforcement where every correct response is rewarded, this approach may result in a somewhat slower learning phase or acquisition of the desired response. However, its main advantage lies in the developed response’s stronger resistance to extinction, meaning the learned behavior tends to persist longer even in the absence of reinforcement.
Passionate Love: “Passionate love” refers to the fervent emotional and physical interest often experienced at the onset of a romantic relationship. It reflects a profound fascination and absorption in another individual.
Expanded Definition
‘Passionate Love’ is a term typically used to describe an intense, emotionally charged state of attraction and desire that individuals often experience within the initial stages of a romantic relationship. It is characterized by a profound sense of connection, powerful positive feelings, and an overwhelming preoccupation with the other person. This usually involves a significant emotional arousal, coupled with infatuation and often physical desire. It’s important to note that while passionate love generally decreases as a relationship matures, it can transition into a more enduring, stable form of affection known as ‘companionate love’.
Pavlovian Conditioning: Pavlovian Conditioning, also known as classical conditioning, is a learning process where an innate response to a potent stimulus becomes conditioned to respond to a previously neutral stimulus. Essentially, it involves associating an involuntary response and a stimulus.
Expanded Definition
Pavlovian Conditioning, also commonly known as Classical Conditioning, is a significant concept in the field of psychology. It revolves around a form of learning where a natural, involuntary response (conditioned response) becomes associated with a previously unrelated stimulus (conditioned stimulus). This phenomenon was first observed by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov in his experimentation with dogs. He observed that dogs would begin to salivate (the conditioned response) not only when presented with food (the unconditioned stimulus), but also in response to a sound (the conditioned stimulus), such as a bell, previously paired with the food. This experiment demonstrated that behaviors could be learned or conditioned through association, which forms the crux of Pavlovian Conditioning.
Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r): The Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r) is a statistical metric that quantifies the degree to which two variables are linearly related, with a range from -1 (perfect inverse relationship) to 1 (perfect direct relationship).
Expanded Definition
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient, often represented by the symbol ‘r’, is a widely used statistical metric that quantifies the degree to which two variables are linearly related. Essentially, it assesses whether an increase or decrease in one variable corresponds predictably with an increase or decrease in the other variable. The coefficient provides a numeric output ranging from +1 to -1; a value of +1 indicates a perfect positive linear relationship, a value of -1 indicates a perfect negative linear relationship, and a value of 0 signifies no linear relationship. Importantly, this coefficient only measures linear relationships and may not accurately represent the relationship if it is not linear. Therefore, in such non-linear scenarios, other methods may be required for a more accurate analysis. It’s a fundamental tool in the fields of statistics, data analysis, and research.
People’s (Folk) Explanations of Behavior: People’s (Folk) Explanations of Behavior refers to intuitive interpretations of others’ actions and emotions, varying based on whether the behaviors were unintentionally or intentionally performed.
Expanded Definition
“People’s (Folk) Explanations of Behavior” can be professionally defined as the intuitive interpretations or understandings individuals have about the motivations or reasons behind others’ actions or emotions. This concept acknowledges that people naturally tend to explain and analyze others’ behavior, often attributing them to either intentional decisions or unconscious reactions. These explanations can significantly vary depending on whether the observed behavior was intentional or unintentional. In essence, this is a form of lay psychology or folk wisdom that every person uses to make sense of human actions in their social interactions.
Perception: Perception is the cognitive process of sorting and making sense of sensory input. It involves deciphering and understanding stimuli received through our senses.
Expanded Definition
Perception can be defined as the complex cognitive process that involves the identification, organization, and interpretation of sensory information. This process enables individuals to understand and interact with their environment. It begins with sensory stimuli captured by our five senses — sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. These sensations are then translated into neural signals, processed by the brain to form a meaningful interpretation. This allows us to construct a version of reality from our surroundings. Therefore, perception plays a critical role in the way we perceive, experience, and respond to the world.
Perception of Social Support: Perception of Social Support refers to a person’s belief they have beneficial and affirming social connections. It’s their understanding of the quality and availability of relationships that provide emotional, informational, or practical help.
Expanded Definition
‘Perception of Social Support’ can be comprehensively and professionally defined as ‘the subjective understanding or belief that an individual has a reliable network of supportive social connections. This might include friends, family, colleagues or other social networks. These connections are perceived as positive and constructive, offering emotional, practical, or informational assistance when needed, thereby enhancing the individual’s resilience and overall well-being.’
Perceptual Adaptation: Perceptual adaptation refers to the capacity of the visual system to recalibrate or adjust when exposed to distorted or even flipped optical inputs. It is how our vision adapts to altered orientations.
Expanded Definition
Perceptual adaptation, within the context of vision science, refers to the cognitive and physiological ability of an individual to modify their interpretation of visual cues when their visual field is altered artificially. This adaptation could involve adjusting to distorted perspectives, like displacement where objects seem out of position, or more extreme changes, such as inversion where the visual field is flipped upside down. This fascinating process reflects the brain’s remarkable flexibility and ability to reinterpret sensory information to maintain consistent perception of our surroundings.
Perceptual Constancy: Perceptual constancy is the cognitive ability to recognise that objects remain the same, even when their perceived sensory input alters. It’s our brain’s mechanism ensuring the world appears consistent despite variations in lighting, distance, or angle.
Expanded Definition
‘Perceptual Constancy’ refers to the cognitive ability that allows individuals to identify objects or stimuli as remaining consistent or unchanging, even as the sensory input – such as lighting, perspective, distance, or angle – might vary. Essentially, this complex psychological process ensures that we comprehend the world around us in a consistant way, allowing us to recognize familiar objects under different conditions. This constancy is crucial in helping us navigate and make sense of our continually changing environment.
Perceptual Learning: Perceptual learning is the process where our sensory experiences influence and modify our perception. It’s the fine-tuning of our senses through experiences, leading to an enhanced ability to interpret complex environments and stimuli.
Expanded Definition
Perceptual learning refers to the process by which individuals enrich or modify their sensory abilities and understanding based on experiences. In other words, it is the phenomenon in which individuals, through repeated exposure and interaction with particular sensory stimuli, enhance their sensitivity, discrimination, and interpretation of such stimuli. This learning form does not involve acquiring new knowledge but enhances the efficiency and effectiveness of the perceptual system in processing information from the external environment. It plays a vital role in areas such as vision, hearing, touch, and cognitive processes associated with perception, including discernment of patterns, spatial relationships, and object recognition.
Perceptual Set: Perceptual set refers to the psychological inclination to recognize certain aspects of sensory input and ignore others. It describes how our expectations and preconceived notions influence our perception.
Expanded Definition
‘Perceptual Set’ can be defined as a psychological construct that illustrates an individual’s predisposition or readiness to perceive particular features or attributes in their environment over others. This concept is influenced by one’s previous experiences, expectations, cultural backgrounds, and emotions, which have a significant effect on our perception. It essentially suggests that we see the world not as it is, but as we are conditioned to see it, hence playing a critical role in our cognitive processing. This framework helps to explain why different individuals may perceive the same situation differently.
Performance Assessment: Performance Assessment is a testing method used in emotional intelligence (EI) models, which gauges a person’s competence in handling emotion-led problems.
Expanded Definition
‘Performance Assessment’ is a specialized evaluation technique correlated with ability models of Emotional Intelligence (EI). It is specifically designed to objectively scrutinize the test taker’s proficiency in handling issues related to emotions. The core purpose of this assessment type is to uncover the individual’s potential in identifying, understanding, regulating, and using emotions effectively, not just in themselves but also in others. These skills are considered increasingly vital in numerous spheres such as in personal relationships, academic achievement and the workplace.
Periodic Limb Movement Disorder: Periodic Limb Movement Disorder (PLMD) is a sleep-related condition characterized by the involuntary and abrupt movement of the limbs.
Expanded Definition
Periodic Limb Movement Disorder (PLMD) is a clinically recognized sleep-related disorder characterized by the uncontrollable and repetitive movement of the individual’s limbs, primarily the legs, during sleep. These movements often lead to disruptions in sleep quality and architecture, occurring in intervals that typically range from twenty to forty seconds apart. Unlike voluntary limb movements, those experienced in PLMD happen involuntarily and the person afflicted is usually unaware of these disturbances. This condition often coexists with other sleep disorders and can contribute to daytime sleepiness, fatigue, and cognitive impairment. Diagnosis is typically established through a careful clinical evaluation including overnight polysomnography. Treatments aim to decrease the frequency and intensity of limb movements, thus improving sleep and associated daytime symptoms.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): The Peripheral Nervous System is the network of neurons connecting the CNS to the body’s sensors, muscles, and glands, segmented into the somatic and autonomic systems.
Expanded Definition
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is an integral part of our nervous system, serving as a network of nerves that connects the Central Nervous System (CNS), which consists of the brain and the spinal cord, to the rest of the body. This comprehensive network facilitates the transmission of information between the CNS and various body parts like muscles, sensory organs, and glands, playing a pivotal role in bodily functions. The PNS is further divided into two crucial subsections: the Somatic Nervous System and the Autonomic Nervous System. The Somatic Nervous System is primarily responsible for voluntary bodily functions and movements by sending signals from the CNS to the skeletal muscles. On the other hand, the Autonomic Nervous System controls involuntary functions such as digestion, heart rate, and respiratory rate by regulating the activities of internal organs and glands. Therefore, the PNS bridges the gap between our body and the CNS, playing a crucial role in sensing and responding to the environment, thus ensuring our body’s smooth functioning.
Peripheral Route of Persuasion: The Peripheral Route of Persuasion involves altering attitudes by way of superficial cues, instead of deep, substantive arguments. It’s a persuasion method that uses non-argumentative aspects like presentation aesthetics or speaker credibility.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Peripheral Route of Persuasion’ is a concept within the field of social psychology which refers to the process of altering a person’s attitude or behavior based on subtle, indirect, or superficial cues as opposed to rational argument or inherent quality of the proposal. It is a part of the Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion, which posits that two routes—central and peripheral—are used to process persuasive information. In this context, peripheral cues might include elements like an individual’s credibility, physical appearance, or emotional appeal, amongst others. These factors can influence decisions or attitudes without the person consciously recognising the effect, making it a powerful tool in advertising, marketing, or any situation where persuasion is necessary.
Permissive Parents: Permissive parents are those who impose few rules and rarely dole out punishment, allowing their children substantial self-regulation.
Expanded Definition
‘Permissive Parents’ can be defined as those who adopt a lenient approach towards parenting. Characterized by their minimalistic set of demands and reluctance to impose penalties or discipline, these parents are receptive and often allow their children significant autonomy in establishing their own rules and boundaries. This style of parenting emphasizes open communication and is often marked by a permissive parent’s openness to their child’s perspectives and unique individuality.
Person-Centered Therapy: Person-Centered Therapy is a therapeutic approach where the client’s personal growth and development is prioritized, facilitated through a nonjudgmental and supportive environment provided by the therapist.
Expanded Definition
Person-Centered Therapy, also known as Client-Centered Therapy, is a therapeutic treatment approach that emphasizes the significant role of the client in their own healing process. In this approach, therapists create a comfortable, non-judgmental, and empathetic space enabling clients to gain self-awareness and understanding of their feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. The premise of person-centered therapy is based on the individual’s capacity for self-direction and growth, with the therapist primarily serving as a facilitative partner in the recovery process. This therapeutic stance values the inherent worth of every individual and promotes self-empowerment, self-actualization, and autonomy.
Person-Situation Debate: The Person-Situation Debate refers to the ongoing discourse in psychology about whether an individual’s behavior is primarily driven by their specific personality traits or the situations they encounter.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Person-Situation Debate’ is a theoretical discussion in the field of personality psychology, which explores the relative influences of personal characteristics versus situational circumstances in determining individual behavior. It examines the extent to which a person’s personality traits (such as their typical patterns of thought, feelings, and behaviors), as opposed to the environmental factors or situations they encounter, influence or dictate their actions and responses.
Person’ Mental Age: ‘Person’s Mental Age’ refers to the intellectual capability level of an individual, likened to the typical performance ability at a certain chronological age. It is essentially the age that reflects a person’s cognitive maturity and performance.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘Person’s Mental Age’ refers to the chronological age at which the individual’s cognitive abilities correspond to, based on standardized psychological assessment. Essentially, it gauges the age level at which an individual operates intellectually, regardless of their actual chronological age. This concept is predominantly used in psychology to measure a person’s intellectual maturity and cognitive development. It’s essential to be aware that this is a theoretical construct and may not depict an individual’s full intelligence spectrum or emotional maturity.
Persona: A persona refers to the outward character or role that an individual portrays to others. It is essentially a constructed image or facade one shows to the world.
Expanded Definition
A ‘persona’ is a term used to define the outward character or role that an individual projects or exhibits in social contexts, acting as a metaphorical ‘mask’ or ‘image’. This persona may be consciously or unconsciously shaped by an individual and is influenced by their personal motivations, societal expectations, and the particular environment they are in. Essentially, it’s the façade that one portrays to the world, which may or may not align with their authentic self. It serves as a vehicle for communication and interaction within societal structures, masking individual complexities to promote simpler, more predictable interpersonal relationships.
Personal: ‘Personal’ refers to the negative effects that stress can cause on an individual’s physical and mental well-being.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘personal’ appears to be misdefined here. In a professional, knowledgeable context, ‘personal’ typically refers to something relating to or affecting a particular individual directly or intimately, often associated with one’s private life, personal experiences, feelings, or habits. It does not specifically pertain to the damaging impact of stress on physical and mental health. This seems to be a mix-up or confusion in terms. A refined definition of ‘personal’ could therefore be: ‘Personal’ refers to the individual, private, or intimate aspects of a person’s life, encompassing their emotions, experiences, habits and private affairs, distinct from professional or public life.
Personal Control: ‘Personal Control’ refers to an individual’s perception of their ability to influence their surrounding environment instead of succumbing to feelings of helplessness.
Expanded Definition
‘Personal Control’ is regarded as an individual’s subjective understanding and belief about their ability to exert influence over, and navigate through, their personal environment and circumstances. It’s the degree to which they perceive themselves to have the power and capability to effect changes instead of succumbing to a sense of helplessness or powerlessness. This concept is central to our psychological well-being and can play a key role in motivation, behavior and emotional health.
Personal Distress: Personal Distress refers to the uncomfortable feelings and self-focused concern experienced by a helper when they can’t empathize with a person in distress, leading to ego-driven assistance.
Expanded Definition
‘Personal Distress’ is a psychological term that refers to the feelings of unease, worry, or upset an individual may experience when they encounter someone in distress, yet they do not find themselves able to empathize or connect emotionally with the person in need. Often this leads to a form of assistance motivated by the individual’s own discomfort or stress rather than an altruistic desire to support the other person. This self-focused motivation to alleviate the discomfort caused by witnessing the distress of others is referred to as egoistic motivation. This complex emotional reaction may occur in a multitude of situations from personal relationships to professional settings such as social work, nursing, and other caregiving roles.
Personal Selection: Personal selection is the use of systematic tests to identify and choose individuals likely to excel in certain roles.
Expanded Definition
‘Personal Selection’ can be defined as a methodical procedure utilized to identify individuals who have a high probability of excelling in specific job roles. This procedure may involve a series of standardized tests or assessments designed to evaluate a candidate’s skills, competencies, and suitability for the position. These evaluations can range from testing cognitive abilities, professional knowledge, to behavioral tendencies, aiming to forecast an individual’s job performance and potential for success within the specified role.
Personal Space: ‘Personal space’ is the physical distance individuals prefer to keep between themselves and others, serving as a comfort zone around their bodies.
Expanded Definition
‘Personal Space’ is a term used to describe the invisible, yet psychologically aware area surrounding an individual’s body as a protective barrier. It serves as a comfort zone where privacy is maintained and intrusion might result in discomfort or distress. The extent of this space can vary based on cultural norms, personal preferences, and situational contexts. It’s a fundamental aspect in understanding human communication and interaction in both sociological and psychological perspectives.
Personal Unconscious: The Personal Unconscious is a part of the psyche that, while not commonly recognized consciously, manifests itself in behaviors and dreams. It encapsulates memories and experiences that directly influence a person’s reactions and perceptions unconsciously.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Personal Unconscious’ is a complex psychological term that refers to a segment of an individual’s psyche. It encapsulates the memories, experiences, and thoughts that, while typically remaining unobserved in a person’s conscious mind, could significantly influence their behaviors, emotional patterns, or appear in their dreams. Although these elements might not be consciously recalled, they potentially surface during certain instances, unveiling concealed feelings or thoughts. This concept underlies the understanding of unconscious cues in human behavior and decision-making.
Personality: Personality is the unique set of traits and behaviors that distinguish one person from another.
Expanded Definition
‘Personality’ is typically understood as the unique combination of patterns in thoughts, feelings, and behavior that define an individual and distinguish them from others. It represents a collective of enduring traits and characteristic tendencies, reflecting the consistent way each individual interacts with and perceives the world around them. These patterns are generally stable over time, establishing each person’s distinctive temperament, habits, motivations, and responses to various situations.
Personality Disorder: A personality disorder is a type of mental disorder characterized by rigid and unhealthy patterns of thinking or behaving, leading to significant interpersonal and professional difficulties.
Expanded Definition
A “Personality Disorder” is a type of mental health condition where an individual exhibits rigid and harmful patterns of thinking, feeling, and interacting with others. These entrenched patterns deviate markedly from societal expectations, leading to significant discomfort and dysfunction in various aspects of life, including personal relationships, social contexts, and professional environments. The inflexible nature of these behaviors makes it challenging for individuals to adapt to different situations, thereby often resulting in personal distress and impairing their ability to function effectively within society.
Personality Inventory: A Personality Inventory is a survey tool used for gauging various feelings and behaviors to measure specific personality traits. It typically includes true-false or agree-disagree items that respondents answer.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Personality Inventory’ refers to a methodological tool, typically in the form of a comprehensive questionnaire, which individuals complete in order to measure an array of their unique feelings, behaviors, traits and motives. This survey often includes situational questions that can either be responded to with true/false or on a scale of agreement-disagreement. The gathered data allows the assessor to profile an individual’s personality characteristics, thus making it an essential tool in areas such as psychological research, human resource management, and counseling services.
Personality Psychology: ‘Personality Psychology’ refers to the psychological discipline that focuses on identifying and analyzing the patterns in individual’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, which constitute their distinct personality.
Expanded Definition
Personality Psychology is a specialist field within psychology that focuses on the comprehensive analysis of individuals’ distinct traits and behaviors. This study explores the patterns of thoughts, emotions, and actions that fundamentally shape an individual’s persona and differentiate them from others. It encompasses the understanding of the unique compilation of attributes that influence our consistent responses to various situations in our environment. This field aims to construct a coherent view of the individual and their major psychological processes, consequently providing insight into their inherent personality structure and the mechanisms of its development through different stages of life.
Personality Traits: ‘Personality Traits’ are fundamental characteristics that differentiate one individual from another based on their behavior, thoughts and feelings.
Expanded Definition
‘Personality Traits’ can be defined as fundamental characteristics or qualities which shape an individual’s behavior, thoughts, and feelings, typically thought to be inherent and stable over time. These traits, representing different degrees of individual personality dimensions, are what distinguishes one person from another. From introversion to extroversion, or agreeableness to neuroticism, personality traits serve as key determinants of a person’s responses across various situations. Therefore, understanding these traits aids in predicting an individual’s tendencies or patterns of behavior, reactions, and interactions with their environment.
PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scan: A PET Scan is a neuroimaging technique that tracks the distribution of radioactively labeled glucose to visualize active brain regions during specific tasks.
Expanded Definition
A PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scan is a sophisticated biomedical imaging technique used principally in medical diagnostics to observe metabolic or biochemical activity within the human brain or the entire body. This method involves administering a radiolabeled glucose analog to the patient to examine how the brain or various body tissues consume glucose, imaging the distribution of this radioactive tracer as the patient performs a specified task. Visualized through a PET scanner, this approach allows medical professionals and researchers to better understand physiological processes, diagnose certain diseases, or evaluate the effectiveness of treatments.
Phenomenal: “Phenomenal” refers to immediate conscious perception or experience at a given moment.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘phenomenal’ typically refers to the experiential aspect of consciousness that represents a unique point of view in the present moment. This concept encompasses an individual’s subjective sensory, cognitive, and emotional experiences as they occur in real-time. Hence, phenomena that are experienced firsthand and form a part of our immediate awareness are classified as ‘phenomenal’.
Phenotype: A phenotype is the outward physical manifestation of an organism, determined by its genotype and influenced by environmental factors. It encompasses the organism’s physical traits, behaviors, and biochemical processes.
Expanded Definition
‘Phenotype’ refers to the observable physical, behavioral, and physiological attributes of an organism, determined by its genetic blueprint, or genotype, and its interaction with the environment. This includes traits such as physical structure (morphology), growth, chemical processes, physiological functions, and observed behavior. The extent of a phenotype’s observable expression depends on the influence of the genotype and the environment, making it a significant factor in understanding the manifestation of genetic information.
Phi Phenomenon: The Phi Phenomenon is an optical illusion based on perceiving motion between rapidly alternating static objects situated close to each other.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Phi Phenomenon’ is a term within the field of perceptual psychology that refers to the optical illusion of perceiving continuous motion between separate objects that rapidly alternate on and off in succession. This occurs when stimuli, typically stationary objects that are in close proximity to each other, rapidly disappear and reappear in alternating sequence. The human brain interprets this quick succession as a single moving object. This perceptual phenomenon is instrumental in understanding many aspects of human visual perception, including the mechanics of film and animation.
Phobia: A phobia is an intense, irrational fear towards a specific object or scenario, often provoking avoidance behavior.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Phobia’ is characterized as an intense, persistently irrational fear associated with a particular object, situation, or activity. It is not merely an aversion or discomfort, but a severe form of anxiety that often leads to avoidance behavior. Despite individuals acknowledging their fear as unfounded or excessive, they are unable to control the evoked response. Phobias can significantly impact routines, performance at work or school, and overall quality of life, potentially triggering distressing physical or psychological symptoms when confronted with the subject of the phobia.
Phoneme: A phoneme is the minimal sound unit that distinguishes meaning in a particular language.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Phoneme’ is a fundamental linguistic concept defined as the most minimal sound unit in a language’s phonetic system that can differentiate one word from another. For instance, changing the phoneme /b/ to /d/ in the English language can transform the word ‘bat’ into ‘dat’, hence altering its meaning. Each language has a specific set of phonemes, which contribute to its unique pronunciation characteristics. Phonemes can significantly impact semantic understanding and are therefore crucial elements in linguistic studies.
Photo Spreads: ‘Photo spreads’ are arrays of photos presented to witnesses to aid in perpetrator identification.
Expanded Definition
‘Photo Spreads’, often referred to as ‘Photo Lineups’ or ‘Photo Arrays’, is a term typically used in the legal and law enforcement contexts. This refers to a systematically arranged group of photographs, usually small in size and dominated by facial depictions, that are presented to a witness or a victim of a crime. The primary aim of this technique is to aid in the identification of a suspected perpetrator or offenders. These photographs predominantly feature faces to focus on distinguishing characteristics and provide a comprehensive view, offering the best chance for accurate identification. This method is designed to maintain objectivity and fairness in the identification process and is crucial in criminal investigations.
Physical Dependence: Physical dependence is a biological condition where the body requires a certain drug to function normally, and its absence leads to uncomfortable withdrawal signs.
Expanded Definition
“Physical Dependence” is defined as a state of adaptation that occurs in a person’s body due to the regular exposure to certain pharmaceuticals or substances. This condition manifests as an intense physiological necessity for the continued use of the said drug. What makes it identifiable is that upon cessation or substantial reduction in the intake of the substance, the individual experiences a set of adverse symptoms, known as withdrawal symptoms. These symptoms vary depending on the specific drug but often include feelings of discomfort, distress, and other physical or psychological discomforts. It’s significant to note that this dependency is a natural, predictable, biological response to medication usage and not inherently related to addiction, which is characterized by compulsive, harmful usage of the substance.
Physiological Adaptations: Physiological adaptations are the body’s specific changes and responses to environmental challenges, enhancing its functionality and survival.
Expanded Definition
‘Physiological Adaptations’ can be more accurately defined as ‘complex biological changes occurring within an organism’s internal systems in direct response to external environmental stimuli. These adaptive modifications can encompass a broad range of physical and biochemical characteristics, including alterations in organ function, metabolic processes, and cellular structure. They serve to enhance the organism’s survival chances and overall fitness within its specific environmental context by optimizing its bodily functions to suit unique environmental demands or challenges.’
Pineal Gland: The pineal gland is a small endocrine organ in the brain responsible for producing melatonin, a hormone that controls sleep-wake patterns.
Expanded Definition
The Pineal Gland is a small, pea-sized endocrine organ situated approximately in the center of the human brain. Its primary function is the secretion of the hormone melatonin. Melatonin regulates the body’s sleep-wake cycle, also known as the circadian rhythm, by promoting sleepiness and reducing alertness. This gland works in response to light; it increases melatonin production in the absence of light (at night) and decreases production in response to light, thereby playing a key role in sleep patterns. While its primary role is related to sleep, the Pineal Gland, due to its influence on the body’s hormone regulation, may have indirect impacts on a host of bodily functions.
Pinna: The pinna is the outer, visible component of the ear, functioning to capture and funnel sound waves into the auditory canal.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Pinna’, also known as the auricle, is a term used in anatomy to refer to the outermost visible part of the ear. This protruding structure has a distinct shape that facilitates its primary function: capturing sound waves from the surrounding environment and directing them into the auditory canal, an integral part of the hearing process. Its unique shape and curvature are designed to gather sound waves efficiently, improving our ability to hear and perceive the direction of sounds.
Pitch: Pitch is the perceptual interpretation of sound frequency, essentially how high or low we perceive a sound to be.
Expanded Definition
‘Pitch’ is a term used in the field of acoustics to describe the listener’s perception of the frequency of a sound, meaning the highness or lowness of a tone. It is primarily determined by the frequency of the sound waves producing the sound. Higher frequency sound waves result in a higher pitch, while lower frequency sound waves produce a lower pitch. It’s this attribute that allows individuals to differentiate between various musical notes and the unique vocals of individuals. However, pitch perception can be influenced by ancillary factors such as volume and timbre, which can complicate the relationship between frequency and perceived pitch. Therefore, ‘pitch’ can be understood as a subjective interpretation of audio frequency.
Pituitary Gland: The pituitary gland, often termed the “master gland”, is a small brain-located gland that regulates body growth, sex hormone production, pain responses, ovulation, menstrual cycle and certain behaviors through hormone secretion.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Pituitary Gland’ is a small, pea-sized endocrine organ situated at the base of the brain, intimately connected to the hypothalamus. Often referred to as the “master gland,” it is instrumental in overseeing various physiological functions through the secretion of hormones. This gland plays a paramount role in regulating body growth by producing growth hormone, while also facilitating the production of sex hormones in both males and females by secreting specific signaling hormones. In females, it is responsible for controlling the ovulation process and the menstrual cycle. Additionally, it has a significant role in pain management and behavior regulation due to its production of endorphins and other hormones. The complex functions of the pituitary gland underline its importance in the body’s endocrine system.
Place Theory: Place Theory posits that the location of the cochlea’s membrane stimulation corresponds to the perceived pitch in hearing.
Expanded Definition
‘Place Theory’ is a concept within the field of audiology, the study of hearing, which proposes that the perception of sound pitch is directly related to the position in the cochlea – the spiral-shaped sensory structure within the inner ear – where the auditory hair cells are stimulated. According to this theory, different frequencies or pitches of sound waves trigger responses from different locations along the cochlea, thus enabling us to discern a wide palette of unique sounds. This refined understanding of the Place Theory provides important insights into our complex auditory processing mechanisms.
Place Theory of Hearing: The Place Theory of Hearing asserts that the specific location of frequency detection in the cochlea correlates with different sound frequencies.
Expanded Definition
The Place Theory of Hearing is a scientific proposition that explains our ability to perceive different sound frequencies. According to this theory, various sound frequencies stimulate different areas along the cochlea, the spiral-shaped organ located in the inner ear, responsible for transforming sound wave vibrations into electrical signals. This spatial arrangement of frequency sensitivity within the cochlea forms the basis for differentiating pitch and perceiving the distinct sounds in our environment. In essence, it’s through these precise and distinctive areas responding to various frequencies that we can hear a vast range of sounds, from a soft whisper to a resounding orchestra.
Placebo Effects: The placebo effect refers to perceived improvements in health not due to actual treatment, but derived from a person’s belief in that treatment’s efficacy.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Placebo Effect’ represents a psychological phenomenon where an individual experiences a perceived improvement in their health condition due to the belief or anticipation that a treatment or procedure would work, rather than any physiological impact caused by the treatment itself. This effect demonstrates the powerful interconnection between mind and body, where positive expectancies can instigate beneficial health outcomes. It is often observed in clinical trials where a control group may receive a placebo, typically a sugar pill or sham treatment, instead of the actual medication or treatment under review, yet reports an improvement in symptoms.
Placenta: The placenta is a maternal-fetal organ that facilitates nutrient and waste exchange between mother and embryo.
Expanded Definition
The placenta is an integral temporary organ developed within the uterus during pregnancy. Its primary function is to serve as a conduit for nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing fetus. It also plays a critical role in eliminating waste products from the fetus. With its intricate network of blood vessels, the placenta fosters a controlled environment wherein nutritional substances, hormones, and gases are exchanged between the mother and the fetus. Besides this, the placenta also serves as a protective barrier, effectively shielding the fetus from most bacteria and harmful substances present in the mother’s bloodstream. Nonetheless, it’s crucial to note that it is not entirely impervious and certain viruses, like rubella and HIV, and some drugs could potentially penetrate this barrier and affect the fetus. More than just an interface unit, the placenta is known to produce essential hormones required to maintain pregnancy and prepare the mother’s body for breastfeeding.
Planning Fallacy: The Planning Fallacy refers to the cognitive bias where individuals misjudge the durations required to finish tasks, typically underestimating them.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Planning Fallacy’ is a cognitive bias that pertains to an individual’s predisposition to underestimate the time required to complete a future task. This psychological phenomenon often results in time management inefficiencies and deadline overruns, as the initial projections do not account for potential complications or delays that may arise during the task’s execution. Such fallacy does not only apply to time estimates but also extends to cost and resource miscalculations. Understanding the concept of the ‘Planning Fallacy’ could help in developing more realistic plan assessments and enhancing project management outcomes.
Plasticity: Plasticity refers to the capacity of the brain to form and reconfigure synaptic connections, a key mechanism for learning and adaptation.
Expanded Definition
‘Plasticity’, often referred to as ‘neuroplasticity’ or ‘brain plasticity’, encapsulates the inherent capacity of the brain to modify its structure and function in response to experience or injury. This continuous process of synaptic formation, alteration, and pruning is fundamental to the brain’s adaptability throughout an individual’s lifespan, enabling learning, memory development, recovery from brain damage, and adaptive changes in response to environmental stimuli.
Pluralistic Ignorance: Pluralistic Ignorance is the social phenomenon where individuals mistakenly believe their own views are divergent from the norm, often leading to inaction in situations requiring intervention. It’s a misperception of group attitudes preventing helpful response when needed.
Expanded Definition
‘Pluralistic Ignorance’ is a social psychological phenomenon characterized by the erroneous belief that one’s personal views, attitudes, or behaviors are discrepant from the apparent consensus within a group, leading to inaction when action is, in fact, required. It revolves around an individual’s assumption that others’ outward behaviors represent their genuine views, causing individuals to conform rather than act according to their private beliefs. Consequently, this can result in group inaction during situations where intervention is significantly valuable or crucial, under the mistaken conception that a lack of response from others implies no necessity for aid.
Polychronic (P-time): Polychronic, or P-time, refers to the cultural tendency of multitasking or handling multiple tasks or events simultaneously. It prevails in event-time cultures where flexibility and simultaneous activities are prioritized over rigid scheduling.
Expanded Definition
‘Polychronic’, oftentimes shortened as ‘P-time’, refers to a cultural or personal perspective prominently found in event-time societies. These societies perceive time as flexible and secondary to relationships and interactions. In these cultures, individuals often prioritize multitasking and simultaneous involvement in various activities. The preference for multiplicity of focus rather than a linear, singular concentration on tasks, commonly seen in monochronic cultures, makes ‘Polychronic’ a defining time-management style. This concept involves a holistic, fluid handling of time, with tasks guided more by the breadth of engagement rather than strict adherence to chronological sequences. It underscores the cultural diversity in our perceptions and uses of time.
Polygraph: A polygraph is a device used primarily in lie detection, which records multiple physical responses like sweat, heart rate, and breathing fluctuations linked to emotional changes.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Polygraph’, often associated with its use in lie detection, is a sophisticated instrument designed to simultaneously record changes in various physiological processes including but not limited to sweat production, heart rate, and respiratory patterns. These physiological responses are linked to emotional states and may potentially indicate deceptive behavior. However, the veracity and use of polygraph results remain a topic of ongoing debate among professionals.
Pons: The Pons is a component of the brain stem involved in regulating bodily movements, particularly facilitating balance and ambulation.
Expanded Definition
The “Pons” is a vital component within the brainstem, primarily responsible for modulating various bodily movements. It holds a crucial significance in maintaining balance and facilitating locomotive activities such as walking. This complex nervous tissue structure functions as a critical communications center, relaying messages between different sections of the brain and critical areas of the body. Featuring an array of neuronal pathways, it mediates sensory and motor information, thereby playing an instrumental role in our day-to-day physical coordination and balance, ultimately influencing our posture and gait.
Population: Population refers to the total set of individuals, objects, or events under consideration in a specific study, from which representative subsets can be selected for analysis.
Expanded Definition
‘Population’, in the context of research studies, refers to the entire collection of individuals or instances that are the subject of investigation. It constitutes all members within a specific group under examination, and it is from this collective group that research samples are typically selected for further detailed analysis. It should be noted that unless explicitly stated as a national study, the term ‘population’ doesn’t imply an entire country’s population, but rather a finite or defined group relevant to the study.
Positive Affective States: ‘Positive Affective States’ refer to emotionally stimulating conditions or experiences that invoke pleasant or joyful feelings.
Expanded Definition
‘Positive Affective States’ refers to the psychological condition characterized by pleasant, uplifting emotions or feelings. This typically involves a spectrum of emotions including joy, contentment, love, and enthusiasm, which significantly contribute to an individual’s overall wellbeing and happiness. These experiencing these states often indicates a positive psychological and emotional response to one’s environmental stimuli or situations.
Positive Linear Relationship: A positive linear relationship refers to a correlation where higher values of one variable correspond to higher values of the other variable, forming a direct proportionality.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Positive Linear Relationship’ refers to the statistical correlation between two variables wherein an increase in the value of one variable is generally associated with a proportional increase in the value of the other variable. In this relationship, above-average values of one variable occur in tandem with above-average values of the other. It illustrates that both variables move in the same direction—when one increases, the other also increases; when one decreases, the other also decreases. This relationship is represented graphically by an upward slope when plotted on a Cartesian plane, confirming that the variables are positively correlated.
Positive Psychology: Positive psychology is a discipline within psychology emphasizing on individual and societal strengths and virtues, aiming to promote flourishing and optimal functioning. It integrates emotion and intuition-based concepts often employed in self-help approaches.
Expanded Definition
Positive Psychology is a specialized area within the domain of psychology that primarily emphasizes human strengths, virtues, and talents, since these traits are seen as key contributors to successful functionality and prosperous life outcomes for individuals and communities. This field of study aims to foster the conditions that allow human beings to thrive, rather than merely focusing on treating mental illness or damage control. It constitutes part of a broader self-help movement that incorporates concepts rooted in the exploration and understanding of emotions and intuition. This inclusive approach seeks to create a holistic understanding of human happiness and well-being, thereby promoting optimal human functioning.
Positive Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement is the process of encouraging a behavior by presenting a valuable incentive or reward after the desired action or response is given.
Expanded Definition
‘Positive Reinforcement’ is a behavioral principle derived from the field of psychology, specifically, operant conditioning theory. It involves the introduction or addition of a favorable stimulus, such as a reward or praise, following a particular behavior that is desired to be increased or strengthened. The purpose of positive reinforcement is to enhance the likelihood of that behavior’s recurrence by associating it with a positive outcome or experience. This principle is widely used in various domains including education, parenting, and workplace to motivate individuals, encourage behavioral changes, and facilitate learning and productivity.
Post-Traumatic Growth: Post-Traumatic Growth is the psychological enhancement experienced after dealing with severe life adversities and crises.
Expanded Definition
“Post-Traumatic Growth” is a concept in psychology that refers to a phenomenon where individuals experience significant positive personal transformation following their active struggle and engagement with severely stressful events or major life crises. People undergoing post-traumatic growth may develop a deeper appreciation of life, secure stronger interpersonal relationships, identify new possibilities in life, improve personal strength and resilience, and undergo spiritual change. This process aids in reshaping their worldviews, understanding of self, and approach to life, leading to enhanced psychological wellbeing over time, even though the initiating event may have been deeply distressing.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): PTSD is a mental health condition triggered by a traumatic event, characterized by severe anxiety, flashbacks, and an intense urge to evade anything that recalls the incident.
Expanded Definition
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a medical diagnosis used to describe a mental health condition. It is triggered by encountering an ordeal involving physical harm or the threat of such harm, causing severe psychological distress. It is defined by several significant characteristics. Firstly, it involves recurring and intrusive memories of the traumatic event, often in the form of vivid flashbacks. Secondly, it includes high levels of anxiety and hyper-arousal. These might manifest as difficulty sleeping, irritability, concentration issues or being easily startled. Finally, there’s marked avoidance behavior where the individual exhibits a deliberate effort to evade any reminders or situations connected to the traumatic event, due to the distress they cause. This avoidant behavior extends to thoughts, feelings or conversations about the traumatic incident. Please note that not everyone who experiences a traumatic event will develop PTSD, and its onset and severity can vary markedly between different individuals.
Posthypnotic Suggestion: Posthypnotic suggestion is a directive given during hypnosis intended to influence a person’s behavior or actions after they’re no longer in a hypnotic state, often utilized to mitigate unwanted symptoms or behaviors.
Expanded Definition
A “Posthypnotic Suggestion” refers to a therapeutic technique embedding specific instructions or ideas during an active hypnotic session. These are intended to be executed by the patient after they have emerged from the state of hypnosis. Some clinicians utilize this method as part of their treatment regimen to manage or mitigate unwanted symptoms or behaviors in the patient, offering potential psychological or behavioral changes relevant to the personal therapy goals of the individual. It’s an approach that builds on the subject’s relaxed and highly focussed hypnotic state to enable lasting behavioral change, maintaining its efficacy beyond the scope of the session itself.
Pre-Screening: Pre-screening is a process utilized to detect and eliminate individuals who pose a significant risk before undergoing a certain procedure or activity.
Expanded Definition
‘Pre-Screening’ is a proactive process strategically employed in various sectors, including research, healthcare, employment, and lending. The process aids in identifying individuals or entities that potentially pose a high level of risk to the purpose or intent of the involvement. By evaluating pre-determined criteria, risks are ascertained early, thereby enabling the exclusion of the high-risk participants from the participation pool. Consequently, this methodology enhances the efficiency, reliability, and integrity of the subsequent stages of the practice, project, or study.
Preconscious: The preconscious refers to thoughts that are currently unconscious, yet readily accessible and can easily transition into consciousness.
Expanded Definition
‘Preconscious’ refers to those mental constructs or thoughts that, at a given moment, are not within our immediate conscious awareness, yet are not intentionally suppressed or repressed. These preconscious thoughts are readily accessible and can be retrieved and brought into conscious awareness when required. This term is used in various psychological frameworks to refer to the thoughts and feelings that sit between conscious awareness and the unconscious mind, acting as a kind of gateway for thoughts moving between the two realms.
Prediction Error: Prediction error, in the context of Pavlovian conditioning, refers to the discrepancy between the expected outcome based on conditioned stimuli and the actual result, a concept crucial for facilitating associative learning. As learning advances through repeated trials, the prediction error decreases, indicating improved accuracy in predicting the unconditioned stimulus based on the conditioned stimulus.
Expanded Definition
‘Prediction Error’ refers to the discrepancy between the actual and anticipated outcome in any conditioning or learning trial. It plays a vital role in the process known as Pavlovian conditioning or associative learning, where an organism learns to associate different stimuli through continual exposure. The concept derives from the idea that a ‘conditioned stimulus’ (a previously neutral stimulus that through repeated association, prompts a response) gradually learns to predict the ‘unconditioned stimulus’ (a stimulus that naturally triggers a reaction). For example, if a bell tone (conditioned stimulus) is frequently paired with the serving of food (unconditioned stimulus), a dog might start to salivate (response) just at the sound of the bell, expecting food. Initially, when the conditioned stimulus doesn’t lead to the expected unconditioned stimulus or leads to a different one, a prediction error occurs. This error essentially signifies unexpected results or the degree of surprise. Over time, with repeated trials and consistent pairing, the prediction error reduces as the conditioned stimulus becomes increasingly successful in predicting the unconditioned stimulus. In this context, conditioning is essentially a mechanism to minimize this prediction error. By continually finetuning the association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, we increase the accuracy of predictions, thus contributing to more effective learning.
Predictive Validity: Predictive validity refers to how well a test forecasts relevant future behavior, typically determined by correlating test outcomes with the consequent behavior or performance.
Expanded Definition
‘Predictive Validity’ refers to the robustness and accuracy with which a specific evaluation instrument, such as a test or survey, forecasts a certain behavior or outcome that it is intended to predict. It is a measure of an assessment’s relevance and effectiveness in predicting future outcomes. The degree of predictive validity is determined by calculating the statistical correlation or relationship between the results of the assessment (test scores) and the subsequent behavior or outcome (criterion). This correlation can suggest how well the assessment foretells future performance or results. It’s worth noting that ‘Predictive Validity’ is also known as ‘Criterion-Related Validity’ within various scientific disciplines.
Prejudice: Prejudice is a preconceived opinion, not grounded in reality or factual knowledge, about an individual due to their affiliation with a particular group.
Expanded Definition
‘Prejudice’ is a term that describes the preconceived, typically unfavorable, opinions or feelings that an individual holds towards another individual or a group, primarily based on their association with specific characteristics, such as race, religion, nationality, gender, or social class. These biases are often formed without having any direct experiences or concrete evidence, but instead drawn from societal stereotypes or personal assumptions. Prejudice can deeply impact societal relationships and interpersonal dynamics, and it stands as a significant obstacle in the path towards social equality and fairness.
Preoperational Stage: The Preoperational Stage, from roughly ages two to seven, is when kids start using language and developing abstract thinking, including the ability to visualize objects mentally.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Preoperational Stage’ refers to the developmental phase, usually occurring between the ages of two and seven, during which children start leveraging linguistic skills and exhibit increased abstract thinking abilities. This phase, characterized by the budding ability to form mental images, allows them to conceptualize and interact with their surroundings in more complex ways than purely sensory and motor experiences. During this stage, children’s thinking remains centered on the self, and they may struggle with understanding perspectives other than their own. However, they gradually begin to understand symbolism, laying the groundwork for cognitive development in the subsequent stages.
Preoptic Area: The Preoptic Area is a region within the frontal hypothalamus that plays a significant role in determining male sexual behavior.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Preoptic Area’ refers to a specific area located in the front part of the hypothalamus, an important structure in the brain involved in numerous functions including hormone release and regulation of body temperature. This particular region plays a crucial part in the control of male sexual behavior. It does so through influencing the production and release of sex-related hormones as well as aiding in the orchestration of the neural pathways responsible for these behaviors. This key role in sexual behavior regulation has been established through a variety of scientific studies, thus making the preoptic area vital to the understanding of the brain’s control over sexual activity.
Preparedness: Preparedness is an evolutionary concept where an organism easily learns certain associations, driven by evolutionary history. This results in emphasizing specific associations over others, such as associating sickness with the taste of alcohol or danger with images of spiders and snakes rather than their contexts.
Expanded Definition
‘Preparedness’ is a term rooted in the field of evolutionary psychology, which postulates that an organism’s ability to learn certain correlations is significantly influenced by its evolutionary history. Essentially, throughout the process of evolution, an organism’s cognitive structure becomes more adept in establishing certain associations, often related to survival and reproduction. This capability is often reflected through a person’s tendency to associate negative aftermaths, such as illness, with specific stimuli like the taste of tequila, regardless of the surrounding circumstances. This is because alcohol, as a toxin, can trigger a survival response in the body, leading to a strong associative notion. Similarly, our evolutionary history has also primed us to associate specific images, such as spiders or snakes, with unfavorable possibilities, rather than those of harmless nature, such as flowers or mushrooms. This predilection can be ascribed to the ancestral necessity of recognizing and avoiding potential predators and threats.
Prepotency of Elements: ‘Prepotency of Elements’ refers to the ability to sift through extraneous parts of a problem, concentrating instead on key components that require addressing.
Expanded Definition
‘Prepotency of Elements’ refers to the cognitive ability an individual exercises when they strategically separate and eliminate unnecessary or irrelevant aspects of a specific issue or problem, honing their attention solely on the crucial and significant components. This concept highlights how the individual’s mind employs selective and focused attention to efficiently process information and drive effective problem-solving or decision-making processes.
Prevalence: Prevalence refers to the count of individuals experiencing a specific condition in a certain population during a particular timeframe.
Expanded Definition
‘Prevalence’ is a term utilized in epidemiology that quantifiably indicates the proportion of a particular population who are affected by a specific condition or factor at a specified point in time. It is a statistical measure that provides an approximation of how widespread a condition is within a defined population during a set period. This helps researchers, policy makers, and health professionals understand the level of public health concern posed by the condition and to plan appropriately for treatment and prevention strategies.
Prevention: Prevention signifies the prioritization of safety and security measures and stresses accountability, often perceiving objectives as necessary obligations.
Expanded Definition
‘Prevention’, in its expert understanding, refers to a proactive approach that underlines the importance of safety measures, personal and social accountability, and the requirement for secure environments. This concept is often framed within the context of fulfilling certain obligations or duties, described metaphorically as “oughts”. These “oughts” represent expected actions or behaviors aiming at averting potential hazards or harmful incidents, thus safeguarding the well-being of individuals or communities. It is a systematic and strategic commitment to mitigating risk and danger before they arise.
Primacy Effect: The Primacy Effect is the psychological principle where information presented first is often recalled better than subsequent details.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Primacy Effect’ is a cognitive bias referring to the human propensity to recall and give more significant weightage to items or information that are introduced early in a sequence. This psychological phenomenon is part of the wider memory-recall research domain, denoting our amplified ability to remember initial pieces of information over those received later. The term often comes into play in areas such as marketing, education, and communication, where sequencing of information delivery can have a profound influence on audience perception and recall.
Primary Appraisal: Primary Appraisal is the initial evaluation process where one assesses if a situation is potentially harmful or threatening.
Expanded Definition
Primary Appraisal is a cognitive process in which an individual assesses the significance of an environmental event or situation, such as a potential stressor, to their wellbeing. This involves determining whether the situation poses a threat – a negative or harmful impact – or a challenge – a potentially beneficial opportunity for growth or gain. This process is pivotal in stress response theory as it influences the individual’s emotional response and coping strategies. It essentially begins the process of stress management by classifying the nature and extent of the perceived threat.
Primary Mental Abilities: ‘Primary Mental Abilities’ refer to seven core cognitive capacities, namely word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial aptitude, perceptual speed, numerical competency, inductive logic, and memory.
Expanded Definition
‘Primary Mental Abilities’ refers to a theory that categorizes human cognitive skills into seven distinct groups. These clusters include: 1. Word fluency, which pertains to an individual’s competence in producing and using language, including the ability to articulate thoughts efficiently and generate a variety of words within a specific category. 2. Verbal comprehension, understanding and interpreting orally and written information. It involves the ability to comprehend complex texts, understand relationships between words, and decode the underlying meaning of sentences. 3. Spatial ability, refers to the capacity to understand and visualize spatial relationships, including comprehending the dimensions of objects and orienting oneself in 3D space. 4. Perceptual speed, this involves the capability to quickly and accurately identify visual similarities and differences, which entails swift processing of sensory data. 5. Numerical ability, which refers to the facility to understand, manipulate, and reason with numerical concepts, including solving problems and conducting operations with numbers. 6. Inductive reasoning, this is the skill to draw conclusions and form concepts based on patterns, principles, or rules, utilizing logic and critical thinking skills. 7. Memory, which relates to an individual’s ability to retain, recall, and remember information over time. These capacities, while somewhat distinct, are intertwined and contribute to a person’s overall intellectual functioning.
Primary Prevention: Primary prevention refers to interventions provided uniformly to the whole population, designed to prevent the onset of specific diseases or health conditions.
Expanded Definition
Primary Prevention refers to proactive methods and strategies designed to prevent the onset of certain health-related conditions within a whole population, without discriminating whether individuals are at significant risk. Unlike treatments which are applied after the diagnosis of an illness, primary prevention aims to reduce both the incidence and prevalence of disease and injury by employing interventions like immunizations, lifestyle advice, or public policy changes, disseminated universally throughout the community.
Primary Reinforcer: A Primary Reinforcer is a natural, intrinsic reward like food or sleep that gratifies an essential biological need.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Primary Reinforcer’ is a type of stimulus that is inherently satisfying or rewarding due to its direct link to the fulfillment of basic biological needs. It operates within the behavioural science and psychological sphere, reinforcing certain behaviors by addressing innate needs such as hunger, thirst, or sleep. In essence, it is a fundamental catalyst for certain responses in an individual, directed towards survival and wellness, without the need for any learned associations.
Primary Sex Characteristics: Primary sex characteristics are the reproductive organs that facilitate sexual reproduction, including the ovaries and testes in humans.
Expanded Definition
‘Primary Sex Characteristics’ refers to the physical and biological features directly associated with the reproductive processes in individuals, typically distinguishing between males and females. In general, for males, these include structures such as the testes and penis, and for females, these encompass features like ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina. These characteristics develop and become functional due to hormonal changes during puberty, and they play a central role in sexual reproduction.
Prime: A ‘Prime’ refers to environmental triggers that stimulate a specific goal in an individual.
Expanded Definition
‘Prime’ is a term used within the field of psychology and behavior studies, specifically referring to stimuli or signals present in an individual’s immediate surroundings or environment that trigger or stimulate a goal-oriented response or behavior. These cues can come in various forms, such as visual, auditory, tactile, or cognitive, and have the power to influence and direct an individual’s actions or decisions unconsciously towards the achievement of a particular goal. Primes can also help shape the individual’s motivation, focus, and behavior without them being aware of this effect. This inherent property plays a crucial role in various fields including marketing, therapy, and self-development, among others.
Primed: ‘Primed’ refers to a state where one concept or behavior is readily accessible or recallable due to its consistent association with another.
Expanded Definition
‘Primed’ refers to a psychological state where, due to recurring association between certain traits and behaviors, one of them becomes increasingly accessible to our cognitive processes. This comprehension enhancement is achieved through continually uniting these elements, which boosts rapid retrieval and understanding. It’s a key component in both cognitive psychology and neuroscience, emphasizing the interconnectedness and association between various cognitive aspects.
Priming: Priming is the psychological method of prompting individuals with a stimulus to enhance the salience of subsequent thoughts, feelings or behaviors related to that stimulus. It is a way to trigger specific responses more easily.
Expanded Definition
‘Priming’ is a psychological construct that suggests the exposure to one particular stimulus can selectively influence the subsequent thoughts, emotions, or behaviors of an individual in managing related stimuli. Through this process, specific ideas or emotions are momentarily brought into a heightened state of awareness, making them readily accessible and more likely to influence thought patterns or actions. This concept has a wide range of applications, including memory enhancement, marketing tactics, and behavioral therapy.
Privacy: Privacy is the individual’s autonomous control over the dissemination of personal information to others.
Expanded Definition
‘Privacy’ can be described as the inherent right of individuals to control the dissemination and utilization of personal information about themselves. It is the prerogative of every person to determine which aspects of their personal data can be revealed, to whom, and for what purposes. This principle of self-determination profoundly affects an individual’s dignity and autonomy, and forms an integral part of human rights discourse, technology use, and data protection laws.
Pro-Social: ‘Pro-social’ refers to behaviors, attitudes, or actions that are intended to help, benefit, or enhance the well-being of others or society as a whole.
Expanded Definition
‘Pro-Social’ is a term that is often used in social and behavioral sciences to refer to actions, behaviors or attitudes that are intended to be beneficial to the welfare and well-being of others in society. This can include promoting and preserving human life, but it also extends to other actions that contribute positively to social harmony, cooperation, and overall societal health. This could include acts of kindness, volunteering, charitable giving, and behaviours that foster positive connections and relationships among individuals. The essence of being pro-social is the emphasis on contributing positively to the betterment of others and the community at large.
Proactive Interference: Proactive interference is when previously acquired knowledge hinders the capacity to learn and absorb new information.
Expanded Definition
‘Proactive interference’ is a psychological concept that refers to the phenomenon where previously acquired knowledge adversely affects the capacity to learn and retain new information. It describes the process whereby old memories can hinder the successful formation and storage of new, subsequent memories. This cognitive interference occurs not because of any limitation in mental capabilities, but because older and newer information often share similarities that can lead to confusion or misremembering. This concept is essential in understanding the complexities of memory function and the potential challenges in the learning process.
Problem Restructuring: Problem restructuring involves reshuffling or redefining a problem to leverage unnoticed relevant information, change strategies, or reorganize the information to better facilitate solution finding.
Expanded Definition
Problem Restructuring refers to the process of altering the presentation or interpretation of a problem in aim of finding new and effective ways to solve it. It involves the identification and utilization of relevant information that may have been overlooked previously. This approach may necessitate changing strategies or reorganizing the information related to the problem in a way that facilitates finding a suitable and efficient solution. The primary objective is to enable fresh perspectives and innovative approaches, thereby enhancing the chances of reaching an optimal resolution.
Problem-Focused Coping: Problem-focused coping refers to direct actions taken to alleviate stress by resolving the root cause of the issue.
Expanded Definition
‘Problem-Focused Coping’ is a cognitive-behavioral strategy wherein an individual directly confronts a stressor or a challenging scenario. The primary intent behind this approach is to amend or manage the situation causing emotional distress, by identifying the issue, developing possible solutions, and taking action to mitigate the stressor. This coping mechanism is primarily employed when one deems a stressful situation as changeable and believes they possess the necessary resources to handle it.
Procedural Memory: Procedural memory refers to the unconscious memory that enables us to carry out routine tasks without conscious thought or explanation. It’s essentially our brain’s storage system for automatic skills like driving or typing.
Expanded Definition
‘Procedural Memory’ is distinguished as the subtype of long-term memory responsible for storing information regarding how to carry out certain tasks or actions. This encompasses motor skills, habits, and other tactical processes we employ in our regular functioning, including routine activities such as riding a bicycle, typing, driving, or playing a musical instrument. What defines procedural memory is that it allows us to perform these actions often without conscious thought or explanation, functioning almost automatically once initiated. The knowledge encoded within our procedural memory system is typically acquired through repetition and practice, incorporating a learning process that progressively minimizes conscious involvement.
Progesterone: Progesterone is a steroid hormone, predominantly produced in the ovaries, that plays a vital role in menstrual cycle regulation and pregnancy in females.
Expanded Definition
‘Progesterone’ is a type of hormone predominantly found in females, although also present in lesser quantities in males. It is a critical component of the endocrine system, taking on key roles in the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and embryogenesis. The primary function of progesterone is to prepare the uterine lining for pregnancy following ovulation and, if fertilization occurs, to support pregnancy by promoting embryonic survival. Consequently, while progesterone is often primarily associated with female reproductive functions, it also contributes to other physiological systems and is essential for maintaining overall health.
Progress: ‘Progress’ refers to the perceived reduction in the gap between the existing status and the targeted condition. It depicts the forward movement towards a specific goal.
Expanded Definition
‘Progress’ refers to the perceived lessening of the gap between the existing conditions and the envisioned or desired goals. In other words, it is the measurable advancement or movement towards the achievement of set objectives, whether they’re personal, professional, societal, or otherwise. This movement implies a positive change, improvement, or development from the current state towards a more desirable future state.
Projection: ‘Projection’ is the psychological phenomenon where an individual attributes their own desires, thoughts, or emotions to another person, assuming they share the same feelings or perspectives.
Expanded Definition
‘Projection’ can be defined as a psychological process where an individual assumes that other people share the same desires, knowledge, or emotions as they do. In other words, it’s when a person subconsciously transfers their own feelings, motives or thoughts onto others, often as a defense mechanism. This can shape one’s interpretation of social situations, potentially leading to miscommunication or misunderstanding if one’s projections don’t align with the actual experiences or perspectives of others.
Projective Hypothesis: A projective hypothesis suggests that individuals’ interpretation of ambiguous stimuli is dictated by their hidden needs, emotions, and prior experiences.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Projective Hypothesis’ is a theoretical proposition within the field of psychology. It proposes that when individuals are requested to describe or interpret ambiguous materials or situations — stimuli with multiple possible interpretations — their explanations are subtly shaped by their subconscious desires, emotions, and past experiences. Essentially, it suggests that our unconscious mind influences how we perceive and make sense of uncertain or unclear information. Thus, our interpretation of such stimuli becomes a ‘projection’ of our inner psychological state.
Projective Test: A Projective Test is a type of psychological assessment that utilizes ambiguous stimuli to elicit responses that reflect an individual’s internal psychological processes.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Projective Test’ is a type of psychological evaluation tool primarily used to assess an individual’s personality characteristics and emotional functioning. Techniques such as the Rorschach Inkblot Test or the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) are examples of this. These tests employ the use of ambiguous visual or verbal stimuli with the aim of eliciting responses that reveal hidden emotions and internal conflicts. Such responses are thought to be ‘projections’ of the individual’s subconscious dynamics, hence the term ‘Projective Test’. The individual’s interpretations of these stimuli provide valuable insights into their personal perceptions and emotional state, assisting clinicians in forming a comprehensive psychological profile.
Promotion: Promotion refers to the highlighting of achievements and aspiration towards advancement, viewing targets as ideals to be attained.
Expanded Definition
‘Promotion,’ in a professional context, refers to a process that emphasizes the achievements, potential, and development requirements of an individual or a product. It involves setting and pursuing goals, which are perceived as ‘ideals’ or benchmarks of success. The term typically implies elevating a person to a higher rank or position, or increasing public awareness and interest in a product or service. The overall intent of a promotion is to facilitate progress, growth, and recognition.
Proprioception: Proprioception is the biological function that enables awareness of body positioning and movement.
Expanded Definition
Proprioception refers to the complex sensory system that enables us to perceive and understand the position, orientation, movements, and spatial awareness of our individual body parts without directly seeing them. This intricate system incorporates signals from a variety of sensory receptors located predominantly in our muscles, tendons, and joints, which communicate with our central nervous system. These signals relay vital information about the degree of tension in our muscles, the angle of our joints, and the direction of our movements. Consequently, proprioception plays an integral role in the coordinated and balanced functioning of our physical actions, ranging from simple daily activities to complex athletic performances.
Prosocial Behavior: Prosocial behavior is action taken to aid or enhance the wellbeing of others, or contribute positively to a group’s dynamics.
Expanded Definition
Prosocial Behavior refers to a broad category of actions characterized by a desire or motivation to promote the well-being of others. These voluntary behaviors, often performed without expectation of a reward, can include acts such as helping, sharing, comforting, cooperating, donating, as well as displaying concern for others’ rights and welfare. Such behavior plays a critical role in fostering positive social relationships and community cohesion by prioritizing the needs and interests of individuals or groups other than oneself.
Prosocial Personality Orientation: A ‘Prosocial Personality Orientation’ refers to personality traits that strongly align with and promote prosocial behavior, essentially, actions that benefit others.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Prosocial Personality Orientation’ encapsulates a set of distinctive traits or characteristics inherent in an individual’s personality that are strongly linked with prosocial behavior. Prosocial behavior refers to actions that are voluntarily conducted with the intention to benefit others or promote positive social interactions. Therefore, a person with a prosocial personality orientation would be more drawn to behaviors that assist, comfort, share with, or cooperate with others, contributing positively to the overall social environment. These traits may encompass qualities such as empathy, altruism, selflessness, compassion, and a high degree of cooperativeness, among others.
Protocol: A protocol is a comprehensive written plan for a human-involved research project that undergoes ethical evaluation by an independent committee.
Expanded Definition
‘Protocol’ is a term that encompasses a comprehensive written document pertaining to a specific research project involving human subjects. This document contains the makings of the project in granular detail, ranging from the project’s purpose, design, methodology, to statistical considerations. Prior to the initiation of the project, an independent committee, usually an Institutional Review Board (IRB), evaluates the protocol. The board’s task is to ensure stringent ethical considerations are applied to the welfare, safety, and rights of the participants. Therefore, a protocol serves as an important reference guide that sets the standard for conducting ethical and rigorous research involving human subjects.
Prototype: A prototype is a representative model or prime example of a certain category, used to efficiently classify items or ideas.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Prototype’ is a conceptual model or a representative example that serves as a benchmark representative of a particular category. This initial model serves as a comprehensive entity which embodies the most common and relevant characteristics of elements within the same category, ensuring an efficient method for classifying or categorizing similar items. Being a precursor or an initial working model, it undergoes testing and modifications before the final version is established. Mainly used in product design and software development fields, a prototype simplifies the process of concept realization, testing assumptions, and verifying functionality.
Psychiatric Service Dogs: Psychiatric service dogs are canines specifically trained to aid individuals suffering from mental health conditions.
Expanded Definition
‘Psychiatric Service Dogs’ are professionally trained canine companions specifically tasked to assist individuals suffering from mental health conditions. These dogs are skilled to offer therapeutic support and execute vital tasks, which are tailored to mitigate the debilitating effects of the individual’s psychiatric disorder. Their training equips them to respond to various scenarios such as anxiety attacks or depressive episodes, thereby providing a sense of security, independence, and improving the person’s overall mental well-being.
Psychiatry: Psychiatry is a medical field focused on diagnosing and treating mental health disorders, utilizing both medication and psychotherapy as treatment methods.
Expanded Definition
Psychiatry is a specialized field within the medical profession that focuses on the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. Practitioners in this field, known as psychiatrists, are medical doctors with an advanced understanding of mental health. They utilize a comprehensive approach to patient care that may incorporate biomedical treatments, such as prescription medication, along with psychotherapeutic techniques. This dual-method approach ensures that both the physiological and psychological aspects of mental health conditions are effectively addressed, resulting in a holistic treatment plan.
Psychoactive Drug: A psychoactive drug is a substance that alters an individual’s mental states, specifically affecting their perception and emotions.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Psychoactive Drug’ is a type of substance that, when ingested, has the potential to alter the mental state of the user. This could involve changes in the individual’s consciousness, perceptions, and moods. In effect, these substances influence neurochemical reactions within the brain, affecting various cognitive and physiological operations. These changes can manifest in an array of ways, such as shifts in thought processes, mood fluctuations, perceptual distortions, or variations in levels of consciousness. It’s crucial to note that the use of psychoactive drugs can be both therapeutic and detrimental, depending on factors like dosage, frequency of use, and the individual’s health condition.
Psychoanalysis: Psychoanalysis is a psychodynamic approach that employs talk therapy and dream analysis to scrutinize a person’s unconscious drives, particularly their sexual experiences and desires, aiming to facilitate behavioral change.
Expanded Definition
Psychoanalysis is a therapeutic methodology, predominantly utilized within the psychodynamic theory, which is fundamentally concerned with investigating the unconscious aspects of an individual’s psyche. The primary intent of psychoanalysis is to offer a profound and comprehensive understanding of the individual’s early formative experiences, particularly focusing on areas of sexuality, intimate desires, as well in-depth examination of various latent emotions and motivations. The process predominantly involves intensive verbal dialogues and interpretations of dreams as critical tools of investigation. More than removing symptomatic behavior, it aims at enabling significant behavioural changes by helping the patients unravel, comprehend and discuss their existential issues and difficulties in a structured therapeutic setting.
Psychodynamic Psychology: Psychodynamic psychology is a perspective in psychology that emphasizes the influence of unconscious processes on behavior. It considers how such hidden aspects of the mind can shape feelings and actions.
Expanded Definition
‘Psychodynamic Psychology’ can be delineated as a specialized area of psychology that emphasizes the influence of unconscious psychological aspects on an individual’s behavior. It posits that unconscious mental processes, formed primarily by early life experiences and often encapsulated in hidden memories, can shape behaviors, thoughts, and feelings. This approach seeks to unravel these underlying elements, often through psychoanalytic techniques, to foster deeper self-understanding and address behavioral or emotional challenges. Such exploration helps in identifying unresolved conflicts, which, once brought into conscious awareness, can be effectively processed and resolved.
Psychodynamic Therapy: Psychodynamic therapy is a treatment approach that enables patients to examine unconscious personality elements through therapeutic dialogue, based on both Freudian and neo-Freudian theories.
Expanded Definition
Psychodynamic therapy, often rooted in the psychoanalytic tradition pioneered by Sigmund Freud, is a therapeutic approach that seeks to bring about a deeper understanding of an individual’s mental processes that operate beneath the conscious awareness. This method addresses the unconscious elements of the personality, often manifesting through persistent patterns in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Therapists aid patients by unpacking these unconscious dynamics, typically related to early life experiences and the development of core personality structures, which can influence their current issues. This form of therapy is not just about alleviating immediate distress, but more about fostering holistic self-awareness, enhancing personal growth, and promoting healthier interpersonal relationships.
Psychological Adaptations: Psychological adaptations are mental mechanisms that have developed over time to address specific survival or reproductive challenges. They are perceived as units that process information to facilitate these tasks.
Expanded Definition
‘Psychological Adaptations’ refers to distinct mental mechanisms that have developed through the course of evolution to address specific survival or reproductive challenges. Essentially, these are highly specialized functions of the brain that process information in a manner which fosters adaptive behavior, enhancing an individual’s chances of survival and reproduction in their environment. These adaptations are conceptualized as complex cognitive structures that are designed to process specific types of information, enabling individuals to interact effectively with their surroundings.
Psychological Approach to Reducing Disorders: The ‘Psychological Approach to Reducing Disorders’ is a strategy that employs psychological therapy to assist individuals or families in mitigating mental health disorders.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Psychological Approach to Reducing Disorders’ can be defined as a specialized, therapeutic strategy that primarily focuses on understanding and treating cognitive, emotional, and behavioral disorders. This is fundamentally done through psychological therapy, which applies scientifically validated procedures to help people develop healthier, more effective habits. The approach helps individuals and families cultivate better coping mechanisms, improve interpersonal skills, and manage stress or anxiety more effectively. It may entail a range of therapeutic interventions including cognitive-behavioral therapy, psychoanalytic therapy, and more, all tailored specifically to the client’s mental health needs. The ultimate goal of this approach is to reduce symptoms, improve overall well-being, and enhance the quality of life for those grappling with mental health disorders.
Psychological Assessment: A psychological assessment is an expert appraisal of an individual’s mental state and psychological well-being.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Psychological Assessment’ is a comprehensive evaluation conducted to thoroughly understand an individual’s mental and emotional state. It employs a variety of scientifically validated methods and techniques including structured interviews, standardized tests, and observation to assess an individual’s cognitive functions, emotional responses, personality traits, and behavioral patterns. This in-depth examination aids in forming a clear psychological profile of the patient, paving the way for precise diagnoses, proactive interventions, and personalized treatment planning. It often serves as a crucial component in the effective management of mental health conditions.
Psychological Dependence: Psychological dependence refers to a mental compulsion to consume a substance for emotional relief or balance.
Expanded Definition
‘Psychological Dependence’ is formally defined as an emotional, cognitive condition where an individual experiences intense urges or an inherent need to continually use a substance or engage in certain behaviors. This dependency often serves as a coping mechanism to alleviate negative emotional states or to maintain a sense of well-being. While it may not always entail physiological withdrawal symptoms seen in physical dependency, it challenges recovery due to the high propensity for relapse owing to constant mental preoccupations and cravings.
Psychological Disorder: A psychological disorder is a persistent, abnormal pattern of thinking, feeling, or behaving that leads to substantial distress and deviates from societal norms.
Expanded Definition
A psychological disorder, often referred to as a mental disorder, is defined as a continuous disruptive pattern of cognition, emotion, and behavior that detrimentally affects an individual’s ability to function in everyday life. This distressing condition, marked by abnormal thoughts, feelings, or actions, deviates markedly from the norms or expectations of the individual’s culture or society. Such disorders encompass a broad range of issues, from occasionally disruptive behaviors to chronic and severe conditions. The key defining characteristics are the significant distress and dysfunction the condition inflicts on the individual, leading to the inability to engage productively in life’s routines and challenges.
Psychological Essentialism: Psychological Essentialism is the notion that members of a particular group possess inherent, fundamental traits that categorize them and confer them with corresponding characteristics.
Expanded Definition
Psychological Essentialism is a cognitive concept referring to the inherent tendency of humans to attribute specific underlying and unseen characteristics, often identified as an ‘essence’, to members of a certain category or group. This essence is believed to be the causal factor determining their inclusion in that particular category and accounting for their observable traits or behaviors. Such categorizations may range from social and cultural identity groups to biological classes and even abstract concepts. The attribution of this essential nature can significantly influence perception, judgement, and interaction. This concept is prevalent in diverse aspects of psychology including developmental, social, and cognitive disciplines.
Psychologist-Practitioners: ‘Psychologist-Practitioners’ are professionals applying psychological research for real-world enhancements in clinical, counselling, and organizational settings.
Expanded Definition
‘Psychologist-Practitioners’ is a term that refers to a category of psychologists who actively apply established research outcomes to improve the daily life quality of individuals. This group incorporates various types of psychologists including but not limited to clinical psychologists, counselling psychologists, industrial-organizational psychologists, and school psychologists. Their methods and areas of practice vary, but their common goal is to aid the individuals with whom they work in achieving a better understanding of themselves and their interactions with their environments, thus contributing to their general wellbeing and productivity.
Psychology: Psychology is the empirical examination of mental processes and actions.
Expanded Definition
Psychology, at its core, is a broad scientific discipline that encompasses rigorous inquiry and comprehensive analysis of the mind and behavior. It’s a field that seeks to understand a vast array of mental processes and actions, such as cognitive development, perception, motivation, emotion, individual and group behavior, personality dynamics, mental illness, learning, and the impact of biological factors on behavior. This study is applied systematically and empirically, utilizing an assortment of research methods to gather and interpret relevant data. Additionally, these concluded findings are used to conceive theoretical frameworks, guiding the development of intervention strategies and contributing to areas such as education, healthcare, business, and beyond. In essence, psychology is not simply a study, but rather a holistic exploration of what makes us human, how we interact with the world around us, and why we behave the way we do.
Psychometric: Psychometrics is the empirical discipline of quantifying human mental capacities, behaviors, and dispositions.
Expanded Definition
‘Psychometric’ refers to the rigorous field in psychology that focuses on the development, interpretation, and evaluation of quantitative tools employed to measure human behavioral patterns. This involves assessing an individual’s mental capabilities, discerning emotional and personality characteristics, and identifying particular traits or attitudes. These measurements are typically used in various professional settings, such as education, research, and human resources, to inform decisions and actions regarding individuals and groups. Various methods, including questionnaires, tests, and assessments, are used to quantify these aspects of human behavior in a standardized and reliable manner.
Psychoneuroimmunology: Psychoneuroimmunology is the scientific study that explores the interaction between psychological processes and the nervous and immune systems, primarily investigating how stressors can impact physical health.
Expanded Definition
Psychoneuroimmunology is an interdisciplinary scientific field that investigates the intricate interplay between the mind and body, specifically focusing on how mental states can impact the body’s physiological and immunological functions. It centers on analyzing the psychological factors, such as stress, that infiltrate our biological systems and can potentially induce illness. The field aims to enhance our comprehension of this complex relationship to understanding disease processes and thus create viable strategies to improve human health.
Psychopharmacology: Psychopharmacology is the scientific field that examines how medications influence mental processes and behaviors.
Expanded Definition
Psychopharmacology is the scientific field dedicated to understanding how various pharmaceutical agents influence mental processes and behavioral responses. This involves the detailed study of the interaction between drugs and the brain, focusing on how substances alter mood, cognition, perception, and behavior. Investigators in this discipline analyze both the therapeutic effects and potential risks of pharmacological interventions, thus aiding in the development of safer and more effective treatments for mental health conditions. This branch of psychiatry provides a foundational knowledge base for prescribing appropriate psychotropic medications in clinical practice.
Psychophysics: Psychophysics is the psychology subset examining how physical stimuli influence sensory perceptions and thought processes.
Expanded Definition
‘Psychophysics’ can be comprehensively defined as a specialized domain within the field of psychology that primarily focuses on understanding and investigating how physical stimuli, such as light, sound, or touch, can influence our sensory experiences and mental disposition. It delves into the complex relationship between external stimuli and our psychological responses, exploring how subjective human perceptions, such as taste or color perception, correspond and interact with the objective properties of physical stimuli. This segment of psychology serves as a critical bridge linking the tangible, physical world with the intangible realm of individual perception and cognition.
Psychophysiological Illness: Psychophysiological illness refers to physical diseases, like hypertension or certain types of headaches, induced by stress or emotional factors, reflecting a mind-body interaction.
Expanded Definition
Psychophysiological illness, often referred to as “mind-body” illness, is a type of medical condition that is rooted in, or significantly influenced by psychological factors and mental stress. These types of conditions imply a strong interaction between the mind and the body, where psychological distress can manifest as physical symptoms. Such illnesses can include medical conditions like hypertension, where prolonged stress can cause long-term high blood pressure; and certain types of headaches, where they are often triggered or exacerbated by emotional or mental factors. Understanding psychophysiological illnesses underlines the importance of an integrated approach to health, accounting for both mental and physical aspects in treatment and prevention strategies.
Psychosexual Stages: Psychosexual stages refer to Freud’s theory of five developmental phases in childhood where the id’s pleasure-seeking drives concentrate on specific pleasure-sensitive areas.
Expanded Definition
‘Psychosexual Stages’ is a concept proposed by Sigmund Freud, a renowned psychologist, to explain the process of psychological development in individuals. This theory underlines the significance of childhood experiences on an individual’s overall development and behavior. According to Freud, this development process spans five identifiable stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Each stage is defined by a primary focus on certain erogenous zones, which the id, a part of the personality that represents primal desires, targets in its pursuit of pleasure. In simple terms, the psychosexual stages represent how early experiences, particularly related to sensual pleasure, play a pivotal role in shaping an individual’s personality, behavior, and adult sexuality.
Psychosis: Psychosis is a mental disorder marked by a disconnect from reality, often involving delusions and hallucinations.
Expanded Definition
‘Psychosis’ signifies a comprehensive psychological disorder, primarily defined by a significant disconnection from reality. Individuals experiencing this condition often struggle with differentiating their personal perceptions and thoughts from external reality. This disconnect may present itself through various symptoms such as delusions – strongly held false beliefs, hallucinations – perceiving things that do not exist, or disorganized thinking and behavior. It’s important to note that psychosis isn’t a diagnosis itself, but rather a symptom of other mental health conditions, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or certain types of depression and anxiety. Effective treatments are available, typically involving a combination of psychotherapy and medication depending on the underlying diagnosis.
Psychosomatic Medicine: Psychosomatic Medicine is a branch of medicine that investigates the interplay between psychological processes and physical health, specifically how stress and other psychological factors can lead to physical illness.
Expanded Definition
Psychosomatic Medicine is a specialized field of medicine that primarily focuses on the interconnectedness of the mind and body. It seeks to deeply understand the influential role psychological factors play in affecting physiological functioning. The primary aim is to elucidate how certain mental and emotional elements, such as stress, can contribute to physical illness. This results in an improved understanding of disease manifestations, paving the way for innovative treatments that address both psychological and physical aspects of health.
Psychosurgery: Psychosurgery is a procedure that involves removing or damaging brain tissue to alleviate severe mental disorders; it’s typically reserved for extreme cases.
Expanded Definition
Psychosurgery refers to a highly specialized neurosurgical technique, which involves removing or damaging certain areas of the brain to alleviate the symptoms of severe mental disorders. This approach is typically considered as a last resort after exhausting all other conventional psychiatric treatments, due to the irreversible nature of the intervention. Psychosurgery aims to modify patient behavior and emotional responses, consequently enhancing their quality of life. However, it is important to note that this procedure carries substantial risks and ethical implications, requiring a comprehensive appraisal of each individual case.
Psychotherapy: Psychotherapy is a therapeutic method used to treat mental health issues by facilitating communication about personal conflicts, thereby promoting understanding and resolution.
Expanded Definition
Psychotherapy is a professional therapeutic practice employed to address and treat psychological disorders and mental health issues. This process involves the use of diverse techniques specifically designed to facilitate communication, encourage the exploration of dilemmas, provoke a deeper understanding of one’s self, and provide insight into the individual’s behaviors, thoughts, and feelings. This comprehensive approach aids in uncovering the root causes of the mental health issues, enabling the professional therapist to devise constructive coping methods, and ultimately leading to an improved mental and emotional wellbeing for the individual in need.
Puberty: Puberty is the phase of development where hormonal shifts result in significant bodily transformations, leading to sexual maturity.
Expanded Definition
Puberty is a critical stage of development that transpires during adolescence, where the body undergoes significant physical changes primarily driven by hormonal fluctuations. These changes are not random, but are systematically geared towards achieving sexual maturity. This is a biological transition whereby the individual progresses from the state of being physically incapable of sexual reproduction to a stage where sexual reproduction becomes possible. The distinct signs of puberty include the growth of pubic hair, changes in voice pitch, the development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics such as menstruation in females and testes enlargement in males, and acceleration of growth typically referred to as growth spurts. This period of transformation, though universal, may considerably vary in timing and pace across individuals.
Punisher: A ‘Punisher’ is a consequence that, when linked to a particular behavior, diminishes the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.
Expanded Definition
A “punisher” is a term used in psychology, specifically within the context of operant conditioning, a type of learning process. It refers to any stimulus that, when presented as a result of a particular behavior, reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. This process is known as punishment. It is a corrective measure used to discourage certain behaviors by associating them with negative outcomes or consequences.
Punishment: Punishment is the implementation of an unpleasant consequence with the aim of reducing a specific behavior.
Expanded Definition
‘Punishment’ is an established concept in behavioral science, which denotes the application of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus with the purpose of reducing or eliminating a specific behavior. This concept is based on the theory that encountering negative consequences for a behavior discourages its repetition. The aversive stimuli could encompass various means, including monetary fines, physical discomfort, social isolation, or verbal reprimands, among others. The effectiveness of the ‘punishment’ as a deterrent is often determined by its intensity, immediacy, and consistency.
Pupil: The pupil is the eye’s central aperture controlling light entry.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘pupil’ refers to a small, circular aperture located centrally within the iris of the eye. It functions as a portal through which light can enter the eye, controlling the quantity of light by adjusting its size – becoming larger (dilating) in dim light conditions to allow more light in, or smaller (constricting) in bright light to lessen the amount of light entering the eye. This adjustment aids in optimal visualization and protects the inner eye from potential light damage.

Q

Quantitative Genetics: Quantitative genetics is the study of how genetic and environmental factors contribute to variation in traits among organisms, using mathematical and statistical tools.
Expanded Definition
Quantitative Genetics is a specialized branch of genetic science that utilizes explicit mathematical and statistical methods to uncover the genetic and environmental factors influencing various traits in organisms. The objective is to deduce the relative contributions of genetic heritage and environmental inputs based on the extent of genetic and environmental resemblances among different organisms. This field often investigates traits controlled by multiple genes, known as polygenic traits, which display a wide range of variation within a population, such as height or weight in humans, rather than single-gene traits.
Quantitative Law of Effect: The Quantitative Law of Effect posits that a reinforcer’s potency to bolster a particular behavior is inversely proportional to the total reinforcement available for alternate behaviors in the environment. Simply put, the more available reinforcement for other activities, the less effective a specific reinforcer becomes.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Quantitative Law of Effect’ is a principle derived from mathematical psychology that suggests the strength and impact of a reinforcer, which influences a particular behavior (also called an operant response), is intrinsically linked to the total amount of reinforcement garnered for all other activities. Essentially, this rule indicates that the efficacy of a reinforcer in bolstering a specific behavior is diluted if there is significant reinforcement available in the surrounding environment for various other behaviors. Thus, it is effectively able to predict potential behavioral responses based on the balance of reinforcers for diverse behaviors.

R

Radical Behaviorism: Radical Behaviorism is the theoretical framework that comprehensively investigates and interprets all behaviors, including private events like thoughts and feelings, as consequential products of environmental interactions.
Expanded Definition
‘Radical Behaviorism’ is an advanced theoretical framework within the field of psychology which asserts that behavior is a function of its consequences, controllable by environmental influences rather than innate or internal forces. Developed by B.F. Skinner, this perspective integrates the study of observable behavior, including cognitive and emotional aspects, with scientific experimental approaches. It seeks to explain all behavior, albeit complex or simple, in terms of environmental factors and reinforces the concept that behaviors are learned and maintained based on their outcomes or rewards.
Random Assignment: Random assignment is the process of allocating participants to study groups randomly, aiming to limit bias from preexisting differences between groups.
Expanded Definition
‘Random Assignment’ is a statistical technique used in experimental design, generally in the field of psychology or social sciences, where study participants are allocated to either the experimental group or the control group purely based on chance. This process is akin to flipping a coin – it ensures that each participant has an equal opportunity to be placed in any group, thereby negating the influence of any preexisting differences or biases among participants on the overall study results. This method is crucial to establishing the causality in experimental studies as it maintains equivalency across the groups prior to the introduction of independent variables, allowing researchers to confidently attribute observed effects to the variables being tested.
Random Assignment to Conditions: Random Assignment to Conditions is a method where participants’ roles in an experiment are randomly assigned, ensuring each condition is equally likely. It’s a core process in experimental design to increase validity and reduce bias.
Expanded Definition
‘Random Assignment to Conditions’ refers to a methodological approach, most typically used in experimental research, where each participant’s placement into particular conditions or groups is dictated by chance, not by any preconceived or systematic criteria. This random allocation is integral to establish causality and to balance out potential bias or confounding variables. It ensures that each participant has an equal opportunity to be assigned to any given group, thus enhancing the overall fairness, efficacy, and validity of the research findings.
Random Sample: A random sample is a subset of a larger population selected in a manner that gives every member an equal opportunity of being chosen. It’s a fundamental basis for statistical accuracy and unbiased representation.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Random Sample’ is a statistical concept that entails selecting a subset from a larger population in such a way that every individual has an equally likely chance of being chosen. This method of sampling ensures an unbiased representation of the population because it does not favour the selection of any specific group or individual over another. Consequently, it mitigates the skewing of data and allows for more valid analysis and generalization of findings to the entire population.
Range: Range refers to the difference between the highest and lowest values in a set of data, serving as a basic measure of data spread.
Expanded Definition
Range, in statistical terminology, represents a rudimentary measure of variability, which is calculated by finding the difference between the highest (maximum) and the lowest (minimum) observed values in the given dataset. This measure essentially gives the span of the dataset, which indicates the degree of dispersion, and provides a basic understanding of the diversity of the data. However, it should be noted that the range only provides information based on the two most extreme values and does not account for the dispersion or the pattern of the remaining values within the dataset.
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep: REM sleep is a phase of sleep marked by fast eye movements and dreaming, specifically focusing on processing procedural or unconscious memory.
Expanded Definition
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep is a phase of the sleep cycle distinguished by swift, random movement of the eyes. This phase is commonly associated with vivid dreaming due to the brain’s high activity levels similar to wakefulness. It also plays a crucial role in the consolidation and processing of unconscious or implicit memory, also known as procedural memory, which involves skills and routines performed automatically. Therefore, REM sleep is not only integral for rest and rejuvenation but also influences cognitive functions such as memory and learning.
Rationalization: Rationalization is a defense mechanism where one invents plausible explanations for actions that are actually driven by unconscious, potentially distressing motives.
Expanded Definition
‘Rationalization’ is a term rooted in psychoanalytic theory, and it refers to a psychological defense mechanism where individuals create or provide logical, plausible, and socially acceptable explanations for behaviors or decisions that are actually driven by unconscious, often uncomfortable or disruptive, motives. This mechanism serves as a protective strategy to avoid cognitive dissonance or anxiety that arises from facing the true motivations behind one’s actions. It essentially acts as a buffer to mitigate the psychological discomfort that can occur when one’s actions do not align with one’s self-perceived values or beliefs.
Reaction Formation: ‘Reaction formation’ is a psychological defense mechanism where an individual unconsciously counters their undesirable impulses by exhibiting opposite behaviors, hence displaying emotions contrary to their inner anxiety-provoking feelings.
Expanded Definition
‘Reaction Formation’ is an advanced concept in psychoanalysis, typically used to describe a type of defense mechanism individuals employ unconsciously. This phenomenon occurs when a person’s ego mitigates anxiety-inducing unconscious desires or impulses by transforming them into their direct opposites. As a result, individuals may outwardly display behaviors, attitudes, or emotions that contradict their underlying, potentially distressing feelings. This process is an elaborate psychological strategy to protect oneself from confronting unpleasant or socially unacceptable thoughts or emotions.
Reappraisal: Reappraisal is an ongoing process of reevaluating stressors and the capacity to manage them. It involves constantly reassessing the impact of stress triggers and the resources to address them.
Expanded Definition
‘Reappraisal’ refers to the ongoing cognitive process of reevaluating a situation or stressor, along with the resources available for managing the stressor. This mechanism involves reassessing one’s perception and interpretation of a particular scenario, which might initially be perceived as stressful or negative. Alongside, it also considers the recalibration of accessible resources, strategies, or skills aimed at more effectively handling or navigating that specific situation. The practice of reappraisal is commonly seen in the context of coping strategies in psychological disciplines, particularly regarding emotional regulation and stress management.
Recall: Recall is a metric of memory requiring the retrieval of previously learned information, like answering a fill-in-the-blank test.
Expanded Definition
‘Recall’, in the context of cognitive psychology, refers to the ability to access and retrieve information that was previously encoded into one’s memory. It is one of the primary measures of memory and necessitates the active retrieval of information without the aid of explicit cues or stimuli. An instance where recall might be tested could be a fill-in-the-blank quiz, where the individual must draw upon previously learned knowledge without the help of multiple choice options or guiding prompts. Recall plays a crucial role in everyday tasks as it forms the basis for creating memories and makes learning possible. It is distinct from other types of memory retrieval, such as recognition, which involves identifying information that was previously learned.
Recall Memory Test: A recall memory test is a tool to evaluate explicit memory by requiring the retrieval of previously learned information.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Recall Memory Test’ is a scientific assessment tool employed to evaluate ‘explicit memory’- a type of long-term memory that involves conscious and intentional recollection of factual information, previous experiences, and concepts. With this method, subjects are asked to retrieve and articulate specific sets of information previously committed to memory, allowing researchers or clinicians to determine the strength, accuracy, and potential deficiencies in their recall abilities. The outcome of this test holds paramount importance in various contexts, from academic studies of cognitive function to the healthcare sector’s diagnosis of memory-related disorders.
Recency Effect: The ‘Recency Effect’ is a cognitive bias that favors the most recently presented information or experiences. It asserts that items at the end of a list are more likely to be recalled.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Recency Effect’ is a cognitive phenomenon that refers to the human tendency to recall and retain information that was most recently presented or received, especially when such information is organized in a series or a list. This effect highlights our brain’s propensity to solidify and retain the latest input more effectively than earlier data, essentially showcasing that detail sequencing can significantly impact our memory retention and recall ability.
Reciprocal Altruism: Reciprocal altruism is the act of assisting others with the expectation of mutual benefit in the future, thus enhancing individual survival chances.
Expanded Definition
‘Reciprocal Altruism’ is a strategic behavioral mechanism adopted in social sciences, particularly in evolutionary biology and sociology, which signifies that an individual provides assistance or benefits to another with an expectation of future reciprocation. In this theory, an individual extends help to another, even at personal risk or cost, anticipating that the same individual will provide some form of aid in return when the time comes. By doing so, the individual boosts their own chances of survival or success, since potential future circumstances might necessitate the aid of the other. Essentially, reciprocal altruism is a long-term investment aiming at mutual benefit, fostering cooperation, and strengthening social bonds. This concept underscores the interdependence found within many social structures.
Reciprocal Determinism: ‘Reciprocal Determinism’ is the mutual interaction of a person’s behavior, thoughts, and environment, where each component influences and is influenced by the others.
Expanded Definition
Reciprocal Determinism is a sophisticated, psychological concept that emanates from Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory. It refers to the continuous and dynamic interaction between an individual’s behavior, personal cognitive factors (like knowledge, expectations, and attitudes), and the environment. This interplay suggests that our actions are both influenced by the environment and, in turn, exert influence over it. Additionally, our internal thoughts and feelings can shape both our actions and our environment while also being shaped by them. This reciprocity creates a cycle of influence and evolution in our behavior and environmental circumstances. Hence, our development and actions are not predetermined or defined, but are the result of this complex, interactive process of reciprocal determinism.
Reciprocity: Reciprocity refers to the mutual exchange of favors or kindness, often initiated with the expectation of a returned favor.
Expanded Definition
‘Reciprocity’ is a socio-psychological principle that delineates a fundamental aspect of human interaction, postulating that when an individual or entity offers assistance, goods, services, or kindness to another, it can elicit a deep-seated cognitive and emotional urge within the recipient to reciprocate – to give something back in return. This paragon of mutual exchange may not only occur immediately but could also extend over a prolonged duration, varying from personal relationships to business dealings. It emphasizes the concept of mutual respect and equality, and reinforces trust, cooperation, and social bonds.
Reciprocity Norm: The Reciprocity Norm refers to the social expectation that favors or acts of kindness should be responded to in kind, following the principle ‘give and receive’.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Reciprocity Norm’ is a psychological and social principle that signifies an expectation or unspoken obligation within human interactions that assistance or valuable actions demonstrated toward others should be met with similar beneficial actions in return. It is a fundamental tenet in sociology, which posits that people tend to show kindness, favor, and help to others who have previously acted benevolently towards them, rather than causing harm. The norm encourages a mutual exchange of resources and services, fostering social cooperation, thus strengthening relationships and alliances within a community or network.
Recoding: Recoding is the common learning process of transforming information from one form to another for easier remembrance.
Expanded Definition
‘Recoding’ is a prevalent cognitive procedure that occurs during the learning process, where input or information presented in one format is transformed or converted into a different format. This transformation typically creates a format that is easier to remember, facilitating more efficient storage and retrieval from memory. Essentially, recoding is an adaptive strategy employed to enhance comprehension, recall, and overall learning efficiency.
Recognition: ‘Recognition’ is a type of memory retrieval where an individual only needs to identify previously learned information, often showcased on tests like multiple-choice.
Expanded Definition
‘Recognition’ is a cognitive process pertaining to memory recall where an individual is required to identify information encountered earlier. This type of memory measure is typically utilized in formats like multiple-choice tests, where the individual does not need to retrieve the information from memory independently. Instead, they recognize the correct answer among provided alternatives, having previously learned or been exposed to it. This distinguishes ‘recognition’ from ‘recall,’ where no cue is provided to facilitate memory retrieval.
Recognition Memory Test: A Recognition Memory Test is an evaluation of conscious recall, requiring individuals to identify whether they have previously encountered specific information.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Recognition Memory Test’ is a psychological evaluation tool specifically designed to gauge explicit memory capacity. Explicit memory, also known as declarative memory, is responsible for consciously recallable knowledge and experiences. This test operates by asking individuals to identify whether they have previously encountered certain information. It is thereby a measure of the subject’s ability to recognize and affirm exposure to specific content in the past. This evaluation method is integral to memory studies and wider cognitive research applications, assisting in the assessment of mental functions such as learning capacity, memory recall, and cognitive impairments due to brain injuries or age-related decline.
Reductionist: ‘Reductionist’ refers to the belief that complex systems or phenomena are primarily derived from or can be explained by their simplest, most fundamental components.
Expanded Definition
‘Reductionism’ refers to the intellectual approach or philosophical standpoint asserting that complex systems or phenomena can be understood by examining and breaking them down into their simplest and most basic components. Advocates of this view believe that by studying these individual elements, we can successfully explain the complexities and mechanisms of the whole system.
Reference Group Effect: The ‘Reference Group Effect’ is the psychological phenomenon where individuals mold their self-perceptions based on comparisons to others within their social or cultural group.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Reference Group Effect’ is a psychological and sociological phenomenon, where an individual’s perception of themselves and their attitude, behavior, and beliefs are significantly influenced by the standards, norms, or ideals of a group they identify with or aspire to belong to. This identification group, known as their ‘sociocultural reference group,’ serves as a benchmark for comparison, helping them evaluate their own status and achievements and shape their self-perceptions.
Reflex: A reflex is an automatic, immediate physical response to a specific trigger, without a conscious decision.
Expanded Definition
A ‘reflex’ is defined as an automatic, rapid and involuntary reaction or movement that is triggered in response to a certain stimulus. This physiological function does not require the processing or involvement of the brain. It occurs immediately after a specific physical influence is experienced, such as heat, pain, or significant changes in body position. Reflex actions play a critical role in maintaining the body’s equilibrium and protective responses, and are typically managed by the neural pathways in the peripheral nervous system and spinal cord.
Refractory Period: The refractory period is the short interval post-neuron firing during which the neuron, still not at its resting potential, can’t fire again.
Expanded Definition
The refractory period is a critical physiological concept in neurobiology. It refers to the short duration following an action potential in a neuron in which the neuron is incapable of initiating another action potential. This period is characterized by the neuron’s return to its baseline electrical state or ‘resting potential.’ Essentially, during the refractory period, the neuron rests and resets, making it temporarily unresponsive to additional stimuli. This mechanism helps regulate the rate of nerve signal transmission and plays a vital role in preventing signal overlap and ensuring proper directionality of the signal along the neuron. The refractory period can be divided into two phases – the absolute refractory period, in which no new action potential can be initiated, and the relative refractory period, during which a stronger-than-normal stimulus can provoke a new action potential.
Regression: ‘Regression’ is a psychological defense mechanism where an individual, when anxious, reverts to a less mature stage of personal development, tapping into residual psychological energy from that period.
Expanded Definition
‘Regression’ is a term used in psychoanalytic theory to describe a defense mechanism where an individual, when confronted with stressful situations or anxiety, reverts back to behaviors and thoughts associated with an earlier stage of psychological and sexual development. This occurs because some of their mental energy, in Freudian theory referred to as ‘psychic energy’, has remained stuck or ‘fixated’ in that stage. This regression process serves as a way to cope with current situations that are perceived as challenging, by resorting to familiar and often more basic modes of handling stress which were effective in that earlier stage of life.
Regression Toward The Mean: ‘Regression toward the mean’ is the statistical phenomenon where data points that are initially extreme tend to move closer to the average in subsequent measurements.
Expanded Definition
“Regression Toward The Mean” is a statistical principle which implies that in a wide-ranging set of data, instances that are extremely high or low are likely to be followed by values closer to the arithmetic mean or average. This suggests that outliers are more often followed by more typical, less exceptional data points, expressing the natural variability inherent in any data set or process. Consequently, an extraordinary event is most probably followed by an ordinary one, without indicating any predictive pattern or trend. It is crucial in data analysis, research studies, and statistical modeling to avoid misinterpretation of data and ensure accurate results.
Rehearsal: Rehearsal is the intentional practicing or repeating of information to retain it actively in mind or to store it for later recall.
Expanded Definition
‘Rehearsal’ is a term used to describe the deliberate practice of revisiting and reviewing information, with the primary objective of solidifying this information in one’s memory. The process can assist in maintaining the information in one’s active consciousness, which is useful for immediate recall, or can further facilitate the encoding of the information into long-term storage. This cognitive strategy is utilized to improve memory retention, facilitate learning, and enhance the recall of information.
Reinforcement: Reinforcement is a stimulus that boosts the likelihood of a certain behavior’s recurrence. It is a process used to encourage or strengthen the probability of a specific reaction.
Expanded Definition
‘Reinforcement’ is a term used mainly in the field of psychology, specifically within behavioral analysis, to denote a process in which a certain stimulus is applied with the intention to bolster or amplify the likelihood of a particular response. This stimulus, also known as a ‘reinforcer’, could either be an introduction of a favorable condition (positive reinforcement) or the removal of an unfavorable one (negative reinforcement) following a specific behavior. The primary objective of such a reinforcement is to encourage the subject to repeat a certain behavior, thereby resulting in habitual or learned behavior. Its application is vast, encompassing fields such as child development, animal training, and human resources among others.
Reinforcer: A reinforcer is a result or effect of an action that makes it more likely for the behavior to occur again, essentially boosting its frequency.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Reinforcer’ is a term used primarily in behavioral psychology, which refers to a certain outcome or consequence following a particular behavior. This outcome serves to amplify the probability of the recurrence of that behavior in the future. In simpler terms, it’s something that rewards or encourages a behavior, increasing the likelihood that the individual will exhibit this behavior again. The nature of the reinforcer can vary considerably; it could be a phrase of praise, a material object, a satisfying sensation, or the removal of a negative stimulus. The fundamental principle is that the behavior becomes more likely or stronger due to the presence of the reinforcer.
Reinforcer Devaluation Effect: The Reinforcer Devaluation Effect refers to the phenomenon where an animal ceases an action that previously yielded a reward, if that reward becomes unpleasant or unattractive.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Reinforcer Devaluation Effect’ is a psychological phenomenon characterized by a change in an individual’s behavior in association with a previous reward, often observed in animals but also applicable to human behavior. This effect is most likely to occur when a once appealing stimulus (the reward or reinforcer), which typically encourages a specific response or action, becomes less enticing or even undesirable. The resulting action tends to be that the individual, or animal, will subsequently reduce or cease the behavior that was once motivated by the acquisition of the initial reinforcer. This behavioral alteration signifies a cognitive recalibration to adapt to a changed reward situation.
Rejecting-Neglecting Parents: ‘Rejecting-neglecting parents’ are those who lack the emotional involvement and control in their children’s lives, demonstrating low demands and minimal responsiveness.
Expanded Definition
‘Rejecting-Neglecting Parents’ refers to a category of parents who exhibit a parenting style that is characterized by a consistent lack of demands and behavioral expectations from their children, coupled with an overall lack of responsive attention or involvement. Such parents typically provide minimal guidance, nurturing or attention, resulting in a child-centered environment that can often lead to poor social, cognitive and emotional development in children. Thus, the term defined encapsulates parental attitudes and behaviors that indicate a marked disengagement from the responsibilities and active roles inherent in child-rearing.
Relative Deprivation: Relative deprivation refers to the feeling of disadvantage originating from comparisons made with others perceived as better off. It emphasizes the role of comparison and perception in creating feelings of dissatisfaction or disadvantage.
Expanded Definition
‘Relative Deprivation’ is a social psychological theory portraying the sense of disadvantage arising from a subjective comparison one makes between their situation and that of others. It essentially describes the feeling of dissatisfaction or resentment experienced when an individual believes that they are worse off or disadvantaged in comparison to their peer group or societal standards. It emphasizes that the sense of deprivation or lack is not absolute, but rather related to personal perceptions and societal benchmarks one identifies with.
Relearning: Relearning is the accelerated reacquisition of knowledge previously learned but forgotten. It’s a memory metric highlighting the speed of reprocessing previously studied information.
Expanded Definition
‘Relearning’ is a psychological concept pertaining to the capability of the memory to process information at a faster pace when it’s re-encountered after an initial forgetting. In essence, it is a method used to evaluate the efficiency of memory by quantifying the expedited rate of information absorption during subsequent periods of studying, subsequent to initial learning and subsequent forgetting. This phenomenon highlights the cognitive benefit gained through prior exposure to the material, even if the conscious recall from the initial learning period has faded. It illustrates the resilient nature of memory where forgotten knowledge is not entirely lost but is more readily recalled upon subsequent exposure.
Reliability: Reliability refers to the degree of consistency and stability of a measure over multiple testing occasions, ensuring the same results in repeated testing.
Expanded Definition
‘Reliability’ is a statistical concept that refers to the degree of consistency or repeatability in the scores obtained from a particular measurement or assessment. It indicates the stability or predictability of a measurement tool over time when used in repeated assessments. This means that if a particular test or measuring instrument is dependable or reliable, it should yield similar results across multiple testing instances, assuming that the variable being measured remains unchanged. This attribute is vital in research, forecasting, and other scientific endeavors, as it ensures that the outcomes and conclusions derived are not due to random variations or errors, but rather consistent patterns that reflect the true nature of the variable under study.
Reliable: ‘Reliable’ refers to something, like tests, that consistently produces the same results over a period of time. It’s about dependability and uniformity in performance or outcome.
Expanded Definition
‘Reliable’ is a term commonly referred to evaluate consistency or stability in various fields, including scientific research, information technology, or product manufacturing. In the context of ‘tests,’ it often signifies the degree to which an assessment or measuring procedure yields stable and consistent results over time. Hence, a test is deemed reliable if it consistently produces similar results under the same conditions. Therefore, its reliability indicates its credibility, dependability, and reproducibility across multiple instances, which are crucial attributes in maintaining test validity and quality assurance.
REM Rebound: ‘REM Rebound’ refers to the surge in REM sleep experienced after disruptions or deprivation of REM sleep, often induced by frequent awakenings during this phase.
Expanded Definition
‘REM Rebound’ refers to the body’s compensatory response to a deficit in Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep, a vital phase of sleep known for vivid dreaming. This phenomenon tends to occur when an individual experiences persistent interruptions during REM sleep, which leads to its deprivation. Comprehended as a form of sleep recovery, the REM Rebound entails an augmentation in the duration and frequency of REM sleep in subsequent sleep cycles. Thus, it underscores the vital role REM sleep plays in maintaining overall health and brain functions.
REM Sleep: REM sleep is a recurring sleep stage characterized by rapid eye movements and vivid dreaming, in which the body sees heightened activity despite notable muscle relaxation.
Expanded Definition
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep is a recurrent phase of sleep that is characterized by the rapid and random movement of the eyes. It’s often referred to as ‘paradoxical sleep’ because while the skeletal muscles enter a state of temporary paralysis (known as atonia), preventing physical response to dreams, other physiological activities such as brain function, heart rate, and respiration are notably vigorous and active. During this phase, individuals usually experience intense dreaming due to heightened brain activity. REM sleep contributes to memory consolidation, learning, and mood regulation, thus playing an integral part in overall sleep health.
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder: REM Sleep Behavior Disorder is a condition where individuals, predominantly middle-aged or older men, physically act out intense, often violent dreams during REM sleep.
Expanded Definition
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep Behavior Disorder is a neuropsychiatric condition typically more prevalent among middle-aged or elderly men. This disorder is characterized by an unusual pattern of physical activity during the REM sleep phase, which is usually a period of deep rest and vivid dreaming. Unlike normal sleepers who are mostly physically inactive during this period, those suffering from REM Sleep Behavior Disorder may show vigorous, often bizarre movements in response to intense, and frequently violent dreams. In essence, these individuals physically “act out” their dreams, which can potentially lead to injuries for them or their bed partners.
Renewal Effect: The Renewal Effect is the revival of a previously suppressed behavior due to a change in context, particularly when the original conditioning environment is reintroduced. It can apply to both classical and instrumental conditioning scenarios.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Renewal Effect’ is defined as the reemergence of a previously extinguished behavior or response, often observed when the environment or context is altered after the extinction process. This effect is found to be particularly potent when the change includes reverting back to the initial environment where the original conditioning took place. This phenomenon can transpire following the extinction phase of both classical and instrumental conditioning. To simplify, ‘classical conditioning’ refers to a learning process where two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone. ‘Instrumental conditioning’, on the other hand, is a learning process where an individual learns to perform behaviors that yield positive outcomes and avoid those that result in negative outcomes. The Renewal Effect substantiates that a behavior, supposedly eliminated, can recur if the context is altered, thus, emphasizing the impact of the environment on learning and conditioned responses.
Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: ‘Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation’ is a technique involving the use of recurring magnetic pulses to the brain to either enhance or inhibit its activity.
Expanded Definition
‘Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation’ (rTMS) is a non-invasive neuromodulation technique that involves application of sequential magnetic energy pulses to specific areas of the brain. By generating a magnetic field to induce electrical currents within the cerebral cortex, this procedure can either stimulate or inhibit neural activity in targeted regions, thereby influencing cognitive and emotional functions. It is utilized in research and therapeutic contexts, primarily for conditions such as major depressive disorder and other neuropsychiatric disorders.
Replicate: ‘Replicate’ is essentially to recreate, enhance, or alter something, often in reference to previous research or findings.
Expanded Definition
‘Replicate’ is a term commonly used in research contexts, which primarily denotes the act of duplicating, reiterating, or reproducing certain procedures, methodologies, or findings for the purpose of verification or further investigation. This replication could involve exact duplication, making additions, or making modifications to previous research findings. The process is instrumental to validate earlier claims, expand on existing knowledge, or explore potential variations and implications.
Replication: Replication is the act of duplicating a previous study, key to scientific investigations to confirm the initial findings’ reliability and accuracy.
Expanded Definition
‘Replication’ is defined as the meticulous practice of duplicating previously conducted research. It serves as the foundation of all scientific investigations because it enhances the validity and reliability of the scientific discovery. Replication involves re-executing the original experiment’s procedures under the same conditions to affirm the consistency of the earlier findings. By performing replication, researchers ensure the precision of data, verify the authenticity of the results, and reaffirm the reproducibility of the methodologies used. It is an indispensable practice in the scientific community as it helps to filter out accidental findings or pseudo-science, thereby upholding the credibility and rigor of scientific research.
Representativeness Heuristic: The representativeness heuristic is a cognitive bias where people make quick decisions or judgments by assessing how similar the current situation or entity is to their mental prototype of that category, often overlooking other relevant statistical data.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Representativeness Heuristic’ is a cognitive strategy or mental shortcut often used in decision-making processes. This heuristic involves making judgments or assumptions based on how closely something aligns with our preconceived notions, mental images, or stereotypes, symbolizing a particular category or classification. Instead of analyzing all available statistical data, individuals tend to prioritize the information that apparently confirms their existing beliefs or expectations. Although this heuristic facilitates expedited decision-making, it can sometimes lead to oversights, biases, or faulty judgments by disregarding relevant statistical evidence that contradicts or doesn’t align with the perceived concept.
Repressed: ‘Repressed’ refers to memories that are unconsciously stored or withheld from our awareness, as theorized by Sigmund Freud.
Expanded Definition
“Repressed” is a psychological term, popularized by esteemed psychiatrist Sigmund Freud, that pertains to memories, thoughts, or emotions that have been involuntarily excluded from the individual’s conscious awareness. These aspects are often stored in the subconscious mind, out of immediate cognitive reach, usually due to their potentially distressing or disturbing nature. Though hidden, these repressed elements can influence an individual’s behaviors, feelings, and experiences.
Repression: Repression, in psychoanalytic terms, is the process of subconsciously blocking out distressing thoughts, emotions, or memories to alleviate anxiety.
Expanded Definition
‘Repression’ is a term predominantly used in the field of psychoanalytic theory. It refers to an individual’s primary defensive process, which unconsciously pushes potentially distressing or anxiety-provoking thoughts, emotions, and recollections out of their conscious awareness. Thus, these disconcerting mental experiences are prevented from causing undue emotional distress. However, it’s important to note that despite being repressed, these thoughts, feelings, and memories can still affect an individual’s behavior and emotional responses, often in a manner the person does not consciously understand.
Research Confederate: A Research Confederate is an individual who collaboratively assists a researcher by acting as a participant or observer in a research study.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Research Confederate’ is a term used in the field of scientific research to describe an individual who collaboratively works with a principal researcher. This individual, while appearing to be an unaware participant or seemingly uninvolved observer in the study, is in fact privy to the research’s objectives. Their role involves acting under the guidance of the researcher to execute specific actions or responses that guide the research process, thereby influencing real participants’ reactions or behaviors. It’s a research strategy often employed in social and psychological studies to ensure the research conditions align with the study’s overall goals.
Research Design: ‘Research Design’ is a strategic framework for gathering and analyzing data in a study. It chiefly outlines the technique a researcher employs to make sense of their data.
Expanded Definition
‘Research Design’ refers to the systematic and detailed plan that guides a researcher in the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data. This strategic approach ensures that the research study is structured and organized to effectively address the research question or objective. The design is utilized to create reliable and valid findings, catering to the specific nature of the research problem. This process encompasses the selection of research methods and techniques, determining sample size, deciding on data collection and analysis strategies, and potentially predicting possible outcomes. It forms a crucial part of any scientific study, as it influences the accuracy and integrity of the research findings.
Research Hypothesis: A research hypothesis is a testable, precise conjecture about how variables are related to each other.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Research Hypothesis’ can be defined as a clear, detailed, and testable presumption or projection developed as a part of scientific research. It indicates a potential outcome or correlation between two or more variables under study. Crucially, this projection is ‘falsifiable’, which means it can be invalidated through empirical testing or analysis, aligning with the fundamentals of scientific methodology. It serves as the basis for initiating a research study or a scientific experiment, guiding the research design and analysis. The ability to potentially falsify the hypothesis makes research accurate, reliable, and contributes to the body of scientific knowledge.
Research Participant: A research participant is an individual involved in a study who contributes data for analysis.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Research Participant’ refers to an individual who voluntarily contributes to a study by sharing personal information, experiences or completing tasks, which are then systematically examined within the context of a research program. By participating, the individual aids the researchers in expanding knowledge, exploring new ideas or validating existing theories within a given field. This participation may include actions such as completing surveys or questionnaires, taking part in interviews or focus groups, or being observed under specific conditions.
Research Psychologists: ‘Research Psychologists’ are professionals who apply scientific techniques to understand the underlying reasons for human behavior, thereby contributing to the pool of psychological knowledge.
Expanded Definition
Research Psychologists are specialized professionals within the field of psychology who employ meticulous scientific methodologies to generate fresh insights and understandings pertaining to the various determinants of behavior. They focus on exploring the underlying factors, whether they are genetic, environmental, social or psychological, that impact conduct and responses in both individual and group situations. Their work enhances our comprehension of behavioral mechanisms, and serves to advance theory, policy and practice in psychological disciplines.
Resilience: Resilience is the capacity to recover quickly from difficulties or obstacles.
Expanded Definition
Resilience is a psychological concept often characterized as an individual’s capacity to effectively navigate and recover from challenging situations or adversity. It involves adaptive processes that help individuals confront difficulties, stressors, or trauma and rebound from them, often emerging stronger or more resourceful. Resilience doesn’t eliminate the presence of distressing conditions but rather provides individuals with the mental and emotional tools necessary to respond to and recover from these stressful events effectively and efficiently.
Resistance: Resistance refers to a patient’s employment of psychological barriers to evade confronting uncomfortable buried emotions.
Expanded Definition
‘Resistance’ in the context of psychological therapy is understood as the utilization of certain protective methods or defense mechanisms by the patient to evade confronting uncomfortable, distressful or painful emotions or experiences that reside in their unconscious mind. These mechanisms provide a means for the individual to safeguard themselves from the potential emotional distress that comes with facing such painful memories or emotions. These subconscious protective efforts can be manifested in a variety of behaviors such as avoidance, denial, or minimization of issues during therapy sessions.
Respect for Persons: ‘Respect for Persons’ is an ethical principle emphasizing the necessity of informed consent to uphold the autonomy and rights of individuals.
Expanded Definition
‘Respect for Persons’ is a key ethical principle outlined in the Belmont Report. It emphasizes the necessity of acknowledging each individual’s autonomy and rights within various contexts, particularly in research. Central to this principle is the idea of informed consent. This means individuals should be given comprehensive information about what their participation entails, allowing them to make a fully informed, voluntary decision about their involvement. This is crucial to honor their self-governance, thereby practicing respect for their personhood.
Respondent Behavior: Respondent behavior refers to reflexive actions triggered directly by an external stimulus. It’s essentially instinctive, automatically elicited reactions to specific inputs.
Expanded Definition
‘Respondent Behavior’ is defined as an individual’s automatic or reflexive reaction that takes place in response to a specific stimulus. This type of behavior is involuntary, typically subconscious, and does not require cognitive processing. It is an integral part of classical conditioning paradigms in psychological studies, where an unconditioned stimulus triggers this natural or conditioned reflexive behavior. Examples of respondent behavior include salivating at the smell of food or flinching in response to a loud noise. It is an important factor in understanding certain aspects of human and animal behavior.
Response: ‘Response’ refers to the body’s biological reaction or adaptation to any form of stress. It embodies how the body mitigates or responds to such stress-stimuli internally.
Expanded Definition
“Response,” in a specific context, can be defined as one’s psychological or physical reaction to certain stimuli. When talking about stress, “response” refers to the individual’s physical and emotional reactions generated due to the body’s complex biochemical changes. This could include increased heart rate, adrenaline production, or heightened alertness. This physiological response pattern is the body’s natural manner of preparing to face potential threats or challenging situations.
Response Bias: Response bias is the consistent inclination of individuals to answer affirmatively in surveys or experiments, irrespective of their actual perception or understanding.
Expanded Definition
Response Bias, in the context of research and survey methodology, refers to the systemic influence on a participant’s responses that skews the data, and it’s not related to the subject matter of the study. It’s a pervasive tendency where participants might show a pattern of responding without considering the information presented, such as consistently affirming (saying “yes”) irrespective of the question’s content. This phenomenon can lead to skewed results and obscure the true sensitivity or variability in the data. This bias is often controlled for in the design and analysis stages of research to ensure the accuracy and reliability of findings.
Response by Analogy: ‘Response by Analogy’ refers to the practice of applying solutions or responses from one context to a similar, but new situation. It’s basically leveraging insights from a known situation to navigate a new but related circumstance.
Expanded Definition
‘Response by Analogy’ is a concept in which responses cultivated from a comparable or closely related scenario are then applied or extrapolated to a new, distinct situation. This cognitive process allows for better understanding, problem-solving, and decision-making as it draws from known experiences or perspectives. Consequently, it encourages a user-friendly understanding of unfamiliar concepts by mapping them onto more familiar ones. Therefore, this method can meaningfully connect different contexts, assisting in the transition and application of concepts or solutions between them.
Resting Potential: Resting potential is the neuron’s state of negative charge when inactive, caused by a higher concentration of negative ions inside the cell compared to outside.
Expanded Definition
‘Resting Potential’ can be defined as the electrical potential difference across the membrane of a neuron at rest. It represents a state where the neuron is not actively transmitting signals, but is prepared to do so. During resting potential, the interior of the neuron has a larger concentration of negatively charged ions compared to the exterior environment. This results in an overall negative charge inside the neuron, typically around -70 millivolts. This charge imbalance, maintained by ion pumps and channels, is essential in enabling neurons to subsequently generate action potentials – the key signals for neuron communication and function.
Restless Legs Syndrome: ‘Restless Legs Syndrome’ is a neurological sleep disorder causing distressing sensations like itching or burning in the legs, typically worsening during rest or sleep.
Expanded Definition
Restless Legs Syndrome (RLS) is a neurological sleep-related movement disorder characterized by an irresistible urge to move one’s legs. This urge typically arises during periods of inactivity, rest, or sleep. Symptoms often present as peculiar sensations in the legs that are described variously as itching, burning, or a general discomfort. The discomfort often is relieved temporarily by leg movement, making relaxation and sleep challenging. As a result, the condition can interfere significantly with sleep quality and daily functioning. Current understanding places emphasis on RLS as a sensorimotor disorder because it involves both abnormal sensations and involuntary movements.
Reticular Formation: The Reticular Formation is a neuron network in the medulla and pons, responsible for filtering spinal cord stimuli, relaying signals to the brain, and regulating basic activities like walking, eating, and sleeping.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Reticular Formation’ is a complex cluster of neurons that extends through the central core of the brainstem, specifically extending from the medulla oblongata into the midbrain region, including the pons. Serving as an information processing and filtering centre, this structure meticulously evaluates incoming signals received from the spinal cord and routes pertinent information to relevant areas of the brain, whilst screening out less significant input. Beyond this significant neural traffic control role, the Reticular Formation also performs critical functions in regulating various fundamental physical operations such as locomotion, feeding behaviour, sexual activity, and controlling sleep-wake patterns. Thus, the Reticular Formation represents a crucial integrative and modulatory component of the brain’s overall functionality.
Retina: The retina is the innermost, light-sensitive layer of tissue in the eye that houses photoreceptor cells.
Expanded Definition
The retina is a complex, multi-layered structure situated at the rear interior section of the eye. Its primary function is to act as the visual processing center of the eye. Composed of neural tissue that optimizes its light-detecting properties, the retina includes millions of photoreceptor cells, specifically cones and rods. Cones handle color vision and work best in bright light conditions, while rods specialize in low-light vision, detecting shades of gray. These cells transform light waves into electrical signals, which are then sent to the brain via the optic nerve, resulting in visual interpretation.
Retinal Disparity: Retinal disparity is a depth-perception cue derived from the slight difference in the view perceived by each eye, which helps the brain estimate distance, with greater disparity indicating a closer object.
Expanded Definition
“Retinal disparity” refers to a critical depth perception cue that operates on the principle of binocular vision, wherein our brain amalgamates the slightly different visual data received by our two eyes to understand the depth or distance of objects. It works on the basis that each eye views the world from a slightly different angle due to their separation on the face, creating two slightly different images on each retina. When these images get to the brain, it measures the difference or ‘disparity’ between them. A greater disparity signifies a closer object, since the difference in viewing angles becomes more pronounced for objects close to us compared to those farther away. Thus, through retinal disparity, our brain computes and understands the three-dimensional space around us.
Retrieval: Retrieval refers to the act of extracting and using previously memorized information.
Expanded Definition
‘Retrieval’ is defined as the systematic process by which information that has previously been encoded and stored in memory is accessed, reactivated, and utilized. This involves recalling previously learned material or knowledge from our short-term or long-term memory reserves, bringing it back into our conscious awareness. The retrieval process is vital in allowing an individual to tap into accumulated knowledge and past experiences to respond appropriately to current needs or challenges.
Retroactive Interference: Retroactive interference is the disruption of memory retrieval due to new learning activities or experiences, causing difficulty in recalling previously learned information. It is the memory impairment where later events hinder the ability to remember earlier ones.
Expanded Definition
Retroactive Interference refers to a form of information disruption or memory impairment, where new learnings or experiences hinder the recall of previously learned information. In this phenomenon, newer memories essentially interfere with older ones, which leads to difficulty in retrieving the initial memories or information. It reflects the dynamic nature of human memory, indicating how subsequent learning can compete with and potentially obscure previously cemented knowledge.
Retrograde Amnesia: Retrograde amnesia is a condition causing the inability to recall past events and previously known facts, which were learned before the amnesia struck.
Expanded Definition
“Retrograde Amnesia” is a specialized form of memory impairment characterized by the person’s incapacity to recall events, facts, or information that happened prior to the onset of this condition. The afflicted individual may struggle to remember significant life events, personal knowledge, or previously learned skills or facts. This disorder does not affect immediate short-term memory but rather the retrieval of older memories stored in long-term memory. The severity and extent can vary, often dependent on the specific causative factors, which may include brain trauma, diseases affecting memory regions of the brain, or severe psychological stress. Despite this absence of past recollection, the ability to form and store new memories often remains intact.
Reuptake: Reuptake is the recycling process where neurotransmitters are absorbed back into the neuron that released them, readying for subsequent neural firing.
Expanded Definition
‘Reuptake’ refers to the physiological process wherein neurotransmitters, the chemical agents that facilitate the transmission of signals in the nervous system, are reclaimed once their function in the synapse, or gap between neurons, is completed. This reuptake mainly occurs in the terminal buttons of the transmitting neuron. Subsequently, these reclaimed neurotransmitters are made available for reuse—ready to be re-released into the synaptic gap upon the next firing of the neuron. This process plays a crucial role in managing the availability of neurotransmitters and thereby, controls the rate and intensity of neurotransmission.
Reward Value: ‘Reward Value’ refers to the motivational influence on an organism’s desire to eat, which adjusts in response to its degree of hunger.
Expanded Definition
‘Reward Value’ is a psychological construct that significantly influences an organism’s enthusiasm or desire towards consuming food. This construct is inherently responsive to the organism’s level of hunger at any given time. Essentially, the reward value of a food item is a dynamic index that ultimately determines the behavioural response to food consumption; the higher the hunger level, the greater the reward value, and hence, the stronger the motivation to eat. This definition is applicable across a wide spectrum of organisms, ranging from simple animals to complex humans.
Reward-Punishment Drive: ‘Reward-Punishment Drive’ is the motivational force behind human conduct, leading to desired outcomes by integrating both rewards, for positive behavior, and penalties, for negative actions.
Expanded Definition
“Reward-Punishment Drive” refers to a foundational concept in psychology and behavioral science denoting a key motivational force behind human actions. It suggests that human behavior is primarily driven by the anticipation of reward or the avoidance of punishment. This drive is instrumental in shaping individuals’ performance outcomes as it guides their actions towards achieving reward-oriented results and steering clear of situations or responses that may lead to punishment. Thus, it engenders behavioral modifications and performance improvements by employing both positive (reward) and negative (punishment) reinforcements.
Right-Wing Authoritarianism: Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) is a political ideology that places high value on obedience to authority and conformity within a group.
Expanded Definition
Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) is a socio-political philosophy that highly values the adherence to established authority, conventional norms, and rules in an effort to promote unity and conformity within a specific group or society. RWA prioritizes maintaining societal order and cohesion, often emphasizing traditional viewpoints and a hierarchical structure. This perspective tends to reject perceived threats to the established status quo, including new societal changes or challenges to the existing authority structure. Therefore, individuals who subscribe to this belief system typically resist social change and display a high degree of deference towards authority figures.
Risk Factors: Risk factors refer to various social, economic, and environmental aspects that heighten an individual’s probability of developing a particular disorder.
Expanded Definition
‘Risk Factors’ can be professionally and expertly defined as specific conditions or variables that are associated with an increased likelihood of an individual acquiring a specific disease, disorder, or undesirable health outcome. These conditions or variables may stem from a multitude of different factors, which are generally categorized into social, environmental, and economic domains. Social risk factors encompass elements such as age, sex, race, and family history, which are beyond an individual’s control, as well as lifestyle choices like smoking, substance abuse, physical activity level, and diet. Environmental risk factors involve exposure to certain diseases, pollutants, or hazardous conditions in the surrounding environment that can increase the risk of specific health issues. Economic risk factors are those linked to an individual’s economic status, including poverty, access to healthcare, educational attainment, and housing conditions. These risk factors do not conclusively predict health outcomes, but statistically, they increase the probabilities of developing disorders. Recognizing and understanding these risk factors can help in forming preventive measures and interventions to mitigate the potential health impacts.
Rituals: Rituals are customary actions within a culture that signify its core values and beliefs.
Expanded Definition
‘Rituals’ can be more succinctly defined as ‘Structured activities or routines, deeply embedded in a culture, which serve to instill shared values, beliefs, and significance within a community. These practices, often carried out at regular intervals or in response to specific events, play a vital role in reinforcing cultural identity and fostering a sense of collective belonging.’
Rods: Rods are retinal neurons specialized for the perception of light intensity, enabling us to see in black, white, and gray shades.
Expanded Definition
‘Rods’ are specialized types of visual neurons present in the eye’s retina. Their primary function is to perceive and interpret variations in light intensity rather than color, enabling the detection of shades of black, white, and gray. They are particularly sensitive to low light conditions, playing a vital role in our ability to see in dim light or at night. Unlike cones, which are another type of visual neuron responsible for color vision, rods are not involved in the perception of color.
Role: A ‘role’ is a predefined set of behavioral norms associated with a particular social position, essentially guiding how individuals occupying such positions should act.
Expanded Definition
A ‘role’ can be precisely defined as an established set of societal norms or expectations associated with a specific social position. These norms essentially guide or dictate the behavior, actions, and responsibilities of an individual occupying that position. In other words, a role outlines the particular duties, conduct, attitudes and standards considered appropriate or mandatory for a person, based on their status or function in a societal structure.
Rorschach Inkblot Test: The Rorschach Inkblot Test is a psychological examination involving ten specific inkblots, developed by Hermann Rorschach, intended to understand a person’s underlying emotions and perceptions through their interpretations of these abstract images.
Expanded Definition
The Rorschach Inkblot Test, named after its creator Hermann Rorschach, is a common method within the realm of projective psychological testing. The test consists of ten distinct, symmetric inkblot patterns, and is utilized by trained professionals to gain a nuanced understanding of an individual’s subconscious emotions, thoughts, and perspectives. By observing and analyzing the individual interpretations an examinee makes about each inkblot, the examiner can form hypotheses about the person’s cognitive structures and psychological functioning. Although its precise interpretations are often subject to professional debate, the Rorschach Inkblot Test is nevertheless a widely adopted tool in clinical and forensic psychology.

S

Saccades: ‘Saccades’ are rapid, minute eye movements occurring constantly each minute.
Expanded Definition
“Saccades” refers to the rapid, miniature eye motions carried out multiple times per minute. These are voluntary or involuntary shifts in ocular activity, occurring several thousand times per hour, enabling your visual system to efficiently scan your environment. They are integral components of your eye’s mobility, helping to redirect the line of sight to novel areas of interest. Saccades play a pivotal role in visual perception, predominating in tasks such as reading or complex visual search, by swiftly and accurately repositioning the gaze to the most information-rich parts of the visual field.
Safety Ratio: The ‘Safety Ratio’ is a calculation used to gauge the potential danger of recreational drugs, deriving from the lethal dosage divided by the effective dosage.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘Safety Ratio’ is defined in the context of pharmacology and drug misuse as a quantitative methodology employed to measure the potential risk level of a recreational drug. It is calculated by dividing the dosage that could potentially cause a fatal outcome by the standard or typical dosage that generates the desired psychoactive effects in the user. This ratio can provide a valuable measurement of a drug’s relative safety or danger, indicating how closely the typical effective dose of a substance approaches potentially lethal levels. Higher ratios indicate a wider margin of safety, while lower ratios suggest greater risk.
Sample: A ‘Sample’ refers to the selected individuals involved in a study or research.
Expanded Definition
A ‘sample’ is defined as a specifically selected subset of individuals, entities or observations from a broader population, chosen based on certain parameters or at random, who are identified to participate in a research study. The aim is to gather data from this sample that is representative and can be extrapolated to make inferences about the overall population. The method of selection and size of the sample often vary based on the research design, purpose and parameters of the study.
Sample Size: ‘Sample size’ refers to the number of individuals included in a study, the scale of which influences the reliability and extrapolation of research outcomes.
Expanded Definition
“Sample Size” refers to the count of individual units or subjects (such as people, animals, or things) chosen for participation in a particular research study or experimental analysis. It is of significant importance in creating a robust research study. The size of the sample impacts the degree of confidence researchers can have in the precision of their findings and the extent to which those findings can be extrapolated or generalized to a larger population. A larger sample size tends to increase the likelihood of obtaining results that are representative of the population, therefore reducing the margin of error and enhancing the study’s validity. However, practical considerations such as time, cost, and logistics often limit the sample size researchers can select. Thus, determining an appropriate sample size is a critical step in the design of reliable and valid research.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis is a linguistic theory suggesting that an individual’s language shapes their cognitive processes and worldview.
Expanded Definition
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, named after linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, proposes a profound connectivity between the language one speaks and their cognitive processes or worldview; it suggests that one’s linguistic environment essentially shapes the way they perceive and understand the world. This theory is commonly understood in two versions: linguistic determinism, which suggests the language we use fully determines our cognitive patterns, and linguistic relativity, a milder form arguing that language merely influences thought. According to this hypothesis, each language, through its unique grammatical structures and lexicon, has a distinctive impact on its speakers’ cognitive functions, potentially leading to different cultural and individual cognitions.
Satiation: ‘Satiation’ is the process where feelings of hunger diminish, leading to the cessation of eating.
Expanded Definition
‘Satiation’ is a term predominantly used in the field of nutrition and eating behavior, referring to the process through which an individual’s sense of hunger diminishes and ultimately leads to the cessation of eating. This occurs as a response to the intake of food, where the body recognizes that a sufficient quantity of nutrients has been consumed, leading to feelings of fullness or satisfaction. This physiological response is integral to the body’s ability to regulate and maintain a balance in its energy needs. The state of satiation acts as a key controlling factor that assists in preventing overeating and maintaining optimal health.
Savant Syndrome: Savant Syndrome is a disorder where a person, despite significant mental disabilities, exhibits extraordinary talents in specific areas such as math or art.
Expanded Definition
‘Savant Syndrome’ is a unique and complex neurological condition where an individual, despite having significant mental disabilities, possesses extraordinary abilities or skills in a specific area. These skills often starkly contrast the individual’s overall functioning level and cognitive abilities. The areas of expertise can be in fields like mathematics, where they may demonstrate extraordinary computation skills, in art, showing impressive drawing or painting skills, or in music, showing unusual talent in playing an instrument or perfect pitch recognition. The syndrome offers crucial insights into brain functioning, cognitive abilities, and the potential inherent in all individuals.
Scapegoat Theory: ‘Scapegoat Theory’ suggests that prejudice serves as a tool for redirecting anger towards a blameable individual or group. It offers a means to vent frustration by assigning fault.
Expanded Definition
‘Scapegoat Theory’ refers to a sociopsychological concept which posits that individuals or groups may transfer their personal frustrations, failures, or societal grievances onto another person or group, attributing to them undeserved blame. This displacement of blame provides an emotional release and offers a simplistic explanation for complex problems. This process often instigates prejudice and develops into systematic discrimination against the targeted person or group. This theory is instrumental in understanding the formation of societal bias and intergroup conflicts over time.
Scatter Plot: A scatter plot is a graphical representation used to depict the correlation between two quantitative variables, thereby illuminating their potential relationship.
Expanded Definition
A scatter plot, also referred to as a scatter graph or scatter diagram, is a graphical representation that displays the correlation or relationship between two numerical variables or sets of data. Each point on the plot corresponds to an observation in the data set and its position on the X (horizontal) and Y (vertical) axis represents its values for the two variables being compared. Scatter plots make it intuitive to perceive patterns, trends, and possible outliers in the data. It’s commonly used in statistical analysis to discern the strength and direction of potential relationships or correlations between variables.
Schema: A schema is a cognitive framework or concept that helps individuals organize and interpret information, essentially serving as a mental blueprint for understanding various aspects of the world.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Schema’ can be expertly defined as ‘A cognitive framework or concept that helps individuals organize and interpret information. This mental blueprint serves as an intellectual structure to comprehend and categorize the different elements we encounter in our daily experiences. It simplifies the vast complexity of our world into more manageable and understandable units. This dynamic mental structure continuously adapts and evolves based on new experiences and information, aiding in cognitive efficiency and predictive abilities.’
Schemas (also known as Schematas): Schemas, or schematas, are cognitive frameworks or templates formed from long-term memory, helping to process, organize and respond to recurrent patterns of objects or events efficiently.
Expanded Definition
“Schemas, sometimes also referred to as Schematas, can be defined as cognitive frameworks or blueprints developed from extensive experiences with a certain set of objects or occurrences. These conceptual structures facilitate understanding and prediction by providing a consistent template for organizing, processing, retaining, and interpreting new and existing information in long-term memory. Essentially, schemas serve as mental shortcuts or cognitive maps that guide our thoughts and actions aligned with prior knowledge, thus enhancing our interaction with the complex world around us.”
Schizophrenia: Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder characterized by an individual’s disrupted perception of reality, evidenced by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and deteriorated social and adaptive functioning.
Expanded Definition
Schizophrenia is a complex chronic mental health disorder, typically severe, that profoundly affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. Characterized by a disconnection from reality, individuals with schizophrenia may experience delusions, which are false yet strongly held beliefs, and hallucinations, where they perceive things that do not exist in the world around them. This loss of contact with reality is often accompanied by an inappropriate affect, indicating emotional responses that are out of context for the situation. Speech can become disorganized, making it difficult for others to understand their thoughts. The individual might also exhibit social withdrawal, preferring to keep to oneself and avoiding social interactions. It further involves a deterioration of adaptive behavior, implying that everyday tasks and self-care might become challenging to manage. This multifaceted disorder can have a significant impact on the individual’s life, but with appropriate treatment and management, symptoms can be mitigated.
School of Functionalism: The School of Functionalism in psychology seeks to explain the evolutionary significance and purpose behind the psychological traits observed in humans and animals. It delves into how these traits help in survival, adaptation, and overall function of a species.
Expanded Definition
The ‘School of Functionalism’ pertains to a prominent perspective in the field of psychology which posits that all mental processes have a particular function. Its underlying objective is to explore and comprehend the reasons why animals and humans have manifested certain distinctive psychological characteristics and behaviors in their evolutionary course. The primary focus of this school is not merely on the internal mental processes themselves, but more importantly, on their adaptive and survival value in relation to an individual’s interaction with the external environment.
Scientific Management: Scientific Management is a theory emphasizing efficiency and productivity in the workplace through systematic observations and analysis.
Expanded Definition
‘Scientific Management’ can be comprehensively defined as a systematic method of productivity enhancement derived from rigorous, empirical research and application of scientific principles in the workplace. This approach seeks to systematically increase efficiency and effectiveness by dissecting each action in a task, analyzing it exhaustively, and determining the best way to perform it. This involves comprehensive workforce training, standardization of methods and procedures, measured time management, and the establishment of suitable compensation systems based on performance. By emphasizing methodical scrutiny, consistent optimization of processes, and rightful compensation for outputs, scientific management plays a significant role in improving overall organizational productivity.
Scientific Method: The scientific method refers to the standardized steps and principles guiding evidence-based research in science. It ensures systematic, empirical investigation to validate or refute hypotheses.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Scientific Method’ is defined as the systematic, rigorous approach utilized by researchers in the scientific community to investigate phenomena, acquire new knowledge, or correct and integrate existing knowledge. It hinges on the foundation of empirical evidence, observation, and testing, which need to adhere to a set protocol. This protocol consists of well-defined steps and principles, ensuring the research is objective, logical, and impartial. The process typically commences with posing a question, followed by conducting background research, constructing a hypothesis, testing through experimentation, analyzing data, forming a conclusion, and communicating the findings. The method consistently emphasizes falsifiability and reproducibility to maintain the credibility of the scientific research.
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD): Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) is a form of depression that typically occurs during darker winter months, alleviated often by bright light therapy.
Expanded Definition
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) is a type of depressive disorder that manifests cyclically, often intensifying during the winter months when daylight hours are shorter. This disorder is characterized by emotional distress and mood disturbances correlating with seasonal patterns, where symptoms diminish during the sunnier seasons. It’s been noted that exposure to bright lights, particularly light therapy with specialized lamps that mimic natural outdoor light, can alleviate these symptoms, underpinning the vital role of natural light in human psychological well-being.
Secondary Appraisal: Secondary appraisal is an individual’s assessment of the abilities or tools they have to manage perceived threats. It’s essentially a personal estimation of one’s coping strategies or resources in response to potential threats.
Expanded Definition
‘Secondary Appraisal’ refers to the cognitive process wherein an individual assesses the resources, skills, and coping strategies available to them to deal with potential or existing threats or stressors. It involves the individual’s judgment about their ability to control or manage the situation effectively in the context of potentially harmful, challenging, or stressful life events. This concept is from the field of psychology and forms an integral part of the stress and coping theory.
Secondary Sex Characteristics: Secondary sex characteristics are physical traits, not related to reproduction, that differentiate males and females. They become noticeable during puberty and are typically categories like body hair, voice pitch, and body shape.
Expanded Definition
‘Secondary Sex Characteristics’ are phenotypic traits that differentiate males from females within a species but do not have a direct role in the reproductive process. These characteristics, which are unrelated to the sex organs, typically emerge during puberty contributing to the physical distinction between the sexes. For humans, examples include the development of facial hair, deepening of the voice, and broadening of shoulders in males, and the development of breasts, widening of hips, and onset of menstruation in females.
Secure Attachment Style: ‘Secure Attachment Style’ refers to a child’s confident exploration and socialization behavior, visible when their mother is nearby, showcasing their trust and reliance on her presence.
Expanded Definition
‘Secure Attachment Style’ is a psychological term primarily used within the study of child development. It refers to a specific pattern of behavior observed in children, typically during their formative years. In a secure attachment style, the child feels confident to explore their surroundings and engage with unfamiliar individuals when their primary caregiver (for instance, the mother) is present. This is because the child feels a strong sense of trust and safety, knowing that their caregiver is nearby and accessible. This style of attachment indicates a healthy and robust emotional bond between the child and the caregiver, which often contributes to positive behavioral, emotional, and social development as the child grows.
Secure Base: A secure base is a reference point of safety and security provided predominantly for offspring in primates, creating an environment of comfort and protection.
Expanded Definition
‘Secure Base’ is a psychological concept originating from the attachment theory, often observed in the behavioral relationship between infants and their primary caregivers. It refers to the sense of safety and security provided by a caregiver, allowing the individual, not limited to monkeys and human babies, to confidently explore their environment with the assurance that they can return for comfort and protection when needed. This secure base significantly contributes to the development of a well-adjusted emotional and psychological state in later stages of life.
Selective Attention: Selective attention is the cognitive capacity to prioritize specific elements for processing, while disregarding extraneous distractions.
Expanded Definition
Selective Attention refers to the cognitive capacity that allows an individual to focus and engage fully with specific elements present in their environment, while concurrently ignoring or dismissing other stimuli that might be deemed irrelevant or distracting. This mental process enables individuals to allocate their mental resources on the most pertinent information, rather than being overwhelmed by the multitude of sensory data they encounter on a daily basis. As such, selective attention functions as a critical tool for information processing and effective navigation of the world around us.
Selective Forgetting: Selective forgetting is the deliberate discarding of certain thoughts or ideas that hinder problem-solving. It fosters focus on beneficial information by removing cognitive clutter.
Expanded Definition
‘Selective Forgetting’ is a cognitive process referring to the deliberate or intentional elimination of specific details, thoughts, or notions that potentially obstruct the process of problem-solving. This concept plays a critical role in decision-making, allowing the mind to focus on pertinent information and discard insignificant or distracting elements. It streamlines cognitive capacity towards generating constructive solutions and improving cognitive efficiency. Crucially, selective forgetting has implications in psychological and cognitive studies, given its significance in managing information overload and contributing to a more logical and efficient decision-making process.
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs): SSRIs are commonly prescribed antidepressants that increase serotonin levels in the central nervous system by inhibiting its reabsorption in the brain’s synapses.
Expanded Definition
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) form a class of medications primarily used in the treatment of depression and anxiety disorders. They work by specifically targeting and inhibiting the reuptake process of serotonin, a neurotransmitter, in the brain’s synapses. This inhibition allows more serotonin to remain available in the central nervous system, thereby helping to regulate mood, because serotonin imbalance is commonly associated with depressive symptoms. SSRIs are currently the most widely prescribed antidepressants due to their relative safety and lower side-effect profile compared to older generation antidepressants.
Self: ‘Self’ refers to the all-encompassing representation of one’s individuality and personality. It signifies the complete spectrum of an individual’s character traits, attitudes and beliefs.
Expanded Definition
The concept of ‘Self’ refers to a comprehensive archetype or ideal model that epitomizes the entirety of an individual’s personality. This includes one’s traits, behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, and individual experiences. It signifies a holistic view of how a person perceives themselves, incorporating both their conscious and subconscious identities. As such, it’s not just a mere representation of the external persona visible to others, but also the internal facets that influence one’s thoughts, emotions, and actions. In essence, ‘Self’ serves as a multidimensional construct embracing the full spectrum of personal identity.
Self-Actualization: Self-actualization is the ultimate psychological goal in Maslow’s hierarchy, arising after meeting basic needs and attaining self-esteem; it represents an individual’s drive to realize their full potential.
Expanded Definition
Self-Actualization, as defined by psychologist Abraham Maslow, represents the pinnacle of an individual’s psychological development, forming the ultimate motivation to achieve one’s fullest potential. This concept is deeply rooted in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, a model which proposes a progression of human needs starting from the most basic, such as physiological and safety needs, through to psychological ones, including belongingness and esteem needs. Only when these fundamental thresholds are met, can a person start their journey towards self-actualization. This state denotes a deeply personal, internal process of growth and fulfilment, marked by an authentic expression of self, a sense of self-fulfilment, and the realization of personal capabilities and potentialities. Essentially, it’s an active pursuit of personal excellence and self-improvement, offering a profound understanding of one’s purpose in life.
Self-Actualize: ‘Self-actualize’ refers to the process of realizing and fulfilling one’s maximum potential and capabilities. It’s the ultimate stage of personal growth and self-development.
Expanded Definition
‘Self-Actualization’ refers to the holistic process of an individual achieving their highest possible level of emotional, psychological, and personal growth. It is an ongoing journey toward understanding and realizing one’s distinct capabilities, interests, values, and talents. Deeply rooted in humanistic psychology, self-actualization forms the pinnacle of Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. It underscores the importance of self-fulfillment, gaining wisdom, self-awareness, personal autonomy, and the ability to form authentic and meaningful relationships, as vital elements in enhancing one’s sense of satisfaction and overall well-being.
Self-Categorization Theory: ‘Self-Categorization Theory’ refers to the psychological process by which individuals classify themselves and others into in-groups or out-groups, exhibiting preferential treatment towards members of their own group while often disregarding those in other categories.
Expanded Definition
‘Self-Categorization Theory’ is a psychological concept that elucidates how individuals classify themselves and others into distinct social groups. This theory suggests that people inherently classify themselves into groups based on shared characteristics or similarities, a process known as ‘in-group identification’. It also posits that the propensity to form these ‘in-groups’ often results in favoritism towards those who fall into the same category. Contrastingly, those who don’t possess the same attributes or fall into different categories, often referred to as ‘the out-group’, may consequently experience bias or unfavorable treatment. This theory provides significant insights into social identity, prejudice, and group behavior.
Self-Concept: ‘Self-concept’ refers to our own understanding and perception of ourselves, encompassing our thoughts, feelings, and knowledge about our personal attributes and capabilities.
Expanded Definition
‘Self-Concept’ is a term that refers to an individual’s comprehensive understanding, belief, and perception about themselves. This multifaceted psychological construct embodies one’s conscious and cognitive appraisal of their own identity, abilities, traits, behavior, beliefs, and values. It is the mental blueprint or intellectual model that we use to frame our sense of selfhood. This self-schema serves as a reference point for interpreting our experiences and guiding our actions, thus having a significant impact on our feelings, thoughts, motives, and behavior. In essence, it is the representation of who we believe we are and how we perceive ourselves in relation to the world.
Self-Construal: Self-construal is the individual’s understanding of their relationship and interaction with others. It’s essentially how one perceives their own role in a social context.
Expanded Definition
‘Self-construal’ is a psychological term that refers to individuals’ perception and interpretation of their own roles, traits, and behaviors within their societal or relational context. This concept encapsulates how individuals understand their own identity in relation to others and the world around them. It essentially describes the extent to which individuals see themselves as interdependent and connected with other people or as independent and distinct. It is a subjective construct that might be influenced by a multitude of factors including culture, social experiences, and personal values. This interpretation significantly influences individuals’ cognition, emotion, motivation, and behavior.
Self-Control: Self-control is the ability to manage one’s impulses, emotions, and actions, thereby resisting temptations to safeguard significant objectives.
Expanded Definition
Self-control is defined as the ability to regulate one’s emotions, cravings, actions, and instinctive urges. It is the capacity to choose how and when to express certain feelings or act on particular desires, often involving the decision to abstain from immediate satisfaction or impulsive behaviors. This self-regulation aids in resisting temptation or destructive tendencies to uphold deeply valued objectives or societal norms. Self-control is a critical skill that facilitates goal setting, ethical decision-making, and personal or professional growth.
Self-Disclosure: Self-disclosure is the act of sharing personal, intimate details about oneself with others. It is often used as a means of fostering deeper connection or understanding between individuals.
Expanded Definition
Self-disclosure pertains to the act of purposefully unveiling one’s personal thoughts, feelings, and experiences to another individual. This concept is an integral part of relationship building, interpersonal communication, and psychotherapy, where an individual welcomes vulnerability and forms a deeper connection with others through the sharing of personal narratives, emotions, and aspects that are often kept private. The degree, timing, and appropriateness of self-disclosure may vary according to cultural norms and personal preferences, with implications on trust, empathy, and mutual understanding.
Self-Efficacy: Self-efficacy is an individual’s confidence in their capabilities to successfully achieve specific objectives or tasks.
Expanded Definition
Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s intrinsic belief in their personal capability to successfully execute the necessary behaviors and actions to attain specific outcomes. It is one’s internal confidence in their competence to influence events affecting their lives. This psychological construct involves the conviction that one’s actions can make a significant difference in certain life situations, enabling them to navigate various challenges efficiently and effectively. Self-efficacy is a key component in cognitive theory and contributes significantly to one’s motivation, task engagement, and perseverance.
Self-Enhancement Bias: Self-enhancement bias is the psychological tendency of individuals to emphasize their positive traits while downplaying or ignoring their negative attributes.
Expanded Definition
‘Self-Enhancement Bias’ is a psychological tendency where individuals prioritise and emphasize their positive attributes while concurrently minimising or disregarding their less favourable traits. The motivation for this action is rooted in the human need to maintain a positive self-view, improve self-esteem, and reinforce an overall positive image to oneself and others. This inherent bias might not portray an accurate representation of reality, as it often leads to distorted self-perceptions that lean towards seeing oneself in an overly favorable light.
Self-Esteem: Self-esteem refers to an individual’s personal judgment of their own worthiness or value, typically manifesting as either positive or negative attitudes about oneself.
Expanded Definition
Self-esteem refers to an individual’s subjective appraisal or perception of their own worth or value. It is a core concept linked to one’s self-identity, embodying the overall assessment a person makes about their abilities, skills, personal characteristics, and achievements. Self-esteem can range along a continuum from high to low; high self-esteem suggests a generally favorable self-assessment, often associated with confidence and self-assuredness, while low self-esteem indicates a more negative perception of one’s self, often linked to feelings of inadequacy, self-doubt, and decreased satisfaction in life. This complex psychological construct plays a significant role in mental health, motivation, and interpersonal relationships.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A self-fulfilling prophecy is a belief or expectation that influences behaviors to manifest that belief into reality.
Expanded Definition
A Self-Fulfilling Prophecy is a psychological concept wherein an individual, based on their ingrained beliefs or expectations, behaves in a manner that unwittingly influences situations or conditions to evolve in a way that confirms those underlying expectations. It is based on the principle that perception, regardless of its accuracy, can affect reality and the course of events. Essentially, our anticipations steer our actions, consciously or unconsciously, creating an environment conducive to the materialization of those very expectations.
Self-Help Group: A Self-Help Group is a voluntary organization of individuals collaboratively working to overcome mental health issues or boost their overall well-being.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Self-Help Group’ is defined as a voluntary and autonomous collective of individuals who have come together with a shared aspiration to address and overcome a psychological condition or to enhance their overall well-being. Members reciprocate by providing mutual support, exchanging experiences, and facilitating improvement through collective learning, which can greatly complement professional therapy. Such groups foster a sense of empowerment and control as members aim to resolve their common issues, demonstrating the power of shared understanding and collaborative effort.
Self-Regulation: Self-regulation is the adjustment of one’s own thoughts, emotions, and behaviors to achieve a specific objective.
Expanded Definition
Self-regulation is a multifaceted psychological construct that refers to the self-directed process individuals employ to adjust their mental states, emotions, and behaviors with the ultimate aim of achieving specific objectives. It involves attentive, purposeful management of one’s thoughts and feelings, as well as strategic adjustment of actions, based on self-awareness and self-monitoring. The principle is to regulate and control one’s own functioning, remaining adaptive to changing conditions or circumstances, in pursuit of a pre-determined goal. It is a key component in various areas such as learning, emotional control, health habits, and interpersonal behaviors.
Self-Report Assessment: Self-Report Assessment is a tool for evaluating an individual’s perceived emotional intelligence, including their personality traits and other distinctive attributes. It’s often used within mixed and trait models of emotional intelligence.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Self-Report Assessment’ is an evaluative instrument primarily associated with mixed and trait-based models of emotional intelligence. This method requires the individual taking the test to provide self-perceived evaluations of various aspects, such as their ability to handle emotions, unique personality traits, and other individual attributes. This personal introspection approach enables the understanding and measurement of subjective, qualitative aspects of an individual’s emotional intelligence. Essentially, it captures one’s self-view on personal strengths and deficiencies, offering insights that may not necessarily be evident through other objective testing methods.
Self-Serving Bias: Self-serving bias is the tendency to interpret events or decisions in a way that favors oneself or attributes personal success to our own abilities, irrespective of actual circumstances.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘Self-Serving Bias’ refers to a common cognitive tendency that guides our perceptions, attributions, and behaviors towards self-promoting and protective ends. Essentially, it is the human propensity to attribute our successes to personal skill, effort, or inherent qualities, while attributing failures to external factors beyond our control. This cognitive bias exists to maintain or enhance our self-esteem or protect our psychological wellbeing. Thus, it can hamper personal growth as it distorts reality, preventing us from learning from our mistakes or acknowledging our weaknesses.
Semantic Encoding: Semantic encoding is the process of converting information, including word meanings, into memory storage based on its semantic value or conceptual significance.
Expanded Definition
Semantic Encoding refers to the process of encoding sensory input that has particular meaning or can be applied to a particular context, rather than merely encoding a sensory input’s physical qualities. This type of encoding often involves the use of ‘semantic cues’ such as sense, context, or emotion. Semantic encoding is often referenced within the field of psychology, particularly in memory research, and it specifically refers to the way in which the brain and memory system store information by translating it into a code that carries significant meaning, such as understanding the definition or implications of a word, rather than simply its sound or visual appearance. This allows for a deeper level of information processing and contributes to the enhancement of memory recall.
Semantic Memory: Semantic memory is the long-term cognitive storage of factual information and concepts, representing our understanding of the world around us.
Expanded Definition
‘Semantic Memory’ refers to one of the primary components of our long-term memory that is principally responsible for the storage and retrieval of generalized knowledge about the world. This includes facts, concepts, ideas, or meanings regardless of the time and context of acquisition. It encompasses our understanding of objects, words, numbers, symbols, or indeed, anything that allows us to make sense of the world around us. Unlike episodic memory, which is our memory of personal experiences and specific events, semantic memory deals with abstract, impersonal knowledge. The information stored in semantic memory is considered more or less permanent, forming an integral part of our comprehensive knowledge base.
Semantics: Semantics is the linguistic study that investigates the meaning conveyed by words, phrases, and sentences within a particular language. It establishes the rules for deriving and interpreting these meanings.
Expanded Definition
‘Semantics’ is a core concept in linguistics that refers to the framework guiding how we extract and interpret meaning from word units, sentences, and overall discourse within a specific language. It delves into the nuanced relationship between signifiers – like words, phrases, and signs – and what they signify – their denoted meanings or concepts. At its essence, semantics is the scientific study and theoretical exploration of how human language creates meaning, making it essential to communication, language development, and intercultural understanding.
Sensation: ‘Sensation’ is the perception generated by our sense organs when they are stimulated, like feeling heat from a fire or tasting sweet food.
Expanded Definition
‘Sensation’ is defined as the process through which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive stimuli from the environment. This process involves the activation of our sensory organs such as the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin through various external stimuli like light, sound, smell, taste, and touch respectively. These activated sensory organs then transmit signals to the brain, leading to immediate awareness or perception of the stimuli. Consequently, sensation serves as a fundamental step in transforming external stimuli into embodied consciousness.
Sense of Coherence: The Sense of Coherence is the enduring confidence someone has in understanding their environment as structured and predictable, believing they have the resources to respond to its demands, and seeing these demands as worthy challenges deserving effort and engagement.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Sense of Coherence’ is a psychological concept that encapsulates an individual’s overall worldview and understanding of their life experiences. It encapsulates one’s ability to see the world as predictable, structured, and explainable and one’s confidence in possessing or being able to attain the resources needed to manage the demands and challenges presented by life. It’s an enduring but dynamic psychological state, meaning it’s relatively stable but may vary with changing circumstances. A person with a strong ‘Sense of Coherence’ perceives life’s challenges as opportunities for growth and actively engages with them, rather than seeing them as threats or obstacles. This concept is significant in understanding resilience and coping mechanisms in psychology.
Sensing Function: The sensing function refers to a cognitive function that focuses on receiving real-time, detailed, and concrete information predominantly through physical senses and body-oriented experiences.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘Sensing Function’ refers to a cognitive aspect that is focused on perceiving the world through immediate, tangible, and concrete experiences that are garnered through our physical senses. It involves a detailed and realistic interpretation of the present environment, oriented towards gathering data from what can be seen, heard, touched, tasted, or smelled. In essence, ‘Sensing Function’ is about grounding cognitive processes in the realistic and verifiable sensory information that the body receives from its surroundings in the present moment. This involves a keen understanding and reception of details, as well as a predilection for factual, observable data.
Sensitivity: Sensitivity refers to the accurate ability of a person to identify the presence or absence of specific signals.
Expanded Definition
‘Sensitivity’, in a broad context, refers to the accurate capability of an individual or a system to discern or recognize the presence or absence of specific signals. This concept is usually applied in numerous fields such as psychology, science, engineering, and more. In these contexts, sensitivity can relate to the detection of changes in environmental stimuli, recognizing minute variations in scientific measurements, or accurately responding to electronic signals in a technological device. Therefore, a high sensitivity implies a strong ability to pick up on subtle signals or changes, whereas low sensitivity suggests a lesser capability to do so. The degree of sensitivity can significantly affect the accuracy and efficiency of an individual’s perception or a system’s function.
Sensitization: Sensitization is the process where a repeated exposure to a stimulus intensifies one’s response to it. It’s akin to becoming more alert or sensitive to stimuli with subsequent interactions.
Expanded Definition
‘Sensitization’ is a psychological term that describes the process in which an individual’s behavioral or physiological response to a particular stimulus intensifies upon repeated or increased exposure. This escalation of response typically occurs when the stimulus is perceived as being significant or threatening. As a result, sensitization serves as an adaptive function, helping an individual to be alert and prepared to react more efficiently with each subsequent exposure to the relevant stimulus. This concept can frequently be found in contexts such as learning processes, addiction research, and trauma and stress-related disorders.
Sensorineural Hearing Loss: Sensorineural hearing loss is a type of hearing impairment resulting from damage or dysfunction in the cochlea or auditory nerve.
Expanded Definition
Sensorineural Hearing Loss (SNHL) is a type of hearing impairment that arises from problems in the inner ear, specifically, the cochlea (the organ responsible for converting sound waves into electrical signals) or the auditory nerve (the pathway that transmits these electrical signals to the brain for interpretation as sound). This condition may result from damage, abnormalities, or malfunctioning of these crucial auditory components, impairing their ability to adequately process sound signals. It is a common cause of diminished hearing capacity and can lead to varying degrees of hearing loss.
Sensorimotor Stage: The Sensorimotor Stage is a developmental phase from birth to two years, characterized by infants’ physical engagement with their environment.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Sensorimotor Stage’ is a term derived from Jean Piaget’s developmental theory, referring to the initial stage of cognitive development that occurs from birth until approximately two years of age. During this critical period, infants and toddlers gather information about their immediate environment predominantly through their sensory perceptions and physical interactions. This hands-on engagement enables them to develop rudimentary yet fundamental cognitive structures such as object permanence and cause-and-effect relationships. This stage is marked by an intense exploration-driven learning process, where the child understands the world entirely through direct experiences and manipulations. These interaction patterns serve as the groundwork for their subsequent developmental stages.
Sensory Adaptation: ‘Sensory adaptation’ is the process where our sensory receptors become less responsive to fixed stimuli over time, reducing our overall sensitivity to it.
Expanded Definition
Sensory Adaptation is a phenomenon experienced by living organisms in which there’s a reduction in responsiveness of sensory receptors to a consistent stimulus over an extended period of time. Essentially, when sensory receptors (which are responsible for allowing us to perceive our surroundings through senses such as sight, touch, smell, taste, and hearing) are exposed to a continuous unchanging stimulus, they gradually become less sensitive or responsive to this stimulus. This process allows the body to conserve resources and pay more attention to changes or new stimuli in the environment which may require a response for survival or well-being.
Sensory Cortex: The Sensory Cortex is a region in the front of the parietal lobes responsible for registering and interpreting tactile and kinesthetic sensations.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Sensory Cortex’, also known as the somatosensory cortex, is a critical region located in the anterior part of the parietal lobes in the brain. This area is primarily responsible for receiving, integrating and processing sensory information from our bodies. This data includes, but is not limited to, tactile stimuli such as touch, pressure, temperature, also proprioceptive sensations such as the perception of body movement and spatial orientation. This complex processing allows us to have a subjective sensory experience and navigate our environment with safety and precision. Therefore, the sensory cortex plays a crucial role in our overall perception and interaction with our surroundings.
Sensory Deprivation: Sensory deprivation is the purposeful minimization of sensory input, potentially altering one’s level of consciousness.
Expanded Definition
‘Sensory Deprivation’ is a term utilized within the scientific field to refer to the structured limitation or full removal of stimuli impacting one or several of an individual’s sensory faculties. This method can be employed in a variety of contexts, and functions by suppressing the normal intake of sensory information such as sound, light or tactile sensations. The reduction of such stimuli inherently disrupts the ordinary functionality of sensory processes, which, in turn, can lead to notable modifications in an individual’s state of consciousness or perception. This process is precisely controlled and monitored due to its profound effects, and has been crucial in deepening our understanding of how the human sensory system operates.
Sensory Interaction: Sensory interaction is the cooperation of multiple senses to generate perceptions. It’s the process of how our senses collaboratively shape our lived experiences.
Expanded Definition
‘Sensory Interaction’ can be expertly defined as ‘the complex interplay and collaboration among various sensory systems within an individual’s body that contribute to the perception and interpretation of the external environment, enhancing the overall sensory experience.’ This process underscores the interconnectedness of our sensory systems and emphasizes the integrative and associative qualities of our senses, which collectively enable us to better comprehend our surroundings and create a comprehensive sensory experience.
Sensory Memory: Sensory memory refers to the ultra-short-term storage of sensory input from our five senses before it’s processed by the brain. It sustains impressions of sensory stimuli for a very brief period after the original stimuli end.
Expanded Definition
‘Sensory Memory’ pertains to the initial stage of memory storage, functioning as a temporary reservoir for an abundance of sensory information perceived through our five senses: sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell. Sensory memory operates in an almost automatic realm, instantaneously processing environmental inputs for less than a second (in the case of iconic memory) to a few seconds (in the case of echoic memory). Despite its fleeting nature, sensory memory allows for continuous recognition of stimuli, aiding in cognitive tasks such as pattern recognition and attention allocation.
Sensory Neuron (or Afferent Neuron): A sensory neuron, also known as an afferent neuron, is a nerve cell responsible for converting external stimuli from the organism’s environment into internal electrical impulses.
Expanded Definition
A Sensory Neuron, also referred to as an Afferent Neuron, is a specialized type of neuron or nerve cell designed to convert specific types of sensory input from the environment into electrical signals. These neurons relay information they obtain from sensory receptors – organs that perceive stimuli like touch, sound, heat, light, and other various environmental factors – and transport these signals to the central nervous system, primarily the brain and the spinal cord. This process is crucial for the body to interpret and react appropriately to the external environment, playing a fundamental role in perception, sensation, and overall human experience.
Serial Position Curve: The Serial Position Curve is a psychological phenomenon where recall is greater for the first and last items in a series, with a dip for those in the middle.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Serial Position Curve’ is a psychological theory that refers to people’s tendency to recall items from a list more effectively if those items were presented at the beginning (primacy effect) or the end (recency effect) of the list, compared to items presented in the middle. In other words, it demonstrates how the position of an item within a series can affect an individual’s ability to recall it, reflecting the influence of both short-term and long-term memory systems. This effect often becomes evident in numerous contexts, from information retention in educational settings to successful marketing strategies.
Set (or Attitude): ‘Set’ or ‘Attitude’ refers to the inherent behavioral tendencies or predispositions observed in animals.
Expanded Definition
‘Set’ or ‘Attitude’, in the context of animal behaviour, refers to the inherent tendencies or predispositions that guide an animal’s actions or reactions in specific situations. These behavioural inclinations can be influenced by a range of factors, including an animal’s genetic makeup, environment, and learned experiences. This concept provides crucial insights into patterns of animal behaviour, helping researchers predict and understand how an animal might respond under given circumstances.
Set Point: A ‘Set Point’ is a predetermined optimal value in a control system to which a variable condition is regulated and stabilized.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘Set Point’ refers to the desired or target level at which a specific system is ideally maintained. This target state is continuously tracked and used as a benchmark against which the actual state of the system is compared. Regular monitoring and adjustments ensure the system’s performance remains consistent with the set point, leading to optimal functioning. This concept is commonly applied in fields such as engineering, biology, and environmental science.
Sex: ‘Sex’ denotes the biological classification of being male or female, distinguished by genetic make-up and reproductive structures and roles.
Expanded Definition
‘Sex’ is a term used to categorize individuals into distinct biological groups – male or female – based on various physiological factors. These factors include their genetic makeup (defined by the presence of XX or XY chromosomes), and differences in their reproductive systems. In males, the reproductive anatomy typically includes structures like testes and the penis, while in females it includes organs such as the ovaries, uterus, and the vagina. The functionality of these systems, including processes like gamete (sperm or egg cell) production and the hormonal influences related to reproduction, are also integral in determining sex. These concrete and biophysical attributes differentiate the term ‘sex’ from ‘gender’, which refers to the social and cultural roles associated with masculinity and femininity.
Sexual Harassment: Sexual harassment refers to unwanted conduct pertaining to sexual behaviors or aesthetics which is unsolicited and often offensive.
Expanded Definition
Sexual Harassment is currently defined as any unwelcome conduct of a sexual nature, which can include but is not limited to, unsolicited remarks, gestures, or physical actions related to a person’s sex, sexual orientation, or overall sexual appearance. Such behavior becomes classified as harassment when it creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive environment, or when it becomes a condition for certain decisions in academic or employment contexts. It’s important to note that the victim defines what is unwelcome, not the behavior of the perpetrator. Sexual harassment is universally deemed unacceptable and is legally prohibited in a majority of societies.
Sexual Orientation: Sexual orientation refers to a person’s emotional and erotic desires directed towards individuals of either different, same, or both genders.
Expanded Definition
Sexual Orientation refers to an individual’s enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and sexual attractions towards people of a specific gender or more, which often forms an important component of their overall identity. It’s not solely about sexual behavior but also includes one’s sense of personal and social identity based on those attractions. The orientation can be towards individuals of the opposite sex (heterosexuality), the same sex (homosexuality), or both sexes (bisexuality). There can also be a lack of sexual attraction or desire for sex, referred to as asexuality. It’s important to note that sexual orientation is distinct from other components of sex and gender, including biological sex, gender identity (the psychological sense of being male or female), and social gender role (the cultural norms that define feminine and masculine behavior).
Sexual Response Cycle: The Sexual Response Cycle refers to the four-stage process of sexual activity identified by Masters and Johnson, encompassing arousal, sustained excitement (plateau), climax (orgasm), and return to unaroused state (resolution).
Expanded Definition
The ‘Sexual Response Cycle’ refers to the sequential pattern of physiological and psychological changes that occur during sexual activities. This concept was originally delineated by sex researchers William Masters and Virginia Johnson and is typically divided into four distinct phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. 1. ‘Excitement’ is the initial phase marked by the onset of sexual arousal, typically involving increased heart rate, blood flow to the genital regions and heightened physical sensitivity. 2. ‘Plateau’ heralds continued elevation of arousal but at a less rapid increase, where physical changes initiated in the excitement stage mature and sensations intensify. 3. ‘Orgasm’ is the peak of the sexual response cycle, a brief climactic phase marked by rhythmic muscle contractions in the pelvic region, intense pleasure, and release of sexual tension. 4. In the ‘Resolution’ phase, the body gradually returns to its original, pre-aroused state. This stage can also feature a sense of relaxation and well-being. These four stages can vary greatly among individuals and depend on a multitude of factors, including but not limited to individual’s sexual health, emotional state, and the nature of the sexual activity.
Sexual Selection: Sexual selection refers to the evolutionary process where organisms develop traits that increase their chances of attracting mates and reproducing.
Expanded Definition
Sexual Selection is a crucial evolutionary concept, referring to a specialized type of natural selection process where particular traits are favored because they increase an organism’s chances of attracting mates and successfully reproducing. These traits, which may not necessarily contribute to an organism’s survival, evolve over successive generations because they provide a significant advantage in terms of mating and procreation, thus enhancing the continuation of these traits within a species’ genetic pool.
Shadow: ‘Shadow’ refers to the aspect of one’s character that is not openly shown, typically regarded as negative or undesirable.
Expanded Definition
A ‘shadow’ in the context of human personality, is a theoretical concept largely attributed to Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, which refers to the unconscious aspects of the individual’s character. These facets are not overtly exhibited in public interactions due to various reasons such as societal pressure or personal inhibition. This can include repressed weaknesses, flaws, instincts or unresolved issues. It is posited that understanding and accepting this ‘shadow’ persona can lead to personal growth and self-acceptance.
Shadowing: Shadowing is the process where a person replicates an auditory message in real-time as it is being uttered.
Expanded Definition
‘Shadowing’ refers to a specialized activity where a person is requested to simultaneously listen to and verbally replicate an auditory message as it is being delivered. This task is typically employed within linguistic or psychological research initiatives to study verbal processing, language acquisition, or auditory comprehension abilities. It requires careful attention, immediate response, and the capacity to articulate what is heard in real-time.
Shaping: ‘Shaping’ is a method within operant conditioning where rewards gradually guide actions to increasingly resemble the target behavior.
Expanded Definition
‘Shaping’ is a strategic method within the field of behavior psychology, specifically within operant conditioning – a learning process where behavior is influenced by rewards or punishments. In this method, positive reinforcement, or reward, is incrementally used to guide and alter an individual’s actions or responses, gradually bringing them nearer to a pre-determined desired behavior. Essentially, it involves reinforcing behaviors that are successively closer to the expected outcome, while neglecting or not reinforcing those behaviors that divert from the defined goal. This step-by-step approach enables complex behaviors to be learned and mastered over time.
Shared Environment: A ‘Shared Environment’ refers to commonalities in twins’ experiences, within a family context, that contribute to their similarity, as evidenced by correlational coefficients for identical and fraternal twins exceeding zero and being closely matched.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Shared Environment’ refers to the common elements or factors in the surroundings of twins (both identical and fraternal) which significantly contribute to their resemblances in behavior, characteristics, or traits. This concept is typically validated through statistical analysis where correlation coefficients for both sets of twins are not only greater than zero, but also display striking similarity. In essence, these similar correlation values signal that both twins are undergoing parallel experiences within their familial setting, producing consistently matching or analogous outcomes. Thus, the ‘Shared Environment’ captures the impactful role of familial surroundings, nurtured experiences, and collective circumstances that contribute to the similarities observed in twins.
Short-term Memory (STM): Short-term memory (STM) refers to the temporary storage of a limited amount of information, typically lasting no more than 60 seconds.
Expanded Definition
Short-term memory (STM) is a cognitive function that serves as a temporary storage system for processing small volumes of information. This memory often lasts between a few seconds to around a minute. Its primary role is to hold information temporarily that is immediately necessary or pertinent for a cognitive task at hand. It acts like a mental scratchpad, allowing individuals to retain and manipulate information for a brief period. However, it has limited capacity–often accommodating about seven items. For the information to progress into long-term memory, it requires reinforcement through processes like repetition or meaningful association.
Sibling Contrast Effect: The ‘Sibling Contrast Effect’ is the propensity of parents to amplify the perceived distinctions between their children’s traits or behaviors.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Sibling Contrast Effect’ refers to a psychological phenomenon wherein parents, consciously or unconsciously, tend to amplify or overemphasize perceived differences between their offspring. This cognitive bias leads them to distinguish their children significantly in aspects such as personality traits, behaviors, abilities, or achievements, often beyond the actual differential degrees existent among them. Notably, this effect provides an interpretive framework to understand familial interactions and dynamics, sibling relationships and identities, and variant parental perceptions and expectations. This term is largely used within the realms of developmental psychology and family studies.
Signal Detection Analysis: Signal Detection Analysis is a method used to assess an observer’s proficiency in distinguishing actual signals amid noisy surroundings.
Expanded Definition
Signal Detection Analysis, in its most comprehensive form, is an advanced statistical method designed to evaluate the capacity of an observer to discern authentic signals amid predominantly disruptive or irrelevant noise. This technique is utilized across various fields such as cognitive psychology, radiology, and communication systems, to name a few. It essentially quantifies how effectively an individual or a system can discern meaningful or intentional signals – meaning messages, data points or any significant information – amidst a spectrum of extraneous or irrelevant stimuli often referred to as background noise.
Silent Language: Silent Language refers to the unspoken cultural norms that govern social interactions, as introduced by Edward Hall. It emphasizes on the implicit cultural rules surrounding social time.
Expanded Definition
‘Silent Language’ is a concept coined by cultural anthropologist Edward Hall, which refers to the implicit cultural norms governing social interactions within a society. These norms, often unspoken or non-verbal, dictate the rhythm, spacing and timing of social activities. They are usually not overtly mentioned or explicated within the community, but are inherently understood and followed. This subconscious understanding of social time deeply impacts our communication, behavior, and interpersonal interactions, demonstrating that culture is not only represented through tangible expressions such as language, art and cuisine, but also through intangible facets including social structure, etiquette and time perception.
Simulation: Simulation is the methodology of emulating another individual’s cognitive condition or mindset.
Expanded Definition
Simulation, in its refined definition, refers to the computational or theoretical act of emulating, recreating, or modeling complex behaviors, scenarios, or systems. While it can include the concept of representing another person’s mental state – often referred to as ’empathic or mental simulation’ in psychology and cognitive science – it’s not solely confined to this domain. Applications of simulation extend to various fields, such as education, engineering, healthcare, and even video games, where different conditions and hypotheses can be tested or perceived experiences can be replicated in a controlled and safe environment. This versatile analytical tool aids in gaining substantial insights without the need for real-world execution and potential risks.
Single-Blind Experiment: A single-blind experiment is a research methodology wherein the study subjects are unaware of which group (control or experimental) they belong to, keeping them uninformed of the specific treatment they are receiving to reduce bias.
Expanded Definition
A Single-Blind Experiment is a methodological approach in research where the participants are unaware or ‘blind’ to the specific category or condition that they have been assigned within the study. This means the participants are ignorant of whether they comprise the control group or the experimental group, or which version of the treatment (if there are multiple versions) they are receiving. The primary objective of a Single-Blind Experiment is to prevent bias due to participants’ knowledge or expectations, thus ensuring that any changes are due to the experimental factors being tested rather than participants’ conscious or unconscious reactions to knowing what kind of treatment they are receiving.
Situation Model: A situation model is a cognitive construct that represents immediate experiences or scenarios, built during the understanding of language-based information.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Situation Model’ is a cognitive construct, developed in the process of understanding a verbal depiction, which symbolically represents an event, object, or circumstance. It’s essentially a mind-created scenario built upon the language-based information one receives. This model enables individuals to contextualize, interpret, and interact with various conceptual situations in more meaningful ways.
Situational Identity: ‘Situational identity’ refers to the concept where an individual’s cultural identities can vary, evolving or shifting based on different social contexts they interact in.
Expanded Definition
‘Situational Identity’ may be defined as ‘the dynamic and adaptive aspect of individual or group cultural identity that can shift or expand in response to varying social circumstances or contexts. It underscores the concept that individuals may harness multiple cultural identities, the prominence of which can fluctuate based on their present social milieu, thus suggesting the fluid nature of cultural identity tied to specific situations or environments.’
Six Senses: ‘Six Senses’ refers to the human abilities to perceive the world through sight, sound, smell, touch, taste, and proprioception (awareness of body positions).
Expanded Definition
‘Six Senses’ refers to the comprehensive set of human perceptual abilities, which includes vision (seeing), auditory (hearing), olfactory (smelling), tactile (touching), and gustatory (tasting) senses. These are traditionally recognized five senses that facilitate interaction with the environment. The sixth sense, proprioception, involves the body’s keen awareness of its own position, motion, and equilibrium. This complex sensory system, colloquially known as the body’s ‘sense of space,’ is critical in coordinating movement and maintaining balance. Each of these senses, working individually or in combination, enables humans to perceive, understand, and navigate the world around them.
Skinner Box: A Skinner Box is an experimental apparatus used for studying animal behavior by conditioning their responses to different stimuli. It’s commonly utilized with test subjects like rats or pigeons.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘Skinner Box’, named after its inventor B.F. Skinner, refers to a highly controlled, experimental setup used primarily in the field of behavioral psychology. This apparatus is designed to study, measure, and shape the behavior of organisms, particularly rats and pigeons, though it can be used with other species as well. In this enclosed environment, an organism’s responses to certain stimuli (like levers or buttons) can be accurately observed and recorded. Typically, these responses involve interactions with elements of the environment, which either reward or penalize the organism, facilitating a process known as operant conditioning. The Skinner Box hence serves as a key tool to understand the principles of learning and behavior modification.
Sleep: Sleep is a reoccurring state characterized by natural, temporary loss of consciousness, not associated with conditions like coma, anesthesia, or hibernation.
Expanded Definition
‘Sleep’ can be expertly defined as a recurring, natural state of rest that is characterized by a temporary loss of awareness and responsiveness to the environment, distinguishable from other types of unconsciousness such as being in a coma, under general anesthesia, or in a state of hibernation. It’s a crucial physiological state, critical for optimal health and functioning of the mind and body, involving complex neurobiological processes and cycles.
Sleep Apnea: Sleep apnea is a condition where breathing repeatedly stops and starts, for at least 10 seconds, while sleeping.
Expanded Definition
Sleep apnea is a chronic sleep disorder that is medically recognized by the temporary interruption or complete cessation of breathing for at least 10 seconds while an individual is asleep. These temporary breathing pauses – often characterized by loud snoring or choking sounds – can occur multiple times per hour and may lead to lowered oxygen levels in the body. The most common type is obstructive sleep apnea, caused by a physical blockage in the airway, typically when the soft tissue at the back of the throat collapses during sleep. If left untreated, sleep apnea can lead to a variety of health complications including excessive daytime sleepiness, high blood pressure, and an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. It’s a serious medical condition that requires diagnosis, monitoring, and intervention, ideally under the guidance of healthcare professionals.
Sleep Spindles: Sleep spindles are short, sudden bursts of high-frequency brain activity observed during the N2 stage of sleep, characterized by theta waves.
Expanded Definition
‘Sleep Spindles’ are a specific type of brainwave pattern characterized by short bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain activity. This pattern typically appears during the second stage of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, also known as stage N2 sleep. These brainwaves, distinguished from the slower theta waves, are believed to play key roles in sleep-related functions such as memory consolidation and protection of sleep from external disruptions. As the term ‘spindle’ suggests, the brainwave pattern visually resembles a sewing spindle in its sudden increase and subsequent decrease in frequency.
Sleep Terrors: Sleep Terrors is a sleep disorder, common in kids, characterized by extreme panic typically accompanied by loud screams during sleep.
Expanded Definition
‘Sleep Terrors’, also known as ‘night terrors’, constitute a disruptive sleep disorder characteristically observed predominantly among children, although it can occur at any age. This condition involves intense episodes of extreme fear that provoke behaviors such as loud screaming, flailing, and symptoms comparable to panic attacks. These episodes often induce a state of distress that can deeply disrupt sleep quality and patterns, leaving the affected individual with limited recollection of the event upon awakening. It’s important to note that sleep terrors differ from nightmares, as nightmares usually occur during REM sleep and are typically remembered, while sleep terrors occur during deep non-REM sleep and are rarely remembered.
Sleeper Effect: The Sleeper Effect is a phenomenon where an individual’s perspective evolves over time due to a gradual disassociation from the original information source.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Sleeper Effect’ is professionally defined as a psychological phenomenon where an individual’s attitude or belief changes over a gradual duration of time due to their inability to recollect the original source of the information. This usually happens when the source is initially perceived as unreliable or non-credible, but as one loses memory of the source, the information itself becomes more persuasive. Despite the dubious origins, the message gains credibility in the mind of the individual, leading to potential changes in attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors over time.
Slow Wave Sleep: Slow Wave Sleep, or stage N3, represents the period of deepest sleep marked by a significant presence of slow, delta waves.
Expanded Definition
‘Slow Wave Sleep’, often abbreviated as SWS and also known as Stage N3, represents the most profound stage of sleep within the spectrum of sleep phases. This stage is of immense significance due to its function as the period of maximal bodily recovery and revitalization. It is predominantly characterized by a prevalence of delta waves, representing the lowest frequency and highest amplitude brain waves detectable by an electroencephalogram (EEG). These low-frequency delta waves are the defining metric for Slow Wave Sleep, which underscores the distinctiveness of this sleep stage. This stage is instrumental in a variety of restorative processes including bodily growth and repair, bolstering the immune system, and facilitating memory consolidation, making this the most rejuvenative part of the sleep cycle.
Social and Cultural: ‘Social and Cultural’ refers to how emotions contribute to the stability and cohesion of societal interactions and cultural norms. It’s essentially the emotional framework guiding societal behaviors and cultural traditions.
Expanded Definition
‘Social and Cultural’ pertains to the concept of Emotion Regulation: This refers to the examination of how emotions, as complex psychological and physiological reactions, contribute significantly to the preservation and continuity of societal structures and cultural norms. These emotional functions are instrumental in shaping individual behaviors and interpersonal interactions, thereby maintaining social order and cohesion in a community or society. This concept underscores the profound influence of emotions on social dynamics and cultural practices, highlighting the intricate interplay between human emotional responses and the societal structures they inhabit.
Social and Emotional Learning (SEL): Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) is the use of emotional intelligence within an educational context, involving methodologies that foster self-awareness, responsible decision making, and management of personal and interpersonal behaviors.
Expanded Definition
Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) is a crucial element of education that prioritizes the development of emotional intelligence. In practical terms, this refers to the implementation of specific teaching programs within an educational environment to facilitate and cultivate the student’s ability to understand their own emotions, as well as those of others. These programs enhance cognitive processing by bridging the gap between thoughts, feelings, and actions. The objective of SEL is to foster self-awareness, promote responsible decision-making skills, and enable effective management of individual and social behaviors. Therefore, it plays an essential role in nurturing well-rounded individuals who are capable of navigating interpersonal relationships and various life challenges in a constructive and empathetic manner.
Social Approach to Reducing Disorders: The ‘Social Approach to Reducing Disorders’ is a method that targets changes in the societal context to mitigate the root causes of disorders.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Social Approach to Reducing Disorders’ is a strategic method employed in the field of health and wellness that targets an individual’s social surroundings in an attempt to mitigate the root causes of various disorders. This approach believes that social factors significantly impact an individual’s health and well-being, this includes but not limited to, social interactions, culture, socio-economic status and living conditions. By improving these aspects, it seeks to create a healthier environment that encourages positive behavioural changes, in turn reducing the prevalence of disorders. The premise is that by addressing societal factors, the bedrock of multiple health conditions can be altered, leading to an overall reduction in disease incidence and prevalence.
Social Attribution: ‘Social attribution’ refers to our cognitive process of assigning reasons or intentions to the actions observed in others. It is our method of interpreting and understanding the behaviors of individuals around us.
Expanded Definition
‘Social Attribution’ is a psychological concept that refers to the process whereby we interpret and explain the behaviors, actions, or attitudes of others. These interpretations are based on our observations, past experiences, and understanding of human behavior. We attempt to attribute a cause or reason to these behaviors, thereby formulating ‘educated guesses’ about another person’s intentions, motivations, or state of mind. The process serves as a framework for us to better comprehend social interactions and predict potential future behaviors.
Social Brain Hypothesis: The Social Brain Hypothesis asserts that the evolution of the human brain is driven by the necessity to manage complex social relationships within larger groups.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Social Brain Hypothesis’ postulates that the complex nature and significantly large size of the human brain have primarily evolved as a response to the increasing social demands arising from living in constantly interconnected and large social groups. It underlines the idea that human cognitive capabilities, including memory, decision-making, and emotional intelligence, have evolved to facilitate social interactions, maintain cohesiveness in groups, and carry out the intricate processing required for sophisticated social communication and interaction. This hypothesis suggests that the survival pressures and benefits connected with social living have greatly influenced the evolution and development of the human brain.
Social Clock: The ‘Social Clock’ refers to societal expectations about the timing of key life milestones like marriage, parenthood, or independent living.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Social Clock’ refers to societal norms or expectations that dictate the timeline for significant life milestones. These milestones can vary widely based on cultural, societal or individual preferences, but they traditionally include events such as leaving the parental home, getting married, and starting a family. This concept suggests that society sets a preconceived timeline or ‘clock,’ providing a standard by which individuals often gauge the progress of their lives. However, it’s important to note that individual variations are common and completely normal, as each person’s life trajectory is shaped by personal choices, circumstances, and values.
Social Cognition: Social cognition is the cognitive process that involves understanding and interpreting the behaviors and interactions of others.
Expanded Definition
‘Social cognition’ is a term used in psychology to describe the mental processes that inform our understanding, perception, and interpretation of the social world. This includes not only how we perceive the actions, intentions, and behaviors of others but also how our own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by our perceptions and interpretations of the wider social context. It deals with processes such as attribution, social inference, and perception of other’s emotions. Social cognition thus plays a critical role in shaping our interactions and relationships with others, as well as our sense of self within a social context.
Social Comparison: ‘Social comparison’ is the process of evaluating one’s traits or abilities in relation to others, serving as a method for self-assessment or self-improvement.
Expanded Definition
Social comparison refers to the psychological process through which individuals evaluate their own abilities, achievements, and personal traits by juxtaposing them with those of others. This process can occur both consciously and subconsciously and often serves as a key method for self-assessment or understanding one’s standing within a given social context. Social comparisons can be made with peers, role models, or even generalized societal standards and ideals, and can impact self-esteem, motivation, and overall psychological well-being. The comparison might take the form of upwards comparison, made with individuals perceived to be superior in some way, or downwards comparison, where the individual compares themselves to others who are deemed inferior in some aspect. The concept was originally developed by social psychologist Leon Festinger in his Social Comparison Theory in 1954.
Social Component: The ‘Social Component’ refers to the impact of societal and cultural elements, such as economic conditions, housing status, experiences of maltreatment or prejudice, on the onset or progression of disorders.
Expanded Definition
“The ‘Social Component’ is a term primarily used in sociology, psychology, and related fields to indicate the impact of various social and cultural determinants on the manifestation of disorders or disparities. It encompasses a wide range of factors such as socioeconomic status – indicating an individual’s economic and social position relative to others, homelessness – lack of a stable and acceptable housing situation, abuse – exposure to harm or mistreatment, and discrimination – unjust treatment based on particular characteristics. The term essentially underscores that an individual’s health or disorder cannot be separated from the social context in which they reside, highlighting the interplay of their personal health with their social and cultural environment.”
Social Constructivist: ‘Social Constructivist’ refers to the belief that different human groups have adapted uniquely to their various environments, despite a shared evolutionary lineage. It emphasizes the role of social and environmental influences in human development.
Expanded Definition
‘Social Constructivist’ refers to the school of thought in sociology and anthropology that posits that varied groups of humans, although sharing a common evolutionary lineage, have adapted differently due to their unique environmental circumstances. This perspective emphasizes that our understanding, perceptions, and learnings are shaped by our cultural, societal, and interpersonal interactions, rather than by some underlying biological or physical realities. Based on this outlook, the realities of society and individuals are understood to be constructed through social processes, rather than determined by nature.
Social Dominance Orientation: Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) is a perspective that supports the concept of inherent societal hierarchies for the purpose of maintaining order and stability.
Expanded Definition
‘Social Dominance Orientation’ (SDO) refers to a sociopsychological concept that postulates a preference for hierarchical positioning within societal structures, considering it as not just an unavoidable reality but also a desirable element for ensuring societal order and stability. Proponents of SDO view such patterned social hierarchies as necessary tools for streamlining and managing social activities, arguing that they can reduce potential conflict, and thereby contribute to the peaceful coexistence of various social groups. This perspective, however, does not necessarily account for the potential implications of power imbalances and social inequality inherent in hierarchical systems.
Social Exchange Theory: Social Exchange Theory is a psychological principle proposing that human interactions are guided by the pursuit of rewards and avoidance of punishments or costs. Essentially, it’s a cost-benefit analysis applied to social relationships.
Expanded Definition
Social Exchange Theory refers to a sociological and psychological construct that comprehends human social behavior as a continuous process of reciprocal exchanges. The central premise is that individuals engage in social interactions intending to receive maximum rewards and provide minimum inputs. Rewards can range from material benefit to emotional gratification, while costs involve any drawbacks, stresses, or obligations perceived. The balance of these costs and benefits influences our decisions regarding the initiation, continuation, and termination of relationships or interactions. This theory provides insights into human motivations in both interpersonal and societal contexts.
Social Facilitation: Social facilitation is the enhanced performance on straightforward or mastered tasks when conducted in a group setting.
Expanded Definition
Social Facilitation is a psychological concept that refers to the tendency for individuals to perform differently when in the presence of others than when alone. More specifically, it refers to the enhancement or strengthening of dominant responses, which are typically simple or well-learned tasks, in the presence of an audience or co-actors. This phenomenon encapsulates the idea that people often improve their performance on straightforward tasks due to the arousal of being observed, which brings about a heightened sense of focus and energy. The term is utilized extensively within social psychology to understand group dynamics and individual performance influences stemming from social environments.
Social Identity: Social Identity is the segment of an individual’s self-perception formed from their affiliation with certain groups. In simpler terms, it’s how being part of a group impacts one’s self-view.
Expanded Definition
‘Social Identity’ is a sophisticated psychological concept that refers to an individual’s self-perception, specifically, how this perception is impacted by their affiliations with distinct social groups. It represents the fundamental component of an individual’s self-conception that originates from their acknowledged membership in social groups, each with its own shared characteristics, norms, or values. These groups can encompass various facets of society such as ethnicity, nationality, class, profession, culture, or interests. Recognizing oneself as a member of these groups can considerably influence an individual’s behavior, mindset, and self-esteem, as well as their interaction with others, both within and outside their identified groups. Hence, social identity is a dynamic element that embodies an individual’s positioning and symbiotic link to the social world.
Social Identity Theory: Social Identity Theory is a psychological framework positing that individuals show bias towards their own group (in-group) and prejudice against different groups (out-group).
Expanded Definition
‘Social Identity Theory’ is a psychological framework that postulates individuals derive a significant portion of their self-concept from their social affiliations or groups. According to this theory, individuals tend to demonstrate bias, favoring groups they identify with, referred to as ‘in-groups,’ over groups they do not identify with, known as ‘outgroups.’ This inclination is driven by a need for positive social identity and it posits that the discrimination and negative sentiments against ‘outgroups’ emerge as an offshoot of the preference for one’s ‘in-group.’ It is an important theory in understanding intergroup relations, group conflicts, and the individual’s self-perception based on group memberships.
Social Influence: “Social Influence” is the ability of individuals or groups to alter others’ behaviors, feelings or perceptions via indirect, social, or direct interactions.
Expanded Definition
‘Social Influence’ is a formal term that describes the effect external factors, often from interactions with other individuals or groups, may have on personal attitudes, feelings, or behaviors. This psychological phenomenon is central to how ideas, decisions, and actions are molded within a society. It explains the propensity of an individual to adapt their beliefs, values, or actions to adhere to societal standards or to align with the perspectives of others around them, often unconsciously or subtly influenced by means such as persuasion, conformity, or peer pressure.
Social Integration: ‘Social Integration’ refers to the degree to which an individual is actively involved in a variety of social roles and is not isolated from social interactions.
Expanded Definition
‘Social Integration’ can be expertly defined as the process wherein individuals engage in various roles within a community or society, thereby establishing connections, interacting and forming relationships with others. It is characterized by the presence of diverse social roles an individual assumes, and the absence of social isolation. This process fosters a sense of belonging, contributes to the collective identity, and promotes a seamless functioning of the society. This concept emphasizes the importance of preventing social segregation or isolation, advocating for inclusive communities where every member has their role and feels part of the societal fabric.
Social Learning Theory: Social Learning Theory posits that individuals acquire new behaviors through observation and replication of others’ actions, emphasizing the influence of social interactions in shaping gender roles.
Expanded Definition
Social Learning Theory, as coined in the field of psychology, refers to the concept that individuals can acquire new behaviors and responses, not just by direct experience or individual trial and error, but by observing the actions and results of others’ behaviors. This theory underscores the fundamental role of observational learning, imitation, and modeling in behavioral development. This theory also expands to the understanding of the acquisition of gender roles. It asserts that individuals learn societal gender roles and expectations primarily through the processes of reinforcement and punishment, as well as modeling. Reinforcement and punishment dictate whether the behavior is likely to be repeated or avoided, respectively; modeling refers to learning through the observation of behaviors exhibited by others, particularly influential figures such as parents, teachers, or peers. The learned behaviors are then emulated and ingrained as part of an individual’s gender role understanding and behavior.
Social Loafing: ‘Social loafing’ is a phenomenon where group members reduce their effort in reaching shared objectives, compared to when working individually.
Expanded Definition
‘Social Loafing’ can be professionally defined as a psychological phenomenon where the drive and initiative of individuals in a collective setting or group diminishes, as compared to their effort levels when working independently. This tendency can be attributed to reduced accountability, diminished personal recognition, or perceived inequity in workload distribution within the group, leading to less vigorous participation towards achieving the group’s shared objectives.
Social Models: Social models are key figures observed for their behaviors which then serve as exemplars or standards in society. They represent influential personas whose actions dictate or inspire certain patterns of behavior.
Expanded Definition
‘Social Models’ can be comprehensively defined as influential entities or individuals who serve as references or benchmarks for behavioral observation and imitation. These models can consist of a wide spectrum of figures such as parents, mentors, educators, celebrities, or public figures. Their actions, attitudes, values, and conduct provide examples that others within their social sphere might emulate. This concept forms the core of social learning theory, which proposes that learning occurs within a social context, and individuals learn by observing others and reproducing their behaviors.
Social Networks: ‘Social Networks’ are interconnected webs of interrelationships among individuals, serving as channels for information dissemination.
Expanded Definition
‘Social Networks’ pertain to complex structures formed by individuals connected through diverse relationships. These networks facilitate multifaceted interactions and the dissemination of information among its constituents. By fostering direct and indirect relationships, they enable the exchange and flow of ideas, beliefs, resources, and behaviors. Simply put, social networks serve as conduits for information transfer, communication, and social interaction, playing a pivotal role in forming social norms, influencing decision-making, and establishing social identity.
Social Norms: Social norms are the shared, accepted standards of behavior within a group, regarded as appropriate and expected by its members.
Expanded Definition
Social norms refer to the collective expectations or unwritten rules about acceptable behavior, thoughts, and feelings, established by a certain group or society. These norms, deeply ingrained within the group’s culture or system, guide members on how to conduct themselves and interact with others appropriately. They are a crucial determinant of social interaction, fostering predictability, coherence, and understanding among individuals, and thereby contributing to societal stability and harmony.
Social Phobia: Social phobia is a severe anxiety disorder characterized by an overwhelming fear and avoidance of social interactions and situations.
Expanded Definition
‘Social Phobia’, medically designated as ‘Social Anxiety Disorder’, is defined as a chronic and intense emotional condition where an individual experiences extreme levels of discomfort, fear or worry when faced with social situations. This goes beyond mere shyness; those with this disorder may be anxious about simple daily tasks like starting conversations, eating in public, or meeting strangers. They often hold a persistent fear of being judged, watched, or criticized by others. This fear can become disabling, leading to avoidance of social interactions, thus significantly constraining an individual’s ability to function effectively in personal, academic, or professional realms. It’s a recognized psychological affliction, diagnosable, and treatable by mental health professionals.
Social Psychology: Social psychology is the study of how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and actions are influenced by others’ presence.
Expanded Definition
Social Psychology is a specialized field within the broad discipline of psychology that primarily focuses on examining and interpreting how an individual’s thought processes, emotions, and actions are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. This branch of psychology delves into the details of human behavior in social contexts, exploring the impact of group dynamics on individual thought patterns and behaviors, covering aspects such as social perception, group interaction, prejudice, conformity, aggression, and the development of attitudes and beliefs. By studying these phenomena, social psychology strives to comprehend the societal forces that shape an individual’s outlook and behavior, ultimately applying insights to foster healthier communities and societal interactions.
Social Referencing: Social referencing is the behavior infants utilize to gather and interpret cues from their surroundings from others, to understand and react to a situation.
Expanded Definition
‘Social Referencing’ can be professionally defined as ‘A cognitive and behavioral process during which infants or individuals actively solicit, interpret, and incorporate social cues and information from others in their environment to understand and respond effectively to ambiguous or uncertain situations. This vital communication mechanism aids in the development of social cognition, emotional regulation, and context-appropriate conduct.’
Social Support: ‘Social support’ refers to the assistance or comfort received from one’s social network, encompassing emotional aid, practical resources, or advice.
Expanded Definition
‘Social Support’ is a multidimensional concept typically understood as the aid and assistance that is derived from one’s social connections and interactions. This support is often offered through a network of family, friends, coworkers, and other personal relationships. It predominantly takes three main forms: 1. Emotional support, where comfort, care, love, and empathy are provided by members of the social network, often leading to an individual feeling valued or loved; 2. Tangible support, which refers to concrete help offered in terms of financial aid, material resources, or physical assistance, often aimed at alleviating specific burdens or stressors; 3. Informational or advice-based support, where guidance, advice, or otherwise useful information is shared, often aiding in problem solving or decision-making processes. Accessible and available social support can play a crucial role in an individual’s psychological well-being, stress management, and overall resilience to life’s challenges.
Social Time: “Social time” refers to the culturally conditioned perceptions and norms relating to punctuality, tempo, and temporality.
Expanded Definition
‘Social Time’ can be professionally defined as a sociological concept that reflects culturally ingrained norms and expectations about the perception and management of time in a society. It encompasses unspoken guidelines concerning punctuality, such as perceptions on earliness or tardiness, understanding when to hasten or delay actions, and the societal interpretation and value associated with past, present, and future periods. In essence, ‘Social Time’ provides a framework for how members of a society collectively perceive, use, and respond to time in their interactions and activities.
Social Trap: A social trap refers to a scenario where individuals or groups, following their own interests, land in a vicious cycle of detrimental outcomes for all parties involved.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Social Trap’ is a sociological concept referring to a scenario where individuals or groups, while attempting to maximize their own benefits through rational decision-making, inadvertently engage in behavior that ultimately leads to a detrimental outcome for everyone involved. This often stems from a disconnect between short-term individual gains and long-term collective welfare, resulting in a spiralling pattern of actions that, although seemingly logical in isolation, cumulatively cause harm to the collective community or system. Consequently, this framework emphasizes the need to consider collective interests alongside personal ones to avoid such destructive traps in social interactions.
Social-Cognitive Perspective: The Social-Cognitive Perspective posits that an individual’s behavior is the product of the dynamic interplay between personal, cognitive traits and their surrounding social environment.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Social-Cognitive Perspective’ is a psychological framework that suggests individual behavior is a result of an interplay between personal traits engaged through cognition (or thinking) and the social environment in which an individual exists. This perspective posits that an individual’s cognitive processes, such as their beliefs, attitudes, and expectations, can influence and be influenced by aspects of their social context such as their environment, events in their lives, and interactions with others. Essentially, it underscores the dynamic relationship between an individual’s mind, their inherent character traits, and their external social setting.
Social-Cultural Psychology: Social-cultural psychology examines the influence of societal and cultural contexts on individual cognition and behavior. It focuses on the interplay between societal norms, environmental conditions, and personal actions.
Expanded Definition
‘Social-Cultural Psychology’ is a specific branch of psychology dedicated to the examination of how an individual’s thoughts and behaviors are influenced by the social contexts and cultural environments they’re embedded in. This field focuses on understanding the interaction between individuals and the societal norms, practices, and influences they experience. It considers elements like social norms, expectations, cultural context, and social interaction patterns. By studying these interactions, social-cultural psychologists develop a more comprehensive understanding of human behavior, emotions, and cognitive processes. This field contributes invaluable insights into the way culture and society shape individuals and how individuals, in turn, shape their environments.
Social-Responsibility Norm: The Social-Responsibility Norm is a societal standard implying that individuals have an inherent obligation to assist those who rely on them.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Social-Responsibility Norm’ is a socio-cultural principle that presumes individuals within a society will assist, support, and aid those who rely on them. This can include a spectrum of dependencies, ranging from financial or emotional dependencies to care for the elderly, young, or the impaired. Based on this norm, individuals are exhorted to act benevolently for the welfare of those less capable or disadvantaged, reinforcing a sense of communal commitment, ethical responsibility, and shared social empathy.
Sociocultural Theory: Sociocultural Theory suggests that cognitive growth partially stems from social interactions, rather than being solely contained within the individual.
Expanded Definition
‘Sociocultural Theory’ is a concept in psychology that emphasizes the profound influence social interactions and culture have on cognitive development. This theory states that learning and cognitive development are not processes that occur in a vacuum within the individual; rather, they are significantly shaped by the child’s interactions within their social environment. It underscores the dynamic interdependence between the individual’s cognitive growth and their surrounding cultural context and social experiences.
Socioeconomic: ‘Socioeconomic’ refers to the social and economic factors that create disparities in physical and mental health due to varied exposure to stress, influenced by aspects like gender, race, marital status, and social class.
Expanded Definition
“Socioeconomic” refers to the combination of societal and economic factors that influence and dictate an individual’s or group’s living conditions. The current definition seems to be a contextual use of the term in relation to health disparities. An expert-level, professional, and accessible manner of refining this would be: “The term ‘socioeconomic’ pertains to the social and financial variables that are interconnected and significantly influence one’s quality of life. It encapsulates aspects such as education, income and occupation, which collectively define an individual’s or group’s societal rank or position. In a health context, differences in socioeconomic status can lead to inequalities in physical and mental health. This is due to the varying degrees of stress exposure influenced by factors such as gender, race-ethnicity, marital status, and social class, which subsequently affect well-being.”
Sociopolitical: ‘Sociopolitical’ refers to the intersection of social and political factors, often influencing disparities such as health gaps among different societal groups due to varying access to resources and opportunities.
Expanded Definition
The term “sociopolitical” is somewhat misrepresented in your definition. The term is rather used to describe the influence and relationship between social and political factors. It integrates two sub-ideas: ‘socio-‘ referring to social or society and ‘political’ referring to politics or policy. As such, sociopolitical refers to how societal differences and inequalities may impact political practices, rules, and outcomes. For instance, societal divides based on race, class, gender, or religion could influence political decisions, laws, and policies. The original definition seems to be describing a sociopolitical phenomenon rather than the term ‘sociopolitical’ itself. It appears to refer to the way societal and political forces can contribute to stressors that accrue over a person’s life and between generations, ultimately exacerbating health disparities among different socio-economic groups.
Soma: ‘Soma’ refers to the cell’s nucleus-containing portion that is responsible for maintaining cellular vitality.
Expanded Definition
‘Soma’ refers to the central part of a neuron, which is a type of cell primarily found in the nervous system. The soma, often referred to as the cell body, plays a vital role as it houses the cell’s nucleus, containing the genetic material essential for the cell’s unique characteristics, functions, and replication. It is also responsible for maintaining the cell’s structural integrity and vitality by regulating its metabolic function. Therefore, without the soma, a cell would cease to survive. This term and concept are particularly important in fields such as cellular biology and neurology.
Somatic Nervous System (SNS): The Somatic Nervous System (SNS) is a part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the voluntary control of body movements via skeletal muscles and providing sensory information from the external environment to the brain.
Expanded Definition
The Somatic Nervous System (SNS) is a specialized subsystem of the broader peripheral nervous system. This system specifically governs the body’s external interactions with its environment. It controls voluntary activities by manipulating skeletal muscle movements, as well as making possible the sense of touch and other sensations via the skin and sense organs. The SNS primarily comprises motor nerves. These nerves function by transmitting signals from the brain that trigger muscle contractions, thus enabling the body to perform specific actions. This complex system plays a crucial role in activities like walking, eating, writing, speaking, and more. It essentially allows for voluntary movement and interaction with the external world around an individual.
Somatoform Disorder: Somatoform disorder is a mental condition where an individual experiences physical symptoms, like pain or fatigue, that have no identifiable physical cause. It’s essentially physical complaints stemming from psychological conflicts.
Expanded Definition
Somatoform Disorder, known as Somatic Symptom Disorder in current clinical language, refers to a class of mental health conditions characterized by patients manifesting physical symptoms that cannot be linked to any identifiable medical condition. While these symptoms are not produced intentionally, they cause significant distress or disruption to the person’s daily life. The absence of clear physical causes suggests an underlying psychological origin, although the exact mechanisms are yet unconfirmed. Implicated factors often involve complex interactions between psychological, biological, and sociocultural aspects. Disorders in this category warrant careful clinical attention to appropriately address the patient’s physical complaints while taking into consideration the likely psychological factors involved.
Somatosensory Cortex: The somatosensory cortex is a brain region located adjacent to the motor cortex, responsible for processing sensory data from the body’s receptors and coordinating bodily movement.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Somatosensory Cortex’ is a sophisticated region located directly behind and running parallel to the motor cortex, situated at the rear of the frontal lobe in the brain. This vital area is entrusted with the task of processing and interpreting sensory information collected from various receptors located throughout the body’s skin, joints, and muscles. This information encompasses a wide range of sensations such as touch, temperature, pressure, and pain, providing us critical data about our physical environment and body positioning. Consequently, the somatosensory cortex plays a pivotal role in our broader sensory perception, spatial awareness, and interaction with our surroundings.
Somnambulism (Sleepwalking): Somnambulism, or sleepwalking, is a sleep disorder where an individual performs activities, such as walking, while in a state of sleep.
Expanded Definition
Somnambulism, commonly known as sleepwalking, represents a type of parasomnia — a category of sleep disorders that involve abnormal behaviours, movements, emotions, or perceptions. Rather than remaining immobile, as is typical during sleep, individuals experiencing somnambulism undergo episodes where they physically rise from their beds and carry out activities usually performed in a state of consciousness. These activities can be as simplistic as sitting up or walking around the room, or more complex such as cooking or driving. Despite appearing awake during these instances, the individuals remain in a sleep state and may have limited responsiveness or memory recall of their actions. This condition generally emerges during the deeper stages of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, often within a few hours of falling asleep. The exact underpinnings of somnambulism remain uncertain, though factors like genetic tendencies, stress, and sleep deprivation could potentially instigate its occurrence.
Source Amnesia: Source amnesia refers to the misattribution of the origin of a memory, such as incorrectly remembering the source of an experienced, heard, read, or imagined event, often leading to the creation of false memories.
Expanded Definition
Source Amnesia, often linked with the phenomenon of source misattribution, is a cognitive error in which an individual incorrectly recalls the origins of a memory. It occurs when a person is unable to remember the source of information or an event they have experienced, learned about, read, or even imagined. The concept underscores a significant occurrence in our memory wherein the content of a memory, and the context or origin of that memory, can be dissociated or separated. This often leads to the formation of inaccurate memories or perceptions, a common cause of falsely recalling events. In essence, while one might remember the information or event perfectly well, the origin or source of the information becomes hazy or entirely forgotten.
Source Monitoring: Source monitoring refers to the cognitive capacity to pinpoint the origin of a remembered piece of information.
Expanded Definition
‘Source Monitoring’ refers to the cognitive capacity to accurately determine the origin of a specific recollection or piece of information. This could involve distinguishing whether the source was visual or auditory, whether the information was personally experienced or relayed by another person, and so on. This psychological process aids an individual in distinguishing between internally generated knowledge and externally obtained knowledge, consequently facilitating the ability to distinguish between imagined and real experiences. Source monitoring is instrumental in ensuring the accuracy and reliability of our memories, thereby playing a significant role in our cognitive functioning.
Spacing Effect: The ‘Spacing Effect’ is a cognitive psychology concept that asserts distributed learning over time enhances knowledge retention compared to massed or grouped learning sessions.
Expanded Definition
The “Spacing Effect” refers to a research-based psychological principle that indicates the effectiveness of distributing learning over an extended period. Instead of cramming information into a single session, this effect suggests that a more effective approach to retain knowledge would be to spread out learning periods with regular intervals of rest. When done this way, individuals are likely to retain more information in the long term due to enhanced memory consolidation. The efficiency of spreading learning or practice over time, as opposed to massing it into one condensed period, exemplifies the Spacing Effect.
Specific Intelligence(s): Specific Intelligence(s) refers to the quantification of individual abilities or expertise in focused areas or tasks.
Expanded Definition
‘Specific Intelligence(s)’ refers to an individual’s distinct abilities or expertise in narrowly defined areas or fields. These are unique skills or competencies that significantly differ from general cognitive abilities, focusing more on specific domains such as linguistic, spatial, mathematical, or musical abilities. ‘Specific Intelligence(s)’ underscores the concept that intelligence isn’t a single, uniform ability, but a combination of multiple unique skills and talents tailored to particular contexts or tasks.
Spinal Cord: The spinal cord is a nerve-dense, cylindrical structure descending from the brain that functions as the body’s primary information highway.
Expanded Definition
The spinal cord is a cylindrical structure, rich in neural tissues, that runs along the spinal column, originating from the base of the brain. About as thick as the human thumb, this network of nerves and support cells acts as the primary conduit, facilitating the bidirectional flow of neurological messages between the brain and the rest of the body. This critical part of the nervous system ultimately enables sensory perception, motor function, and reflexes. It’s sheathed within the spinal column, providing it protection, since any harm to the spinal cord can result in severe health complications like paralysis.
Split Brain: ‘Split Brain’ refers to a state caused by surgical separation of the brain’s hemispheres by severing mainly the corpus callosum, the main connection between them.
Expanded Definition
‘Split Brain’ refers to a medical condition that typically arises as an aftermath of a specific type of neurosurgical procedure. This procedure involves severing or disrupting the connection between the two hemispheres of the brain, primarily by cutting through a thick network of neural fibers known as the corpus callosum. The purpose of this drastic intervention, often a last resort employed in severe cases of epilepsy, is to halt the spread of electrical seizures from one hemisphere to the other. As a result, however, the left and right sides of the brain function more independently, leading to a range of behavioral and cognitive changes known as the ‘Split Brain’ syndrome.
Spontaneous Recovery: ‘Spontaneous Recovery’ refers to the unexpected reappearance of a previously extinguished behavior or response over time, applicable to both classical and instrumental conditioning contexts.
Expanded Definition
“Spontaneous Recovery” is a term utilised predominantly within the field of psychology, referring to the unexpected return of a previously extinguished behavioral response. This phenomenon typically transpires after a significant period has elapsed post-extinction phase, where the conditioned response had ceased to occur. The possibility of spontaneous recovery can occur in both classical, where a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, and instrumental conditioning, where a particular behavior increases or decreases based on its consequences. It is a significant indication that extinction does not completely eliminate the connections made with the original conditioning, but various aspects can weaken these connections over time, thereby temporally suppressing the conditioned response.
Spotlight Effect: The “Spotlight Effect” refers to the cognitive bias where individuals believe they are more observed and evaluated by others than they actually are, similar to being under a spotlight. It denotes our tendency to overrate how much people scrutinize our actions and appearance.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Spotlight Effect’ is a cognitive bias that refers to the tendency of individuals to overestimate the extent to which others are observing and scrutinizing their appearance, conduct, or any perceived mistakes. It’s as though we believe ourselves to be under the intensity of a spotlight, resulting in an inflated belief that our actions or missteps are more noticeable to others than they actually are. This psychological phenomenon suggests that we often mistakenly believe we are the center of others’ attention, when, in fact, observers are not dedicating nearly as much attention to us as we might think.
Spreading Activation: ‘Spreading Activation’ is a cognitive process where disengagement from a direct problem-solving task leads to the absorption of more broad or diverse information, potentially offering new insights to aid the resolution process.
Expanded Definition
‘Spreading Activation’ is a cognitive theory that presents how individuals extend and deepen their thinking processes, particularly in problem-solving situations. This theory suggests that when individuals voluntarily step back from a challenging problem-solving task, they open themselves up to a broader dataset of information, which may subsequently contribute to the resolution process. In simpler terms, this diversion from the task at hand is perceived as a strategic move, allowing one to gather more insights and perspectives, which fosters a greater understanding and augments potential solutions.
Spurious Relationship: A spurious relationship is a perceived connection between two variables that’s actually triggered by a third, often hidden, variable. It’s a type of false correlation where the relationship seems legitimate but is not due to direct causation.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Spurious Relationship’ refers to the seemingly significant association between two variables which is, in fact, influenced or caused by a third variable, often not considered in the analysis. This third variable, known as the ‘confounding variable,’ accounts for the correlation, thereby negating a direct relationship between the initial two variables. Crucially, this can lead one to incorrectly infer a cause-and-effect relationship between unconnected variables, resulting in inaccurate conclusions or forecasts. A clear understanding of these relationships is essential for credible research in fields like statistics, economics, and social sciences.
SQ3R: SQ3R is a five-step strategy involving surveying, questioning, reading, rehearsing, and reviewing, designed to enhance understanding and retention of material.
Expanded Definition
‘SQ3R’ can be defined as an effective five-step study approach devised to enhance comprehension and retention of learning content. The process entails: 1. Survey: During this initial phase, learners quickly scan or overview the material to gain a basic understanding of its content and structure. 2. Question: In this stage, learners formulate questions based on the titles, subtitles, or information gleaned during the survey phase. The intent is to create an active learning environment and provide motivation to find answers in the forthcoming steps. 3. Read: This involves a detailed reading of the material with a focus to answer the questions created in the previous stage, ensuring an engaging and interactive study session that facilitates better understanding. 4. Rehearse: This stage requires the learners to recall and summarize what they have read, often verbally or via notes, to reinforce understanding and embed the information within their memory. 5. Review: The final stage solicits learners to revisit their notes and the original material, reinforcing the key points mentioned. The objective here is to consolidate learning and enhance long-term retention of the studied information. Overall, SQ3R provides a structured and proactive study method, proven to improve learning outcomes compared to passive reading.
Stage Theory of Cognitive Development: The Stage Theory of Cognitive Development posits sequential cognitive growth in children, where mastery of one cognitive phase is prerequisite to progress to the next.
Expanded Definition
The Stage Theory of Cognitive Development is a developmental framework that asserts children navigate through distinct levels of mental growth as they mature. This theory holds that each stage represents a different level of cognitive ability, and a child must fully develop and integrate the skills and concepts of one stage before they can progress to the subsequent stage. These cognitive transformations are generally sequential and are influenced by the child’s age, experience, and cultural factors. This model essentially broadens our understanding of how children observe, learn, think, and understand their world as they journey from infancy to adulthood.
Standard Deviation (s): Standard deviation (s) is a statistical measure that quantifies the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values; a higher standard deviation implies a wider spread of values.
Expanded Definition
Standard Deviation (s) is a statistical concept that quantifies the degree of dispersion or variation within a set of data values. More specifically, it acts as a measure of the average distance between each data point in the set and the mean, or average, of that set. The higher the standard deviation, the greater the variation or ‘spread’ among the data points, indicating that the data points are more broadly dispersed from the mean. Conversely, lower standard deviations suggest that the data points are relatively close to the mean. Thus, standard deviation offers a reliable and widely used measure for analyzing the consistency or predictability within a dataset.
Standard Scale: A ‘Standard Scale’ is a uniform measurement tool used in surveys where all respondents answer questions using the same rated scale.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Standard Scale’ is referenced in survey methodologies as a uniform rating system deployed across all participants for answering queries. It involves the use of a consistent scale, such as a Likert scale or numerical range, which provides a common framework to record and categorize individual responses. This optimizes the data collection process by promoting ease of comparison, objectivity, and statistical reliability across the data set.
Standardization: Standardization is the process of administering a test to varying age groups, then calculating the average score per age group.
Expanded Definition
Standardization, in the context of testing and assessment, is the process in which a specific test is administered to a sizable diverse group of individuals, stratified across various ages, to establish a normative data set. This comprehensive data enables calculation of average scores at distinct age levels, which then serve as benchmarks for performance comparison. The principle behind standardization is to minimize potential test bias, promote transparency, and ensure consistent interpretation and extrapolation of results across diverse populations.
Stanford-Binet Test: The Stanford-Binet Test is a comprehensive intelligence assessment tool encompassing various tasks like vocabulary testing, visual memory, object identification, sentence repetition, and command retention.
Expanded Definition
The Stanford-Binet Test is an influential and widely recognized psychological tool designed to evaluate an individual’s intelligence quotient (IQ). The test comprises a diverse range of cognitive tasks, including vocabulary assessment, pictorial memory tests, identification of common objects, verbal repetition challenges, and command-following tasks. These elements help measure different dimensions of a person’s cognitive abilities, including factors such as knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory. Adopted and updated since its original development, this test is utilized across various age groups, from children to adults, providing a comprehensive assessment of general cognitive function.
State-Dependent Learning: State-dependent learning is the enhanced ability to recall information when in the same physical or mental state that was present when the information was initially learned.
Expanded Definition
‘State-Dependent Learning’ refers to a phenomenon in cognitive psychology where the process of memory retrieval is more effective and efficient when the individual’s physiological or psychological state at the time of recall is identical or closely matches with the state at the time of learning or encoding the information. These states can encompass a broad spectrum of aspects including emotions, mood, level of alertness, or even certain influences like being under the effect of alcohol or a specific drug. Thus, under this theory, if the learning occurred during a particular state, the potency of recall is significantly enhanced when attempting to retrieve those memories in the same or a very similar state.
Statistical Conclusion Validity: Statistical conclusion validity refers to the correctness of inferences made regarding the statistical significance observed in a study. It assures whether the identified statistical relationships are accurate.
Expanded Definition
‘Statistical Conclusion Validity’ refers to the degree of assurance we can have in the accuracy of conclusions drawn by a researcher regarding the statistical significance of their research findings. This validity establishes whether the observed relationships in the data accurately reflect real relationships and not the results of chance or error. In essence, it allows us to determine, with a specific level of confidence, that the statistical patterns detected in the data are both authentic and meaningful.
Statistical Significance: Statistical significance is the likelihood that a research finding is not accidental or borne out of random error, thus proving the validity of the observed effect.
Expanded Definition
‘Statistical Significance’ is a term widely used in statistical and scientific research to indicate the measure of certainty or confidence in a particular finding. It primarily pertains to the likelihood that the results derived from data analysis and experimental findings are not attributed to random variations, chance occurrences, or errors but exhibit genuine, underlying patterns or associations. When a result is said to be statistically significant, it means that the observed outcome is highly unlikely to have occurred by chance alone, thus supporting the validity of the hypothesis being tested. This determination is often made based on a p-value, a quantitative tool that assesses the strength of evidence against the null hypothesis (the assumption of no effect or association). The lower the p-value, generally less than 0.05, the stronger the evidence against the null hypothesis and the greater the statistical significance. Nonetheless, it should be remembered that statistical significance does not necessarily imply practical or scientific significance.
Stereotype: A stereotype is a simplified, fixed conception about a specific group of individuals, proliferated without considering individual differences.
Expanded Definition
A stereotype is a widely held but simplified and standardized conception or image, often prejudiced, about a specific group of individuals. This notion perpetuates certain traits or characteristics believed to be shared among members of that group, regardless of individual variances. While stereotypes can sometimes be based on observed trends, they tend to oversimplify and disregard the complexity of human behaviors and individual differences.
Stereotype Content Model: The Stereotype Content Model refers to a theory categorizing stereotypes into four groups, derived from varying levels of perceived competence and warmth. It simplifies understanding of bias by breaking down stereotypes based on these two dimensions.
Expanded Definition
The Stereotype Content Model is a theoretical framework used in social psychology. This model categorizes stereotypes into four distinct types, based on two underlying dimensions: perceived competence and perceived warmth. The competence dimension measures the respect received from others due to the individual’s or group’s skills, intelligence, and capabilities. The warmth dimension gauges the level of friendliness, sincerity, and kindness that an individual or group appears to embody. The combination of these dimensions produces four stereotype categories: high competence/low warmth, low competence/high warmth, high competence/high warmth, and low competence/low warmth. It provides a deeper understanding of how stereotype formation depends on the intersection of these two dimensions and how these stereotypes lead to specific emotional responses and behaviors.
Stereotype Threat: ‘Stereotype Threat’ refers to the decrease in performance caused by awareness of negative stereotypes related to one’s social or cultural group. It is the negative impact one experiences when faced with the fear of confirming a prejudiced belief about their group.
Expanded Definition
‘Stereotype Threat’ refers to the psychological predicament experienced by individuals who fear they will be judged or perceived through the lens of negative stereotypes associated with their social or ethnic group. This anxiety or apprehension can potentially diminish their performance in various tasks or settings. It suggests that awareness of such stereotypes, rather than the individual’s actual ability or chronological factors, can adversely impact their overall performance and productivity.
Stereotypes: Stereotypes are preconceived notions or beliefs held about a particular group, subtly influencing our judgments and perceptions unconsciously.
Expanded Definition
‘Stereotypes’ can be professionally defined as cognitive frameworks or preconceived notions that encapsulate an individual’s broad generalizations about a particular group of people. These stereotypes, although often oversimplified, serve as a lens through which we process, classify, and understand the behaviors or attributes of groups different from ours. Importantly, once our mind resorts to these stereotypes, they can subliminally impact our judgments, perceptions and, remarkably, do so without our conscious awareness. These intuitive biases can significantly influence our interaction, communication, or decision-making with or relating to members of those stereotyped groups.
Stereotyping: Stereotyping is a process whereby assumptions are generalized about a group to facilitate decision-making or social interactions.
Expanded Definition
‘Stereotyping’ is a sociopsychological process where individuals formulate assumptions or impressionistic overviews about particular groups. These clusters of perceptions, often oversimplified or inaccurate, function as cognitive shortcuts, enabling individuals to process social information or make judgements more quickly. However, these stereotypes can bias perception and decision-making, leading to potential prejudice and discrimination. Thus, while they serve a functional purpose in congested cognitive environments, they can distort reality, negatively influencing social interactions and outcomes.
Stigma: Stigma is the mark of disgrace or flaw associated with a person being part of a socially undervalued group.
Expanded Definition
‘Stigma’ is a term that refers to a perceived negative attribute or mark of disgrace that sets an individual or a group apart from others in society. It is usually associated with certain characteristics or behaviors that are culturally undervalued. It implies a standard of deviation, using societal contexts and prejudices, from an accepted norm, resulting in discrimination, stereotyping, or exclusion of the stigmatized individual or group.
Stigmatized Groups: ‘Stigmatized groups’ are social or ethnic collectives that face widespread societal disapproval or prejudice.
Expanded Definition
“Stigmatized Groups” can be defined as distinct social, ethnic, or other population groups that experience rejection, discrimination, or negative judgments from the majority of society. This disapproval is largely driven by societal biases, stereotypes, prejudice, and the misunderstanding of certain characteristics or behaviors associated with these groups. Stigma often leads such groups to face marginalization, isolation, reduced opportunities, and potentially, systemic inequality.
Stimulant: A stimulant is a type of psychoactive drug that enhances physiological and cognitive functions, primarily by inhibiting the reuptake of key neurotransmitters like dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin in the central nervous system.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Stimulant’ is a category of psychoactive drugs that have the capacity to accelerate the physiological and cognitive functions of the body. This group of substances work mechanistically by inhibiting the reabsorption process of three main neurotransmitters, called dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, within the communication points or synapses of the Central Nervous System (CNS). In simpler terms, these drugs slow down the removal of these neurotransmitters, leading to their increased presence, which results in stimulating, or quickening, various bodily responses and mental activities.
Stimulus: A stimulus refers to a significant event or change demanding a response or adaptation, seen essentially as a form of stress.
Expanded Definition
‘Stimulus’ is a term that pertains to any event, change, or action that triggers a response or necessitates an adjustment or adaptation. Many times, it is perceived as a form of stress that significantly impacts an individual’s life. The need for a response indicates an exigency to engage with this change positively or negatively. It’s necessary to adapt to the new conditions, or adjust our behavior to effectively manage or improve the situation. Stimuli can range from external environmental changes to internal cognitive or emotional shifts.
Stimulus Control: Stimulus control is the influence of a preceding stimulus on a particular behavior. It’s the concept where a behavior’s occurrence is regulated by the prior presence or absence of a stimulus.
Expanded Definition
‘Stimulus Control’ is a fundamental concept in behavioral psychology, referring to the impact a preceding stimulus has on subsequent operant behavior, which involves voluntary actions and their consequences. In this context, a ‘stimulus’ represents any perceivable event or condition that may influence an individual’s behavior. When behavior becomes more likely to occur or is significantly strengthened in the presence of a specific stimulus, that specific behavior is considered under ‘stimulus control’. Thus, this term encapsulates the powerful relationship between environmental conditions and behavioral responses, contributing substantially to our understanding of learning processes, habit formations, and behavioral modifications.
Storage: ‘Storage’ refers to the phase in memory where information is maintained over a period of time after it’s been encoded, serving as a bridge to memory retrieval.
Expanded Definition
‘Storage’ is a term generally used within the context of cognitive psychology, referring particularly to the process that exists between encoding and retrieval within the science of learning and memory. In the encoding phase, information is processed and prepared for internal storage. Once encoded, the information is then transitioned into the storage phase. This stage is critical for preserving these encoded memories over a certain duration, which can range from a brief moment to a full lifetime. The final phase consists of retrieving these stored pieces of information when needed. In simpler terms, ‘storage’ is essentially the mechanism that allows us to retain and save information or experiences in our memory for future use or reference. It’s a critical element that facilitates the continuity of learning and memory over time.
Story: A story is an individual’s unique narrative or account of their life events.
Expanded Definition
A ‘story,’ in a comprehensive context, refers to a narrative or account of a sequence of events, either real or imagined. It’s a mechanism through which individuals articulate their experiences, ideas, or emotions. This definition is commonly used in the context of ‘every person has a personal story,’ indicating that each individual has a unique set of experiences, perceptions, and interpretations that shape their narrative about their life. This narrative encapsulates their past, present, and prospective future, reflecting their unique identity, circumstances, achievements, struggles, beliefs, and aspirations.
Strange Situation: The ‘Strange Situation’ is a child attachment evaluation where the child’s responses are analyzed as their caregiver and a new person intermittently enter and leave the room.
Expanded Definition
The “Strange Situation” is a scientifically-developed procedure utilized to gauge the nature and strength of attachment bonds formed between a young child and their caregiver. This method involves a controlled environment wherein the child’s responses and behaviors are carefully observed and analyzed as their caregiver and an unfamiliar person intermittently enter and depart from the room. Observations during this process are primarily focused on aspects such as the child’s exploration, willingness to engage with the stranger, and their reaction to separation and reunification with the caregiver. This tool is widely used in developmental psychology and attachment theory studies to provide insights into a child’s security of attachment and their coping mechanisms when faced with unfamiliarity or separation anxiety.
Stranger Anxiety: Stranger anxiety is the distress shown by infants around 8 months onwards upon exposure to unfamiliar people. It’s an early developmental phase where babies begin to recognize and become wary of unknown individuals.
Expanded Definition
Stranger Anxiety is a developmental stage denoting a sense of apprehension or fear expressed by infants when encountering unfamiliar individuals, particularly adults. This behavioral response typically manifests around the age of 8 months. It is a characteristic of the early developmental stage where babies begin to discern familiar faces from strangers, perceiving the unfamiliar as a potential threat. Consequently, the infant may react to strangers with crying, clinging to a caregiver, or avoidance behaviors. This stage, while distressing for parents, is indicative of normal, healthy child development, serving as a protective mechanism during a period when the child is increasing their mobility and exploring the world around them.
Stress: Stress is the series of bodily reactions triggered when an organism can’t adequately handle emotional or physical threats.
Expanded Definition
‘Stress’ is defined as the series of physical and biochemical reactions that an organism experiences when it cannot adequately or effectively respond to emotional or physical stimuli perceived as threatening or harmful. These reactions, part of the body’s innate survival mechanism, involve various bodily systems, including the nervous and endocrine systems, and can include elevated heart rate, heightened alertness, and the release of stress hormones such as cortisol. This response is the body’s attempt to prepare itself to either confront or flee from the perceived threat, otherwise known as ‘fight or flight’ response. Nonetheless, it’s important to note that the perception and handling of stress can vary widely among individuals based on numerous factors – physical health, psychological resilience, social support, and more.
Stress Coping: ‘Stress coping’ refers to an individual’s perceived capacity to adequately handle and respond to a stressor or alteration.
Expanded Definition
‘Stress Coping’ refers to the process through which an individual assesses their ability to effectively manage or adapt to stressful situations or significant changes in life. It involves understanding the nature of the stressor, evaluating one’s available resources, such as emotional, mental, or physical strength, and devising strategies to handle the situation successfully. The concept underscores the importance of personal resilience and adaptation in addressing stress-related matters. This personal belief in one’s capacity to respond to stress is critical in defining their coping mechanisms and mental well-being.
Stress-Related Growth: Stress-Related Growth refers to the positive developmental change an individual experiences as a result of successfully managing stressful circumstances, viewing them as opportunities rather than threats.
Expanded Definition
“Stress-Related Growth” is the phenomenon where individuals adopt a resilient mindset in response to stressors, viewing them as potential opportunities for personal development rather than as threats or debilitating factors. This adaptive disposition allows them to leverage stress-inducing situations to foster mental and emotional growth, enhancing their resilience, coping strategies, and overall wellbeing. This concept encapsulates a positive psychological approach that emphasizes the transformative potential of stress when harnessed effectively.
Structuralism: Structuralism is a branch of psychology aimed at dissecting psychological experiences into their fundamental components.
Expanded Definition
Structuralism is a theoretical discipline within the field of psychology, originally pioneered in the 19th century, that aims to analyze and comprehend the fundamental elements or components that constitute psychological experiences. This approach to psychology endeavours to deconstruct mental processes, such as perception, consciousness, thinking, and emotions, into their simplest form. By breaking down the complexities of the mind into these basic structures, Structuralism seeks to provide a foundation for understanding the intricate operations and interactions within the human psyche. It is critical to recognize, however, that while this school of thought was instrumental in the initial growth of psychology as a scientific discipline, it has been largely replaced and refined by subsequent theoretical perspectives.
Sublimation: Sublimation is a psychological strategy where unhealthy urges are transformed into positive, socially acceptable actions.
Expanded Definition
‘Sublimation’ in the field of psychoanalysis, refers to a type of defense mechanism where individuals redirect or transform their unsuitable or unacceptable emotions, thoughts, or impulses into actions or behaviors that are more socially favorable and constructive. In other words, it is a process where negative or socially unacceptable responses are converted into positive, acceptable, and productive expressions. This is considered a mature way of dealing with internal conflicts and anxieties as it reduces harm and enhances societal contribution.
Subliminal: ‘Subliminal’ refers to stimuli or influences that are so slight or low in intensity that they aren’t consciously perceived, yet they may still affect behavior or responses.
Expanded Definition
‘Subliminal’ pertains to a level of perception that occurs below the individual’s conscious threshold of awareness. This means it involves stimuli that are too faint or fleeting to be consciously recognized, yet they are still considered capable of influencing thoughts, emotions, or even behaviors. It is this indirect, unnoticeable influence that primarily characterizes the concept of ‘subliminal’. The nature of these stimuli is such that they’re processed at a subconscious level, without the individual being fully aware of it.
Subliminal Perception: Subliminal perception is the subconscious comprehension or processing of information, even when the person is not consciously aware of the data being processed.
Expanded Definition
Subliminal Perception is a psychological concept that refers to the human brain’s capacity to interpret and absorb information from stimuli that hasn’t been consciously noticed or identified. Simply put, this subtle form of perceptual processing occurs beneath the threshold of conscious awareness. It involves the recognition and understanding of messages, patterns, cues, or stimuli that are so fleeting, subtle, or obscured that they don’t register in our conscious thought, but, nonetheless could influence our behavior, thoughts, or emotions on a subconscious level. This notable brain phenomenon underscores the complexity and versatility of human cognition and perceptual systems. It’s important to clarify, however, that the overall impact of subliminal perception on decision-making and behavior is still a widely debated topic in psychological research.
Subliminal Stimuli: ‘Subliminal stimuli’ refers to sensory inputs that are below our conscious detection level, thus, we do not consciously recognize them.
Expanded Definition
‘Subliminal Stimuli’ can be precisely defined as perceptual cues or signals that are inserted into our sensory environment at an intensity level below our conscious recognition threshold, technically referred to as the ‘absolute threshold.’ This means these stimuli are subtly presented to us in such a way that our conscious mind is unaware of them, yet they have the potential to influence our behavior, perceptions, and responses because they are directly absorbed by our subconscious mind.
Subtle Biases: ‘Subtle biases’ are often unnoticed biases which can unintentionally influence our decisions and actions, causing significant effects.
Expanded Definition
‘Subtle biases’ can be defined as the predispositions or partialities that individuals unconsciously hold and often fail to scrutinize. Although unobtrusive and often undetected, these biases can significantly impact judgment, behavior, and outcomes in real-life situations. They are often rooted in implicit attitudes or stereotypes, and can subtly influence our perception, understanding, and interactions often without us being explicitly aware of their presence.
Superego: The superego, in Freudian theory, is the internalized societal and ethical standards that guide our judgement and ambitions.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Superego’ is a concept in psychoanalytic theory advanced by Sigmund Freud, which portrays a significant component of one’s personality. It is seen as the internal embodiment of societal and parental values and norms, which an individual absorbs throughout their early development. The Superego operates as the moral compass or the conscience of an individual – it sets forth judgement standards to distinguish right from wrong and shapes the person’s aspirations, thereby influencing future behavior. It plays an essential role in the psychological structure by constantly striving for perfection, often conflicting with the realistic needs and desires represented by the other components of our personality structure – the ‘Id’ and the ‘Ego’.
Superordinate Goals: Superordinate goals are mutual objectives that necessitate collaboration, transcending individual differences.
Expanded Definition
‘Superordinate Goals’ are mutual objectives that transcend individual differences, dispositions, or perspectives among team members or groups. These common targets necessitate collaborative efforts for achievement, fostering unity and promoting teamwork by prioritizing collective success over personal agendas or conflicting interests. Superordinate goals are vital tools for mitigating group conflicts and fostering cohesion, establishing avenues for cooperation and shared responsibility. They are particularly effective in harmonizing diverse opinion and fostering productive engagement in diverse teams.
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus: The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) is a part of the brain that processes retinal inputs to control biological rhythms, primarily functioning as our central circadian clock.
Expanded Definition
The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus, often abbreviated as SCN, refers to a distinct group of cells located in the hypothalamus region of the brain, situated directly above the thalamus. It is primarily responsible for receiving and interpreting light-related signals transmitted from specialized sensory cells in the retina, known as retinal ganglion cells. The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus plays a pivotal role in controlling and regulating the human body’s circadian rhythms – the natural, internal biological clocks that govern the cycle of sleep and wakefulness, as well as other physiological functions. The SCN coordinates these circadian rhythms in response to external light conditions, thus synchronizing our bodily functions with the day-night cycle.
Surface Structure of the Idea: ‘Surface Structure of the Idea’ refers to the linguistic representation or articulation of an idea in a specific language.
Expanded Definition
‘Surface Structure of the Idea’ is a linguistic term that refers to the specific linguistic representation or the explicit lexical and syntactic articulation of an idea in any given language. It focuses on the observable elements of language, such as syntax, semantics, and phonetics, among others, and how these tools are employed to translate a concept into verbal or written form. The surface structure may differ substantially across diverse languages, even when expressing the same underlying idea. While the basic concept or ‘deep structure’ remains constant, the ‘surface structure’ varies, illustrating the rich diversity and unique characteristics of individual languages.
Surveys: Surveys are tools used to gather data on specific beliefs or behaviors from a selected group of people, typically employing interviews or written questionnaires.
Expanded Definition
‘Surveys’ can be defined as systematic methods of data collection, primarily administered through either interviews or written questionnaires. They are designed to gather valuable information, often reflecting the attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of a targeted group of individuals. The information collected typically represents the feedback or opinion of the population sample, providing a comprehensive insight or ‘picture’ aligning with the research objectives. Surveys allow for an understanding of various perspectives on a subject of interest, and the responses can be utilized in research analysis or decision-making processes.
Symbol: A symbol is a sign or object representing something abstract or complex that is not completely known or clearly defined.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Symbol’ is a concept, object, or representation that stands as the visible or tangible manifestation of an abstract idea, concept, or quality. While typically recognized universally, the underlying meaning or significance of a symbol may, in certain circumstances, be subjective or open to interpretation. A symbol is often used in languages, arts, and sciences, to communicate complex ideas effectively and efficiently. Instead of explicitly stating the idea or concept, a symbol allows for a level of abstraction fostering intuitive understanding and cognitive economy.
Sympathetic Division or Sympathetic Nervous System: The sympathetic division, a part of the autonomic nervous system, regulates the body’s stress-induced reactions by stimulating endocrine organs and facilitating fight-or-flight responses.
Expanded Definition
The Sympathetic Division, often referred to as the Sympathetic Nervous System, is a critical component of the autonomic nervous system – a command center within the body that regulates our involuntary physiological responses. Its primary role is to prepare the body for intense physical activity, predominantly during periods of stress or perceived danger. This preparation is commonly known as the “fight-or-flight” response. During a fight-or-flight response, the Sympathetic Nervous System brings about a series of rapid changes within the body, often without our conscious awareness. It accelerates the heart rate, increases blood pressure, and redirects blood flow towards the muscles and away from areas like the digestive system. Additionally, it stimulates the release of adrenaline and other hormones from the glands within our endocrine system to heighten our alertness and physical strength. This system, therefore, plays an imperative role in enabling the body to swiftly react and adapt to stressful situations, enhancing its chances of survival and coping.
Synapses: Synapses are the near-contact points between the terminal part of one neuron’s axon and another neuron’s dendrites, facilitating communication between them.
Expanded Definition
‘Synapses’ are defined as specialized and nearly-intersecting points where communication occurs between two neurons. These junctions are marked by the presence of the terminal end of an axon, known as the terminal button of one neuron, proximally located to the dendrites or the receptive extensions of the next neuron. Although these structures are very close, they do not physically touch one other. The slight gap between them facilitates the transfer of electrical or chemical signals, a vital mechanism for various neurological processes.
Synchrony: ‘Synchrony’ refers to the simultaneous display of identical behaviors or emotional states by two individuals, usually due to reciprocal imitation.
Expanded Definition
‘Synchrony’ is a term typically used in psychology and social sciences to denote a phenomenon wherein two individuals exhibit identical or similar actions, behaviors or emotional states, often as a result of reciprocal imitation. This mutual mimicry, an essential component of human communication, promotes rapport and understanding between the individuals. In a broader perspective, synchrony may be observed in various contexts like body language, tone of speech, or even in physiological responses, serving as an integral part of interpersonal dynamics.
Synesthesia: Synesthesia is a perceptual phenomenon where stimulation of one sensory pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory pathway.
Expanded Definition
‘Synesthesia’ is a perceptual phenomenon where the stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway involuntarily triggers responses in a different sensory or cognitive pathway. This cross-wiring of senses could manifest in a variety of ways such as associating numbers or letters with specific colors, perceiving sounds as tangible shapes, or tasting words. Synesthesia is not considered a disorder, but rather a neurological variation that results in unique sensory experiences.
Syntax: Syntax is the grammatical structure that governs the arrangement of words in sentences. It provides guidelines for correct sequence, placement, and relationship of words.
Expanded Definition
‘Syntax’ can be comprehensively defined as the fundamental regulations and principles in a given language that govern how words are composed, arranged, and interact with each other to form grammatically sound and meaningful sentences. These are a set of conventions that dictate the logical sequence, structure, punctuation, and relationships between words, including the use of different parts of speech, tense, and subject-verb agreement. A solid grasp of syntax enables clear and effective communication, and its application varies across different languages.
System 1: ‘System 1’ refers to our instinctive cognitive process, effortlessly making swift, automatic decisions influenced by emotions and unconscious biases.
Expanded Definition
‘System 1’ is a term denoting our instinctive decision-making faculty. It characteristically works at a rapid pace, performing actions that are automatic and require minimal conscious effort. This system usually operates below our awareness level, meaning its processes are undertaken implicitly rather than requiring explicit thoughts. Furthermore, System 1 decisions are highly influenced by emotions, characterizing its reactions as often immediate and subjective. This instinctual system is critical for numerous daily functions, enabling us to process and react to information quickly and efficiently.
System 2: ‘System 2’ is the cognitive functionality that involves conscious thought, analytical reasoning and is slower due to its effort-intensive nature. It’s our brain’s logical, methodical decision-making mode.
Expanded Definition
‘System 2’ is often referred to as our more analytical means of decision-making. It is characterized by a more thoughtful, slow-paced processing of information which requires conscious attention and mental effort. Unlike our automatic and intuitive responses, this system requires the active engagement of our cognitive resources to deliberate, evaluate, compare, and finally decide. The process is transparent or ‘explicit’, in the sense that we are consciously aware of the thoughts involved. Also, it is guided by rules of logic and structured reasoning which helps us make rational decisions based on thorough evaluation and analysis.
Systematic Desensitization: Systematic Desensitization is a therapeutic approach where fear is remedied through graduated exposure to the anxiety-provoking stimuli, paired with relaxation techniques.
Expanded Definition
Systematic Desensitization is a well-established therapeutic approach, primarily used within the realm of behavioral psychology. It is a type of cognitive behavior therapy that combines controlled exposure to stimuli that incites anxiety or fear, with techniques designed to induce relaxation. The main objective of this therapy is to enable the individual to replace an unfavorable or fear response with a more adaptive, relaxed response. Through systematic desensitization, a patient is gradually introduced to a fear-inducing stimulus, either real or imagined. Concurrently, the patient learns and practices relaxation exercises, aiming to achieve a state of calm. As this therapy progresses, exposure to the fear-inducing stimulus increases in intensity or duration with the ultimate goal of desensitizing and reducing the individual’s underlying fear or phobia. Essentially, systematic desensitization aids individuals in managing their anxiety or fears more effectively, improving overall quality of life.

T

Tardive Dyskinesia: Tardive Dyskinesia is a persistent neurological disorder, resulting from long-term use of antipsychotic medications, characterized by involuntary muscle movements, typically in the facial region.
Expanded Definition
Tardive Dyskinesia is a clinical condition characterized by involuntary and often persistent motor behaviors, primarily impacting the oral and facial muscles, resulting from prolonged use of certain antipsychotic medications. The term ‘Tardive’ implies a delayed onset, indicating that these symptoms often emerge after an extended period of treatment. Drug-induced damage to specific regions of the nervous system is considered the primary contributing factor. It’s essential to note that while the disorder is often associated with chronicity and permanence, its course can be variable, and early detection, careful medication management, and appropriate therapeutic interventions may alleviate symptoms in some individuals.
Taste Aversion Conditioning (Learning): Taste Aversion Conditioning refers to a learning process where an organism associates a specific taste with sickness, resulting in a future aversion to that flavor.
Expanded Definition
Taste Aversion Conditioning, also referred to as Learning, is a psychological principle referring to an acquired response in which an organism associates the taste of a certain food or drink with a negative physiological reaction such as sickness or nausea. This form of classical conditioning results in an immediate, often long-lasting, subsequent aversion to and avoidance of that specific taste in the future, thereby enhancing survival by preventing the organism from consuming potentially harmful substances.
Taste Buds: Taste buds are sensory organs located on your tongue that perceive and identify different chemical compounds as flavors.
Expanded Definition
‘Taste buds’ can be defined as specialized sensory structures situated primarily on the surface of the tongue. They function as biochemical receptors that respond to certain soluble substances within the oral cavity. Each bud is designed to detect specific chemical compounds – sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami (savory) – in food and drink, facilitating the sensation of taste as a key part of the human gustatory system.
Telegraphic Speech: ‘Telegraphic speech’ refers to a developmental stage in child language acquisition where the child communicates using primarily verbs and nouns, mirroring the brevity of a telegram.
Expanded Definition
Telegraphic Speech refers to a crucial developmental stage in a child’s language acquisition where their verbal expressions are similar to the succinct language of a telegram. During this stage, children primarily use nouns and verbs, and their speech often lacks auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and articles. For example, a child may say “go car” instead of “I want to go to the car.” This stage typically emerges when a child is around two years old, showcasing their growing comprehension and use of the most essential elements of language.
Temperament: Temperament refers to the inherent traits present in an infant, shaping its basic approach to interaction and response to the world.
Expanded Definition
‘Temperament’ refers to the inherent and natural behavioral and emotional patterns that appear early in a child’s life. It is often considered as the genetic foundation of an individual’s personality. These innate traits, including tendencies towards introversion or extroversion, patience or impulsivity, and adaptability or resistance to change, generally persist into adulthood and can influence a wide array of behaviors and responses to different situations.
Temporal Lobe: The Temporal Lobe, positioned between the ears and ahead of the occipital lobe, is the brain’s primary region for processing auditory information and language interpretation.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Temporal Lobe’ is a vital component of the human brain structure, traditionally identified as the auditory cortex due to its significant role in processing auditory information. This anatomical region is strategically situated anterior to the occipital lobe, essentially nestled in the area between the ears. It holds a complex array of functions. Notably, the temporal lobe plays a central part in comprehending and interpreting various sound stimuli and linguistic patterns that we encounter in our daily interactions. As such, it is instrumental to our capabilities of auditory perception, language comprehension, and verbal memory among other cognitive processes.
Temporal Perspective: Temporal perspective refers to an individual’s focus on either the past, present, or future timeframe. It underscores how individuals perceive and prioritize different periods of time within their cognition.
Expanded Definition
‘Temporal Perspective’ is defined as an individual’s unique outlook or orientation toward time, encapsulating the way they mentally categorize their experiences and expectations in terms of past, present, or future dimensions. For instance, some individuals might have a past-oriented viewpoint, primarily reliving experiences or learning from their past actions. Others could have a future-oriented view, constantly planning and preparing for future events. Nevertheless, some may have a present orientation, focusing heavily on immediate experiences and living in the moment. Temporal Perspective not only governs how one thinks but also significantly influences their behavior and decision-making processes.
Temporally Graded Retrograde Amnesia: Temporally Graded Retrograde Amnesia is a memory disorder where recent memories before amnesia onset are lost, while older memories remain unaffected.
Expanded Definition
‘Temporally Graded Retrograde Amnesia’ refers to a cognitive deficiency where an individual struggles to retrieve recent memories that occurred shortly before the onset of amnesia. However, this person retains the ability to recall older, more distant events. This condition typically showcases a time-dependent nature, with memory loss being more severe for events closer to the amnesia onset. In contrast, memory for occurrences further back in time tends to remain unimpaired. Hence, it showcases a clear ‘temporal gradient’ in memory functioning, with retrieval difficulty increasing as one attempts to recall more recent events.
Tend-and-Befriend Response: The ‘Tend-and-Befriend Response’ refers to a stress coping strategy that entails enhancing social connections to safeguard against potential risks.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Tend-and-Befriend Response’ is a psychological term that describes a specific type of adaptive behavior in response to stressful situations. Rather than confronting the stressor directly (‘fight’) or avoiding it (‘flight’), individuals exhibiting the tend-and-befriend response seek out social connections and supportive relationships as a defense mechanism. It involves nurturing activities that promote safety (tending), and proactively investing in relationship-building activities (befriending) that create a supportive network to aid in threat mitigation. This strategy not only helps to diffuse immediate stress but also establishes a communal safety net that can be relied upon during future stress events.
Teratogens: Teratogens are agents that can cause malformation or dysfunction in an embryo or fetus. They are potentially harmful substances that can interfere with prenatal development.
Expanded Definition
‘Teratogens’ are defined as specific agents, substances, or conditions, such as viruses, drugs, or chemicals, which can interfere with the normal developmental processes of an embryo or fetus. Exposure to these elements during crucial growth stages can lead to a wide spectrum of birth defects or developmental abnormalities. These harmful effects could range from minor physical abnormalities to significant mental, behavioural, or physical impairments, depending on the type, duration, and intensity of exposure to the teratogen.
Terror-Management Theory: Terror-Management Theory is a psychological model suggesting reactions to the awareness of our mortality shape human behavior and emotions. It investigates how reminders of death influence individuals’ emotional responses and actions.
Expanded Definition
Terror-Management Theory (TMT) is a psychological concept that examines the human experience and emotional response to the inherent existential concern of one’s own mortality. It delves into the understanding of death-related fears and apprehensions and how individuals cope with the realization of their inevitable end. This theory explores how the awareness of death can trigger reactions ranging from anxiety and denial to changes in behaviors and values, influencing various aspects of a person’s life and interactions. Through terror-management, researchers seek to comprehend the strategies people employ to manage and mitigate their mortality-related fear or anxiety.
Tertiary Prevention: Tertiary prevention refers to interventions implemented for individuals already diagnosed with a disorder, aiming to manage and lessen symptoms or prevent progression, typically through therapies like psychotherapy or biomedical treatments.
Expanded Definition
Tertiary Prevention is a concept typically seen in healthcare and related settings, defined as interventions or strategies aimed at managing diagnosed health conditions, disorders, or diseases. These strategies go beyond mere treatment and can include medical therapies, psychotherapy, or rehabilitation programs, all with a goal to manage the symptoms, slow the progression of the disorder, reduce complication, and improve the living standards and well-being of the individuals diagnosed. This form of prevention is particularly applied in chronic conditions, where ongoing management and care are integral to enhancing the quality of life. It seeks to reduce the impact of the diagnosed disease on the patient’s life, maintaining optimal functioning, and promoting the highest possible level of health and functioning. It is the third level of health care, following primary and secondary prevention.
Testes: Testes are the primary male reproductive glands that produce testosterone and other hormones crucial for male sexuality.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Testes’ are a pair of crucial reproductive organs in males, responsible for producing and secreting various hormones, primarily testosterone. As part of the male endocrine system, these oval-shaped glands not only facilitate the production of male gametes, or sperm cells, but they also play a significant role in regulating physical characteristics typically associated with masculinity due to their production of testosterone. This hormone is responsible for aspects such as muscle growth, voice deepening, and the development of body hair during puberty.
Testosterone: Testosterone is a primary male sex hormone, produced by the testes, responsible for regulating masculine physical traits and sexual maturation.
Expanded Definition
Testosterone is a crucial hormone primarily produced in the testes of males, playing a pivotal role in male sexual development and functioning. This hormone drives key stages in puberty such as the expansion of the penis, intensification of voice, and the growth of facial and pubic hair. Additionally, testosterone significantly contributes to the augmentation of muscle mass and strength. Its influence is not only physical; it also has considerable effects on mood and cognitive abilities. While testosterone is often identified as a male sex hormone, it is important to note that it is produced by females as well, albeit in smaller quantities, and contributes to their sexual drive and bodily functions.
Thalamus: The thalamus is a complex, egg-shaped neural structure above the brain stem that modulates all sensory input from the spinal cord, filters essential signals, and dispatches them to higher brain levels.
Expanded Definition
The thalamus is an oval-shaped structure located above the brainstem, playing a pivotal role in processing and transmitting sensory information from the spinal cord to the higher areas of the brain. Notably, it filters and prioritizes this sensory data before it reaches higher brain centers, ensuring only the most important information is passed on. In essence, the thalamus acts as a relay station and an essential hub in the brain’s information network.
THC: THC, or Tetrahydrocannabinol, is the primary psychoactive component in cannabis responsible for inducing mild hallucinatory experiences.
Expanded Definition
Tetrahydrocannabinol, commonly abbreviated as THC, is recognized as the primary psychoactive compound found in marijuana. This constituent is primarily responsible for the mind-altering effects experienced when consuming the plant. THC’s influence on the brain’s cannabinoid receptors induces a range of effects from relaxation and pain relief to perceptual alterations which can sometimes lead to mild hallucinatory experiences. However, effects can vary greatly depending on the individual and the specific composition of the marijuana strain.
The Big Five (Five-Factor Model): ‘The Big Five’ is a prevalent model that identifies five core personality dimensions: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
Expanded Definition
‘The Big Five Personality Model’, also often referred to as the ‘Five-Factor Model’, is a widely recognized and scientifically backed framework often employed in psychology to assess and delineate the five fundamental dimensions of human personality. These key character traits include Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism, which are often remembered using the acronym OCEAN. Each factor represents a spectrum upon which individuals may fall, providing an informative and comprehensive tool to understand the complexity and variations of human behavior, thought patterns, and emotional responses.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), is a psychological assessment where individuals reveal their emotions and desires by creating narratives from vague images.
Expanded Definition
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a widely utilized psychological assessment tool. In essence, it’s a type of projective psychological test, which means it involves presenting individuals with a series of ambiguous images or scenarios. The participants are then asked to articulate or compose a narrative related to each image. The underlying principle is that the test subjects will project their own unconscious feelings, desires, fears, and personal experiences onto the vague visual prompts, providing a window into their internal emotional and psychological states. Thus, the narratives crafted by the individuals are not considered random, but are seen as depicting meaningful revelations about their personality characteristics, underlying motives, and their internalized perception of social realities. As such, TAT is a valuable tool used in therapeutic settings and psychological research.
Theory: A theory is a comprehensive set of principles used to explain and forecast various, though not all, observed phenomena within a specific area of study.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Theory’ is a comprehensive explanation that contains a collection of interconnected principles and concepts. This explanation is intended to interpret and forecast a significant number, although not every possible, of observable links or associations within a specific field of investigation or study. This implies that a theory is not an absolute fact, but a well-substantiated explanation formed after extensive examination, research, and testing in a specific subject area. It provides a framework for understanding observed phenomena, predicting future events, or guiding further research within its domain.
Theory of Intelligence (Three Part or Triarchic): The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, proposed by Robert Sternberg, asserts that intelligence is composed of three dimensions: analytical, creative, and practical intelligence, each with varying degrees of prominence in individuals.
Expanded Definition
The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, put forth by Robert Sternberg, is a comprehensive framework that aims to explain human intelligence by dividing it into three interconnected parts: Analytical intelligence, practical intelligence, and creative intelligence. Analytical Intelligence, often associated with traditional measures of ‘intelligence’, involves problem-solving abilities, logical reasoning, and the skill to analyze and evaluate. Creative Intelligence refers to the capacity to think ‘outside the box’, inventively address novel situations, and produce unique solutions. Practical Intelligence speaks to the ability to adapt to the environment, understanding and shaping the immediate context for personal benefit. While everyone possesses all three kinds of intelligence, the levels may vary individually, leading to one dominating over the others in different people.
Theory of Mind: ‘Theory of Mind’ is the innate human ability to comprehend and infer others’ mental states, intentions, and perspectives, facilitating empathy and social interactions. It essentially involves understanding that other individuals have minds distinct from our own.
Expanded Definition
‘Theory of Mind’ is an essential feature of human cognition that allows us to comprehend and predict others’ behaviors and feelings by considering their thoughts, desires, and beliefs. This ability incorporates a cluster of concepts such as the understanding of agency (recognition of self-driven actions), and intentionality (awareness that behaviors are often purposeful). Associated cognitive processes include goal detection (inferring aims behind actions), imitation (copying behaviors to learn and understand), empathy (experiencing emotions that are resonant with someone else’s feelings), and perspective taking (seeing things from another person’s viewpoint). This cognitive capacity heightens our social understanding by enabling us to see the world from another person’s perspective.
Theory of Natural Selection: The Theory of Natural Selection, formulated by Charles Darwin, posits that traits enabling organisms to adapt best to their environment are more likely to be propagated, effectively driving species evolution.
Expanded Definition
The Theory of Natural Selection, an indispensable principle of evolutionary biology first introduced by renowned naturalist Charles Darwin, is predicated on the notion that physical features and behaviors of organisms, including humans, evolve over generations. This evolution is driven by the survival advantage conferred by certain traits in a given environment, often referred to as “survival of the fittest”. These advantageous traits, serving a functional purpose, become more prevalent in the population as the organisms possessing them are more likely to survive and pass those traits onto the next generation. This ongoing process leads to a gradual and continuous change in species over time, shaping the diversity of life.
Therapeutic Alliance: Therapeutic alliance is the trusting and collaborative connection between a patient and therapist, nurtured by the therapist’s authentic, nonjudgmental, and empathetic approach.
Expanded Definition
The Therapeutic Alliance, sometimes also known as the therapeutic relationship, refers to the collaborative cooperation and connection established between a therapist and a client. It is characterized by the therapist’s authenticity and consistent demonstration of unconditional positive regard, which means accepting and appreciating the client for who they are, irrespective of their behavior or issues. In addition, the therapist cultivates and conveys a deep understanding and empathy toward the client’s experiences and emotions. This alliance serves as a pivotal element of successful therapy outcomes, not only providing a secure environment for the client to openly express thoughts and feelings, but also fostering trust and engagement in the therapeutic process.
Thinking Function: The ‘Thinking Function’ represents an analytical perspective that identifies logical connections and causality, typically characterized by objectivity, directness, and inquiry.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘Thinking Function’ pertains to a cognitive process that emphasizes rationality, objectivity, and logical analysis. It involves a person’s ability to discern connections and relationships between elements based on cause and effect principles. People with a pronounced thinking function tend to portray a cool and detached demeanor, often seen as frank due to their propensity for straightforward communication. Furthermore, they are often inclined towards asking probing questions, a sign of their logical and analytical mind at work. This cognitive function is crucial in problem-solving, critical thinking, and decision-making processes, aiding individuals in making precise, logical, and rational decisions.
Third Force: ‘Third Force’ refers to the humanistic psychology movement, emphasizing individual potential and the importance of human growth and self-actualization, considered the ‘third force’ after psychoanalysis and behaviorism in psychology’s development.
Expanded Definition
‘Third Force’ is a term often used in the field of psychology to refer to the perspective known as Humanistic psychology. This approach represents the third major wave of thought after Psychoanalysis and Behaviorism, hence the term ‘Third Force’. This perspective places an emphasis on the inherent goodness and potential of humans, focusing on individual free will, self-development, and the pursuit of personal fulfillment. It inherently believes in the individual’s capacity to self-actualize and puts a high emphasis on subjective experiences, personal growth, and phenomenological perception. By its nature, ‘Third Force’ or Humanistic psychology is person-centered and underscores the value of empathy and self-understanding.
Threat-Simulation Theory: The Threat-Simulation Theory posits that dreams serve as a prehistoric protective strategy by mimicking possible danger scenarios, facilitating our survival instincts.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Threat Simulation Theory’ is a scholarly concept outlining the evolutionary purpose of dreams. According to this theory, dreams serve as a primal defense mechanism; they create virtual environments that mirror potentially threatening situations. This psycho-biological function enables an individual to rehearse responses and strategies, thereby increasing survival preparedness. Essentially, through dreams, the brain prepares and equips itself to handle real-world danger, thus enhancing its adaptive evolutionary advantage.
Three Stages of Moral Thinking: The ‘Three Stages of Moral Thinking’ refer to the sequential phases children experience in their moral and cognitive development. It underpins their evolving understanding of moral principles, moving from basic compliance to societal norms through to independent moral reasoning.
Expanded Definition
‘Three Stages of Moral Thinking’ refers to a developmental model in moral psychology that posits three distinct phases that individuals undergo in shaping their ethical and moral reasoning abilities. Typically recognized during childhood and adolescence, these stages reflect the progression from basic to more complex understanding and application of ethics and morality. The stages usually involve: 1. Pre-conventional stage, where decisions are made based on anticipated punishments or rewards. 2. Conventional stage, where individuals begin to consider societal norms and expectations in their moral choices. 3. Post-conventional (or principled) stage, where individuals base their moral decisions on universal principles and a personal ethical framework, often independently of societal norms. These stages, however, are dependent on the individual’s cognitive development, exposure to moral dilemmas, cultural milieu, and personal experiences.
Threshold: A threshold is the minimum level of stimulus needed to activate a neuron and cause it to send a signal. It’s the tipping point that initiates neural impulses.
Expanded Definition
“Threshold” in the neurophysiological context refers to the minimum intensity, or level, of stimulation that is necessary to activate, or trigger, a neural impulse. This neural impulse, also known as an action potential, is a vital physiological process that enables the transmission of information throughout our nervous system. The concept of a threshold is crucial in understanding how neurons communicate with each other as part of a broader nervous system network. Different stimuli may necessitate varying threshold levels, making this an adaptable process that ultimately influences basic and complex behaviors.
Thriving: Thriving is the ability to grow and strengthen in challenging circumstances.
Expanded Definition
‘Thriving’ is generally defined as exhibiting continuous growth and gaining strength, even when confronted with challenges or adversities. This term encapsulates the ability to persistently evolve, achieve set objectives, and manifest resilience despite potential hindrances or setbacks. The concept of thriving encompasses personal, professional, economic, or societal growth, and is often associated with the idea of overcoming obstacles successfully and achieving sustainable development.
Thyroid Gland: The thyroid gland is a vital organ involved in the regulation of the body’s metabolic rate and the production of crucial hormones.
Expanded Definition
The thyroid gland is a vitally important endocrine organ situated in the lower part of the neck. Its primary function is regulating the body’s metabolic rate, which refers to how efficiently the body uses energy. It accomplishes this by producing and releasing thyroid hormones into the bloodstream. Thyroid hormones play a significant role in numerous physiological processes, including growth, development, and body temperature regulation. This gland operates in conjunction with the parathyroid gland, but it’s worth noting they perform distinct functions. Be aware that any disruption or anomaly in the functioning of the thyroid gland may affect numerous bodily functions, and may lead to various thyroid-related disorders.
Tinnitus: Tinnitus is a condition characterized by a perception of ringing or buzzing in the ears, usually resulting from damage to cochlear cilia by loud sounds.
Expanded Definition
Tinnitus is a condition characterized by the perception of noise or ringing in the ears, often described as buzzing, when no external sound is present. This auditory sensation typically results from specific types of noise exposure that can potentially harm the tiny hair cells called cilia in the cochlea, a part of the inner ear involved in sound processing. The damage can alter the signals transmitted to the brain, leading to these phantom noises and it is often associated with hearing loss. It’s crucial to understand that tinnitus isn’t a disease itself but a symptom of an underlying condition, which may include ear injury, circulatory system disorder, or age-related hearing loss.
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: The ‘Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon’ is the frustrating experience of knowing a piece of information yet failing to retrieve it, a common event in human memory recall.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon’ is a cognitive condition where an individual is confident about knowing a particular piece of information, yet struggles to accurately retrieve and articulate it from their memory. It is characterized by a frustrating sensation of partial recall, with a sense that full retrieval is imminent, leading to a strong belief that the information is indeed ‘on the tip of one’s tongue’. This phenomenon is prevalent in both psychology and linguistics, conceptualizing the intricate nature of human memory retrieval processes.
Token Economy: A token economy is a behavior modification method where individuals earn tokens for desired actions, which can later be traded for rewards or privileges.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Token Economy’ is a behavioural modification method, rooted in the principles of operant conditioning. People are rewarded with tokens for demonstrating preferred behaviors. These tokens serve as a form of secondary reinforcement and can be accumulated and later exchanged for certain privileges, benefits, or items, acting as positive reinforcement for the desired behavior. This strategy is widely used in various environments, such as classrooms or therapeutic settings, to promote and encourage progress towards specific behavioral goals. It’s a systematic and accessible way to reinforce desired behaviors and reduce undesirable ones.
Tolerance: Tolerance is the body’s need for a higher drug dosage to achieve the same effect, due to its adapted response to recurrent exposure.
Expanded Definition
“Tolerance” refers to a biological process where the body gradually adapts to continued administration of a certain drug, consequently necessitating larger doses to achieve the intended effects. This physiological adaptation often results from the body’s attempt to maintain a balance, leading to a reduction in the drug’s overall effectiveness over time. It’s crucial to note that this definition of tolerance is primarily used in a medical or pharmacological context, and can contribute to dependency or addiction if not carefully monitored and managed.
Top- Down Processing: Top-down processing is a cognitive mechanism where our perceptions are shaped by our prior knowledge and expectations to comprehend sensory input. It indicates how our brain makes interpretations based on abstract, big-picture understandings.
Expanded Definition
‘Top-Down Processing’ refers to the psychological model of information interpretation. In this approach, comprehension or perception begins with the macro, holistic framework established by higher-level cognitive functions like past experiences, ideologies, and preconceived assumptions. That is, instead of assembling details to recognize a larger structure (which characterizes bottom-up processing), top-down processing makes use of existing knowledge and expectations to form an overall understanding or perception. Its efficiency lies in rapidly contextualizing unfamiliar input, providing a sense of familiarity or comprehension even when dealing with new experiences or information. In this manner, it shapes our perception and interaction with our environment by continuously interpreting and predicting sensory information based on prior learning.
Toxic Inhalants: Toxic inhalants are readily-available substances like glue, gasoline, and hairspray, whose vapors are inhaled to alter consciousness, and are commonly misused as depressants.
Expanded Definition
‘Toxic Inhalants’ refer to a category of substances that, when inhaled as vapors, can induce alterations in a person’s state of consciousness. They are typically easily accessible household or industrial products such as glue, gasoline, propane, hairspray, and spray paint. The potential for abuse is high as these substances act as depressants, slowing down brain activity. This term reinforces the hazardous nature of these substances when misused for inhalation purposes due to their severe impact on physical, mental, and overall health.
Trait: A trait refers to a habitual pattern of behavior, thought, or emotion, often established via self-assessment and peer assessment.
Expanded Definition
A ‘trait’ refers to a distinct and consistent attribute in an individual’s behavior, feelings, or reactions. This characteristic, which can be inherent or acquired, outlines a person’s tendency to behave or respond in certain ways under particular circumstances. The evaluation of traits often relies on self-report inventories, in which individuals provide subjective descriptions of their own behaviors and feelings, and on peer reports, where individuals close to the person provide their objective assessment. These traits form an essential part of an individual’s personality, contributing to their uniqueness and predictability.
Traits of Good Theories: Good theories encompass a broad range of outcomes, offer the most straightforward explanations and are structured in a way that allows for their predictions to be potentially disproven through rigorous research.
Expanded Definition
‘Traits of Good Theories’ refers to the key characteristics that effective theoretical constructs should exhibit to ensure their credibility and utility in the scientific and academic arenas. These include: 1) Generality: A good theory should be able to summarize and explain a wide range of similar outcomes or behaviors, providing a broader scope. This means it is applicable to a wide variety of situations or phenomena while maintaining its core understanding and explanation. 2) Parsimony: An effective theory should utilize the principle of parsimony, or simplicity, intending to provide the most straightforward possible explanation for outcomes. It should avoid unnecessary complexity or assumptions, making it clear and easily understood. 3) Falsifiability: This crucial trait implies that the theory must be designed such that it can potentially be proven incorrect through empirical testing or research. The variables within the theory must be accurately measurable, and the predicted relationships between these variables must be testable. The potential to disprove or ‘falsify’ the theory adds to its integrity and scientific value as it encourages ongoing testing and assessment of the theory’s validity.
Trance States: Trance States refer to a heightened state of consciousness where an individual experiences intense disconnection from their physical surroundings, often likened to as ‘out-of-body’ experiences.
Expanded Definition
‘Trance States’ can be professionally defined as a unique psychological state marked by heightened consciousness where an individual experiences a sense of detachment or disconnection from their immediate physical reality. This phenomenon, often regarded as “out-of-body possession”, is a form of acute dissociation where there is a perceptual shift from one’s self-awareness to a detached perspective. This significantly alters the individual’s way of interacting and perceiving their environment, providing them with a different understanding and experience of their reality.
Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping: The Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping (TTSC) posits that stress arises from an individual’s relationship and interaction with their multifaceted environment. It denotes a two-way process where the person and environment mutually influence and shape each other.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping’ (TTSC) is a psychological model that conceptualizes stress as an outcome of the dynamic interaction between an individual and their multifaceted environment. It postulates that an individual’s stress level is contingent upon the perceived demands or problems (termed as ‘stressors’) in their environment and their evaluation of their personal resources and ability to cope or effectively address these stressors. Therefore, in this theory, stress is not entirely a byproduct of the environment or the individual, but rather it emerges from the interplay between the two. Thus, stress and coping are seen as an ongoing transaction in which personal and situational factors constantly influence each other.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) is a procedure where magnetic pulses are used to temporarily disable specific brain regions, aiming to determine the resultant effects on behavior.
Expanded Definition
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive therapeutic procedure where magnetic fields are used to stimulate nerve cells in specific regions of the brain. During this process, an electromagnetic coil is placed against the patient’s scalp which generates magnetic pulses. These pulses temporarily disrupt the normal functioning of the targeted brain region. By temporarily hindering the activity in certain areas of the brain, medical professionals can observe the effect of these alterations on the person’s behavior. This procedure is safe and serves an important purpose in teaching us more about the functional responsibilities of different brain regions, and it also holds potential as a treatment vehicle for a wide array of health conditions, including depression and other neurological disorders.
Transduction: Transduction is the process where sensory receptors convert stimuli into neural signals that are sent to the brain.
Expanded Definition
“Transduction” is a specialized scientific term referring to the biological process whereby sensory stimuli — such as light, sound, heat, or pressure — are converted into electrical signals by the sensory receptor cells in our body. These signals, technically referred to as nerve impulses, are subsequently transmitted to the brain. This process allows the brain to interpret our surrounding environment, facilitating responses and interactions. Thus, transduction serves as the critical link that connects our physical sensations with the inner neurological processes that make those sensations meaningful and comprehensible.
Transfer-Appropriate Processing: Transfer-Appropriate Processing refers to the concept where memory retrieval is best when it aligns with the cognitive processes used during learning or encoding. Simply put, how well you remember something depends on the match between how you learned it and how you’re trying to recall it.
Expanded Definition
‘Transfer-Appropriate Processing’ is a psychological principle that claims the effectiveness of memory retrieval is directly linked to the alignment between the cognitive processes used during the encoding (or learning) of the information and those invoked at the time of retrieval. Simply put, it frames the optimal efficiency of memory retrieval as a function of the compatibility of processes used in learning and recalling that information. This principle underscores that memory performance will be enhanced when the cognitive strategies employed at the time of recall mirror those utilized during the original information encoding phase.
Transference: Transference is the unconscious projection of emotions felt in a significant personal relationship onto the therapist.
Expanded Definition
Transference is a psychoanalytical concept that refers to an unconscious psychological process where emotions and behaviors, originally associated with important relationships in a person’s early life, are unconsciously projected onto the therapist during a therapeutic relationship. This means that the individual will transfer feelings, emotions, or reactions such as love, anger, resentment, or dependency, that they initially experienced with significant others (like a parent or a romantic partner) to the therapist. It’s key to understand that this process is involuntary and forms an integral part of the psychoanalytic therapeutic journey, providing insight into the individual’s unresolved past relationships or experiences.
Trichromatic Color Theory: Trichromatic Color Theory explains color perception as the result of the interplay of signals between three types of photoreceptor cones in our eyes. It posits that all visible colors can be produced by varying the output of these three cone types.
Expanded Definition
Trichromatic Color Theory is a fundamental concept in visual perception and color vision studies. It postulates that the human ability to perceive myriad colors is dependent on the combined activity of three distinct types of photoreceptor cells called cones, which are located in the retina of our eyes. These cones are individually sensitive to different segments of the light spectrum — essentially red, green, and blue. By varying the ratio of stimulation among these cones, we can perceive a full range of colors. Therefore, the color we perceive isn’t merely a single wavelength of light, but rather a complex interpretation of signals from these three types of cones, each absorbing light at its own optimal wavelength. This is the central premise of the Trichromatic Color Theory.
Tricyclic Antidepressants: Tricyclic Antidepressants are the pioneering class of depression drugs that enhance serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine levels at brain synapses.
Expanded Definition
‘Tricyclic Antidepressants’ are a class of medications primarily designated for the treatment of depression. Originating as some of the first drugs utilized for this purpose, their working mechanism involves an increase in the concentration of three vital neurotransmitters at the synaptic level: serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. These neurotransmitters play a significant role in mood and emotion regulation, thus, their increased presence can help alleviate symptoms of depression. These drugs get their ‘Tricyclic’ name from the three-ring structure of their chemical makeup. Despite newer, often preferred antidepressant options, tricyclic antidepressants may still be prescribed when other medications have proven ineffective.
Twin Studies: Twin studies are a genetic research technique that compares the behavioral similarity between identical and fraternal twins. It helps in understanding the impact of genetic and environmental factors on behavior.
Expanded Definition
‘Twin Studies’ refer to a specific approach used within the field of behavioral genetics, which aims to examine the influence of genetic and environmental factors on behaviors. This methodology primarily revolves around comparing and contrasting the level of similarity between two types of twins: identical (also known as monozygotic, or MZ) and fraternal (also known as dizygotic, or DZ) twins. Identical twins share 100% of their genes as they originate from a single fertilized egg which splits into two embryos, whereas fraternal twins share, on average, 50% of their genes as they come from two separate fertilized eggs. Therefore, by evaluating the behavioral traits and their similarities or differences in these types of twins, scientists can gain insights into the degree to which specific behaviors may be genetically determined or influenced by environmental factors.
Two-Factor Theory of Emotion: The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion suggests that emotion is a combination of physical arousal and how we cognitively interpret that arousal, defining the specific emotion we feel.
Expanded Definition
The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion is a psychological postulate that argues the formulation of emotions is dependent on two significant factors: physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation. It posits that emotions are not innately programmed but are rather a combined result of a distinct state of physiological arousal and our brain’s interpretation or understanding of this arousal. At first, a physiological response like an increased heart rate or sweaty palms occurs, and afterwards, our cognitive systems assign a specific emotion to this arousal, like fear or excitement based on our cognitive appraisal or judgment of the situation and environmental cues. Hence, it’s not just the intensity of arousal that determines the emotion, but the cognitive interpretation of the context and circumstances surrounding the arousal that shapes the actual emotional experience. So, even with the same physiological response, the emotion we experience can be different depending on how we cognitively interpret or understand that response and relevant situation.
Two-Word Stage: The “Two-Word Stage” is a phase in a child’s linguistic development, around age 2, characterized by predominantly two-word utterances.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Two-Word Stage’ refers to a pivotal period in a child’s speech and language development, typically commencing around the age of two. During this phase, a child primarily communicates using two-word phrases or statements. This is a significant breakthrough as it marks the initial stages of combining words to convey more complex thoughts or requests, paving the way for comprehensive language skills. However, it’s crucial to note that the exact timing can differ among individual children, reflecting the natural variance in developmental milestones.
Tympanic Membrane (or Eardrum): The tympanic membrane, or eardrum, is a sensitive, tautly positioned membrane at the termination of the ear canal, essential for sound transmission.
Expanded Definition
The Tympanic Membrane, also known as the eardrum, is a thin, cone-shaped structure that is situated at the terminus of the external auditory canal. It is a precision-engineered membrane which is tightly stretched to react to sound waves. This essential organ of the auditory system acts as a barrier, separating the external ear from the middle ear. It is highly sensitive to auditory stimuli and its primary function is to convert these airborne sound waves into mechanical vibrations. These vibrations are subsequently transmitted to the inner ear, enabling the process of hearing. This integral positioning and functionality make it critical for optimal auditory performance. Despite its toughness, the tympanic membrane can be vulnerable to damage due to various factors such as infection or trauma, potentially causing hearing impairment.
Type A: ‘Type A’ refers to individuals who are competitive, assertive, easily irritated, impatient, and often express anger, as defined by Friedman and Rosenman.
Expanded Definition
‘Type A’ is a term initially coined by cardiologists Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman to describe individuals who exhibit a set of distinct traits. People classified as ‘Type A’ are typically competitive and exhibit a strong drive for accomplishment. They tend to be impatient, often seeking to accomplish tasks in a fast-paced manner, and may struggle when dealing with obstacles or unforeseen disruptions. Additionally, they may engage in verbally assertive or aggressive communication and are more prone to experiencing feelings of anger or frustration. These characteristics may impact their personal and professional relationships as well as their overall health and well-being. Overall, ‘Type A’ describes a personality type that is highly ambitious, time-sensitive, and may have a heightened response to stressors.
Type B: ‘Type B’ refers to individuals who are generally laid-back and unhurried, as characterized by Friedman and Rosenman’s personality typology.
Expanded Definition
‘Type B’ is a classification created by social psychologists Meyer Friedman and Ray H. Rosenman to categorize individuals who are typically calm, relaxed, and uncompetitive. These individuals demonstrate a stress-free approach to life, placing less emphasis on achievement and power. Instead, they tend to highly value creativity, contemplation, and personal satisfaction. ‘Type B’ individuals are often viewed as easygoing, adaptable, and accepting; they are less likely to experience stress-related health problems compared to their ‘Type A’ counterparts who are characterized by high levels of competitiveness, ambition, and urgency.
Types of Memory: Memory is bifurcated into explicit, which enables conscious recollection of facts and events, and implicit, which involves unconscious learning and conditioning.
Expanded Definition
‘Types of Memory’ refers to the various categories of memory storage recognized within the field of cognitive psychology. Predominantly, memory can be classified into two main types, namely, ‘Explicit Memory’ and ‘Implicit Memory’. ‘Explicit Memory’, also known as declarative memory, encompasses the conscious, intentional recollection of factual information, previous experiences, and concepts. This is further subdivided into Semantic memory (general world knowledge) and Episodic memory (personal experiences or events). On the other hand, ‘Implicit Memory’, also referred to as non-declarative memory, involves memory in which behavior is influenced by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience. Subcategories of implicit memory include Procedural memory (skills and habits), Priming (change in response to a stimulus), and Conditioning (learning process). These types of memory systems coexist and often interact, but they involve different neural systems and play distinct roles in our cognitive processes.
Typicality: ‘Typicality’ refers to the ranking of category members from most representative (the prototype) to least, based on their adherence to defined features of the category. It essentially gauges how well a member embodies its category.
Expanded Definition
‘Typicality’ is a concept typically used in cognitive psychology, referring to the degree to which an object or subject fits into or represents its assigned category. It is essentially a measure of how representative a category member is, on a scale from the most characteristic exemplar (or prototype) to the less representative or marginal members. For instance, in the category of ‘birds,’ a robin might be perceived as being more typical than an ostrich due to their better conformity with common bird characteristics such as small size and ability to fly. Thus, typicality gauges the variance in the distinctiveness or suitability of objects or subjects within a certain category.

U

Umbilical Cord: The umbilical cord is a lifeline that connects the embryo to the placenta, facilitating all nutrient and waste transfer to and from the fetus.
Expanded Definition
The umbilical cord is an essential component in fetal development, acting as a crucial physical and biological connection between the embryo and placenta. It serves as a lifeline for the fetus within the womb. This flexible tube-like structure facilitates efficient transfer of nutrients, oxygen, and other vital substances from the mother to the fetus via the placenta. In addition to this, it carries deoxygenated blood and waste products away from the fetus back to the placenta. Thus, the umbilical cord plays an indispensable role in prenatal growth and development.
Unconditional Positive Regard: Unconditional Positive Regard, in the context of Carl Rogers’ theory, refers to empathetic and nonjudgmental acceptance of a client, fostering their self-understanding and self-acceptance.
Expanded Definition
‘Unconditional Positive Regard’ is a concept derived from the humanistic school of psychology, particularly fostered by Carl Rogers. It represents an integral part of his client-centered therapy approach. This term refers to an empathetic understanding and accepting attitude that is devoid of any form of critical judgment. Rogers theorized this as a crucial therapeutic element, promoting a supportive and open therapeutic atmosphere. He believed that by extending unconditional acceptance, therapists could stimulate clients’ intrinsic abilities for self-awareness and self-acceptance. In essence, it empowers individuals to explore their feelings openly and promotes psychological growth by increasing self-worth and reducing self-concept conflicts.
Unconditioned Response (UR): Unconditioned Response (UR) is a natural, instinctive reaction triggered by a stimulus without any need for learning or conditioning.
Expanded Definition
An Unconditioned Response (UR) refers to the natural, instinctive reaction that is triggered by an unconditioned stimulus, without the need for any previous learning or conditioning. This concept, rooted in classical conditioning theory, holds that unconditioned responses aren’t learned or acquired; they exist innately in an organism and serve crucial roles in its survival. Whether it’s salivating at the sight of food, jumping at a loud noise, or feeling your heart race from fright, these responses are automatic and instinctual, produced in the absence of conditioning or training.
Unconditioned Stimulus (US): An Unconditioned Stimulus (US) is an element in classical conditioning that naturally triggers a response prior to any learning process.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘Unconditioned Stimulus (US)’ refers to the component in the process of classical conditioning that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any prior learning. Essentially, it is a stimulus which, even in the absence of any learned association, inherently elicits a certain response, or ‘unconditioned response’. For instance, the smell of food can act as an unconditioned stimulus because it naturally provokes the sensation of hunger or salivation, without any need for training or conditioning.
Unconscious: The unconscious refers to the segment of the mind that influences behavior and is outside of our conscious awareness, including unaccessed memories, thoughts, and impulses.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘unconscious’ is used to denote a state of unawareness or lack of active cognition. It refers to a segment of the mind that, while not directly available to the conscious mind for retrieval or modulation, can significantly influence behavior. This unconscious domain houses experiences, memories, thoughts, and desires that are not readily apparent or acknowledged at the conscious level. The contents of the unconscious mind can affect our actions and decisions, often without our direct knowledge, shaping our personality traits, preferences, biases, and emotional responses.
Universalist: A ‘Universalist’ posits that emotions are uniform across cultures due to them evolving as reactions to our ancestors’ environments.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Universalist’, in the context of emotional psychology, refers to a viewpoint that emphasizes the evolutionary origins of emotions and their universality across cultures. According to this perspective, emotions have evolved as adaptive responses to environmental conditions faced by our primal ancestors and as such, are uniformly experienced and expressed throughout all human cultures worldwide, irrespective of socio-cultural variations.

V

Valid: ‘Valid’ refers to the legitimacy and credibility of the conclusions reached based on the research conducted.
Expanded Definition
The term ‘valid’ refers to the degree of soundness and credibility of the conclusions obtained by a researcher. It indicates that the results achieved are rooted in rigorous methodologies and accurate data analysis, thus rendering them trustworthy and justifiable within the scientific community or field of study. This term denotes the ability of these findings to accurately reflect the reality they claim to encapsulate or the hypothesis they aim to test.
Validity: Validity refers to the degree to which a test accurately measures what it’s intended to measure and the appropriateness of the inferences and actions made based on the test scores.
Expanded Definition
‘Validity’ is a critical concept in assessment and evaluation methods, commonly associated with tests, scales, or measurement tools. Specifically, it refers to the degree to which the instrument accurately measures what it is intended to measure. This accuracy is determined by empirical evidence that supports the relevance and appropriateness of the inferences and decisions we make from a test’s scores. Simply put, a valid test measures effectively what it claims to measure and the results can be used in a meaningful and useful way. Therefore, validity directly impacts the reliability of interpretations and applications derived from the test scores.
Value-Free Research: Value-free research refers to the practice in social psychology where researchers abstain from making value judgments to maintain scientific objectivity, particularly when studying cultural aspects.
Expanded Definition
“Value-Free Research” refers to the principle applied in the field of social psychology, and social sciences in general, where researchers aim to conduct their studies devoid of personal biases or ethical and moral judgments. This is pursued to ensure scientific objectivity, where findings are based on empirical and measurable evidence which is unbiased, rather than influenced by preconceived notions, ideologies, or personal beliefs. Researchers practicing this principle aim to provide a balanced and neutral analysis of cultural phenomena and behaviors, removing their subjective interpretations to yield results that are universally valid and widely generalizable.
Variable-Interval Schedule: A variable-interval schedule is a strategy in operant conditioning, where rewards are given randomly over time after the desired behavior occurs. Unlike fixed schedules, this unpredictability keeps the subject engaged and consistently responding.
Expanded Definition
A Variable-Interval Schedule, in the context of operant conditioning – a learning process in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by the consequences of that behavior – refers to a reinforcement method where a response or behavior is rewarded at an unpredictable time interval. This schedule doesn’t follow a set pattern, and the time between reinforcements changes randomly. The unpredictability of this schedule often results in a steady and consistent response rate, as the subject doesn’t know when the next reinforcement will occur, keeping them engaged in the behavior.
Variable-Ratio Schedule: A variable-ratio schedule is a method in operant conditioning where rewards are given unpredictably after varying numbers of responses, resulting in persistent and high-frequency behavior.
Expanded Definition
A Variable-Ratio Schedule is a concept derived from the field of psychology, specifically in the area of operant conditioning. In this context, the Variable-Ratio Schedule refers to a method of reinforcement where a desired behavior or response is rewarded after an unpredictable and varying number of occurrences. The unpredictability of the reward makes this schedule particularly effective in encouraging persistent behavior. This schedule is commonly seen in areas where chance or luck is involved, such as gambling or lottery games. However, it’s uses also extend to professional environments, such as incentivizing employee performance in the workplace.
Variables: Variables are attributes that can take on various values, differing among individuals or over time and location.
Expanded Definition
A ‘Variable’ is a fundamental concept in statistics and research that denotes any characteristic, feature, or aspect, which could differ or vary among individual entities, time periods, or locations. In essence, it is any element that possesses the capacity to take on diverse values. As an illustrative example, variables can represent attributes such as height or weight in individuals, the price of an item at different times, or the temperature across various geographical regions. The recognition and understanding of variables is crucial in data collection, analysis, modeling, and interpretation, allowing for the quantification and study of differences, trends, correlates, impacts, and cause-effect relationships.
Vestibular Sense: The vestibular sense is an inner ear sensory mechanism responsible for maintaining balance and posture by detecting head position and movement.
Expanded Definition
The Vestibular Sense, a key component of our sensory processing capabilities, refers to the intricate system within the inner ear that is responsible for monitoring and maintaining our body’s balance and spatial orientation. This complex system performs its function by constantly furnishing our brain with crucial sensory data about the motion, head position, and spatial orientation, thus enabling us to coordinate our movements accurately. Comprised of a network of specialized structures including the semicircular canals and otolithic organs, this sense plays a pivotal role in our ability to stand upright, move without falling, and orient ourselves in our environment. In essence, the vestibular sense acts as our internal gyroscope, offering continuous feedback about our body’s position in relation to the world around us.
Vestibular System: The Vestibular System is a fluid-filled sensor system within the inner ear that manages balance by monitoring head orientation and motion.
Expanded Definition
The Vestibular System is a complex sensory system situated within the inner ear. It is made up of several structures and fluid-filled cavities that are fundamental in keeping the body balanced and oriented in space. This system continuously monitors variations in head position and movement, feeding this information to the brain. Specifically, it comprises two main structures: the semicircular canals, which measure rotational movements, and the otolith organs, which gauge linear accelerations or movements along a straight path. By doing so, the Vestibular System contributes significantly to functions that include maintaining visual focus as the body moves, coordinating movements of the eyes and head, and helping in the body’s postural adjustments.
Vicarious Reinforcement: ‘Vicarious reinforcement’ refers to the process where an individual learns from observing the consequences, either rewards or punishments, experienced by others. It’s essentially learning influenced by others’ experiences.
Expanded Definition
Vicarious reinforcement is a psychological concept which refers to the process wherein an individual’s behavior is influenced or modified by observing the consequences of another person’s actions. This observational learning typically occurs when an individual sees that another person’s behavior is either rewarded or punished. If the observed action leads to positive reinforcement, the observer is likely to imitate the behavior in hopes of receiving a similar reward. Conversely, if a punishment follows the action, the observer will likely avoid that behavior to prevent the occurrence of a similar adverse consequence. This phenomenon plays a significant role in the context of social learning theory.
Virtual Reality CBT: Virtual Reality CBT is a therapeutic approach where a therapist uses computer-generated 3D simulations of a distressing stimulus to gradually reduce a client’s fear response.
Expanded Definition
‘Virtual Reality Cognitive Behavioral Therapy’ (VR CBT) is a modern therapeutic approach where a clinician uses computer technology to create a realistic, three-dimensional virtual environment. This interactive parallel universe resembles the situation or element that elicits fear or anxiety in the patient. The therapist then systematically introduces the patient to this environment, allowing them to confront and manage their fears in a controlled and safe setting, a process known as systematic desensitization. This progressive exposure therapy aims to alter the patient’s negative thought patterns and behaviors, thus effectively managing their psychological distress.
Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy: Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET) is a form of anxiety treatment that methodically immerses individuals into simulated scenarios to confront and manage their significant fears, like pyrophobia, arachnophobia or glossophobia.
Expanded Definition
Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET) is a cutting-edge therapeutic intervention employed in the field of mental health, primarily aimed at managing and improving anxiety disorders. The therapy engages advanced virtual reality technology to generate realistic, immersive simulations of situations or environments that trigger anxiety or fear in individuals, ranging from aviatophobia (fear of flying) to arachnophobia (fear of spiders), to glossophobia (fear of public speaking), amongst others. The methodical exposure to controlled, virtual encounters with these fear-stimulating scenarios allows the individual to gradually confront and manage their anxieties in a safe, supportive setting. Crucially, this technology-backed therapeutic approach paves the way for fear reduction and the eventual overcoming of anxiety disorders without the immediate risks involved in facing these real-life situations.
Visible Spectrum: The visible spectrum refers to the segment of the electromagnetic spectrum, spanning wavelengths from approximately 400 to 700 nanometers, which human eyes can perceive.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Visible Spectrum’ is scientifically defined as the specific segment of the electromagnetic spectrum that is perceptible to the human eye. It refers to the array of electromagnetic radiation, or light waves, that we can visually perceive. For humans, these wavelengths are typically between approximately 400 to 700 nanometers (billionths of a meter). This range includes all the colors we see in a rainbow, from violet (shorter wavelengths, closer to 400 nanometers) to red (longer wavelengths, closer to 700 nanometers). Beyond this spectrum, the wavelengths become too short or too long for the human eye to detect, thus falling into areas such as ultraviolet radiation or infrared radiation.
Visual Accommodation: Visual accommodation refers to the eye’s adaptive ability to alter lens curvature, ensuring light is accurately focused on the retina for clear vision.
Expanded Definition
Visual Accommodation refers to the advanced physiological process where the eye changes the shape of its internal lens; this adaptability enables us to adjust our focus from objects at varying distances. When we look at something far away and then shift our gaze to something close, the visual accommodation mechanism handles this transition. The curvature of the lens is adjusted to ensure that incoming beams of light are precisely focused onto the retina – the light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye – thereby creating sharp and clear images, irrespective of the object’s distance. This continuous, real-time adaptability of visual focus is vital to our daily interaction with the world around us.
Visual Attention: Visual attention is the brain’s capacity to selectively focus on certain data while suppressing the acknowledgment of less relevant details.
Expanded Definition
‘Visual Attention’ refers to the capacity of the human neurological system to purposefully process specific visual data while simultaneously ignoring extraneous or undesirable visual input. This selection mechanism facilitates human cognition by giving preferential treatment to information that is currently relevant, thus preventing sensory overload and enabling more efficient analysis and decision-making processes. In essence, visual attention acts as an internal spotlight that illuminates targeted areas of our visual field, ensuring pertinent information lands in our conscious awareness while unwanted data remains unseen.
Visual Cliff: A “visual cliff” is an experimental setup used to gauge an infant’s awareness of depth by simulating a hazardous drop-off in a secure manner.
Expanded Definition
A “Visual Cliff” is a psychological experimental design tool, developed to assess infants’ ability to perceive depth and their response to seemingly perilous situations. Essentially, it projects an illusion of a hazardous cliff or abrupt drop-off, though it ensures the child’s safety throughout the experiment. Utilizing contrasting visual patterns and glass surfaces, it creates an apparent edge or drop, which helps researchers understand at what age and to what degree infants can identify and respond to potential dangers related to depth perception.
Visual Cortex: The Visual Cortex, positioned in the brain’s occipital lobe, is the section responsible for interpreting visual data.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Visual Cortex’ is a specialized section of the brain located within the occipital lobe, the rearmost portion of the brain. It functions to interpret and process visual cues received from the eyes. This information is collected via light signals perceived by the retina, converted into neural signals, and then sent to the visual cortex. Here, this data is processed into the information that constitutes our sense of sight, enabling us to comprehend details like shape, color, motion, and dimension. This complex task involves different regions within the visual cortex, each focused on analyzing different aspects of visual data. It’s largely thanks to our visual cortex that we are able to understand and navigate the world we visually perceive.
Visual Encoding: Visual encoding is the process through which information from images or visuals is converted into memory storage. It’s the brain’s way of interpreting and remembering visual details, as captured by our optic sensors.
Expanded Definition
Visual Encoding is defined as the systematic process of converting visual sensory input into a format that can be stored, processed, and recalled by the brain. This process involves transforming real-world pictorial or visual stimuli into mental images, mapping them into the brain’s internal representational system. It plays a crucial role in memory retention and recall, understanding complex patterns and spatial relationships, as well as influencing how we perceive and interact with our surroundings. Visual Encoding is at the heart of various disciplines including cognitive psychology, neurology, visual design, and data visualization.
Visual Perspective Taking: ‘Visual Perspective Taking’ is the process of viewing a situation from another’s physical viewpoint or making attempts to understand their emotional and cognitive states.
Expanded Definition
‘Visual Perspective Taking’ is a cognitive and empathetic ability that allows an individual to conceptualize and understand the visual and spatial viewpoint of another person. This capability can encompass the specific act of visually perceiving a scenario from another person’s spatial positioning. In a broader interpretative capacity, visual perspective taking can also involve comprehensively attempting to deduce the thought process, emotions, and desires of another individual. Thus, it plays a crucial role in enhancing interpersonal communication, empathy, and understanding.

W

Wavelength: Wavelength is the spatial period of a wave, specifically the distance between consecutive points of identical phase, such as crests.
Expanded Definition
‘Wavelength’ refers to the spatial period of a wave—the distance over which the wave’s shape repeats. It is usually determined by the distance between corresponding points of the same phase—such as crests, troughs, or zero crossings—on consecutive waves in a repeating wave pattern. It is a key characteristic of waves that describes the amount of space a single wave cycle occupies in physical space. Wavelengths are most commonly measured in meters (m) and are often used in the fields of physics, chemistry, and signal processing to illustrate the properties of waves.
Weber’s Law: Weber’s Law posits that the smallest perceptible change in a stimulus, often related to intensity, consistently relates to its original level. Thus, more intense stimuli necessitate a greater change for recognition.
Expanded Definition
Weber’s Law, in the field of psychology, explains the relationship between the original properties of a stimulus and the minimum amount of change in that stimulus which is required for a person to notice a difference. The law implies that the smallest detectable variation in a stimulus, known as the “Just Noticeable Difference” (JND), is consistently proportional to the initial intensity of the stimulus. In layman’s terms, if a change is to be detected in any stimulus (for example, the weight of an object), the magnitude of that change must be proportional to the original weight of the object. Small stimuli require small changes to be noticeable, while larger stimuli require larger changes to be perceptible. This principle holds true across a variety of sensory modalities, influencing our perception of light, sound, taste, and more.
Wechsler Adult intelligence Scale (WAIS): The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is a prominent intelligence assessment tool primarily utilized for adults, assessing cognitive ability in various areas such as memory, processing speed and reasoning.
Expanded Definition
The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is a standardized assessment instrument that is globally recognized and extensively utilized in clinical, educational, and research settings. This tool provides a comprehensive measure of cognitive ability and intellectual function in adults. The WAIS uses a variety of subtests to evaluate specific cognitive domains, including verbal comprehension, working memory, perceptual reasoning, and processing speed, thereby yielding a multifaceted profile of an individual’s cognitive strengths and weaknesses. Developed by psychologist David Wechsler, the test has undergone multiple revisions over the years to incorporate advances in cognitive and intelligence research, thus maintaining its relevance in evaluating adult intellectual capacity.
Well-Being: Well-being refers to an individual’s self-reported satisfaction and happiness in life, often assessed alongside physical health and economic factors to determine overall quality of life.
Expanded Definition
‘Well-Being’ is a term that encapsulates how an individual evaluates their own overall happiness, contentment, and satisfaction with different aspects of their life. It is a subjective psychological construct, where the individual’s interpretation of their personal life circumstances is more pivotal than the circumstances themselves. While it does include an individual’s perception of their emotional state, it extends beyond momentary feelings and includes broader dimensions such as life satisfaction, fulfillment, and positive functioning. In order to effectively capture an individual’s quality of life, measures of ‘Well-Being’ are typically used alongside quantitative, objective indicators of welfare such as physical health markers and economic status. Hence, ‘Well-Being’ is often combined with these tangible metrics to offer a more comprehensive and holistic assessment of an individual’s perceived life quality.
Wernicke’s Area: Wernicke’s Area is a brain region adjacent to the auditory cortex that is vital for understanding language.
Expanded Definition
Wernicke’s Area is a region of the brain that is crucial for language development and comprehension. Situated in the superior temporal gyrus in the dominant cerebral hemisphere, which is the left hemisphere for about 95% of right-handed individuals and 70% of left-handed individuals, it is in close proximity to the auditory cortex. This strategic location enables it to process spoken language by first receiving the acoustic signals from the auditory cortex. Named after Carl Wernicke, a German neurologist, this region is instrumental in the comprehension and semantic processing of speech. Damage or disruption to Wernicke’s area can result in language deficits, specifically a condition known as Wernicke’s aphasia where the ability to grasp the meaning of spoken words and sentences becomes compromised.
Wish Fulfilment: Wish fulfilment is the concept that dreams provide an outlet for our subconscious desires that are typically suppressed in waking life.
Expanded Definition
‘Wish Fulfilment’ can be comprehensively and professionally defined as ‘the psychological concept proposing that dreams provide a platform for individuals to express and experience their subconscious desires, impulses, or wishes that are typically held back or suppressed during wakeful hours either due to societal norms, personal restraints, or any external restrictions. These unconsciously repressed wishes often surface in dreams to create scenarios depicting the fulfillment of such desires, hence the term ‘wish fulfilment’.’
Withdrawal: Withdrawal refers to the adverse effects or discomfort experienced when a person stops or reduces their intake of a certain drug. It includes physical discomfort, pain, and other related symptoms.
Expanded Definition
‘Withdrawal’ is conventionally understood as the array of adverse physical and psychological effects that occur after discontinuation or reduction in the intake of certain substances, typically drugs or alcohol. Whilst the specific manifestations of withdrawal can vary depending on the substance involved, common symptoms often include physical discomfort, mood fluctuations, and cognitive disturbances. The individual may experience intense cravings for the substance in question, restlessness, insomnia, and in some severe cases, potentially life-threatening conditions such as seizures or delirium. The onset and duration of withdrawal also differ based on the substance type, frequency of use, and individual metabolic factors, making the process complex and multifaceted. However, with appropriate medical supervision and supportive care, withdrawal symptoms can be effectively managed, facilitating the individual’s journey towards sobriety and recovery.
Word Association Test: A Word Association Test is a psychological tool for exploring the subconscious by prompting a swift one-word response from an individual to an initial set of 100 words.
Expanded Definition
A “Word Association Test” is a psychological research methodology aimed at exploring an individual’s subconscious mind. In this procedure, a set of 100 predetermined words are administered to the test subject, who then needs to respond with the first word that comes to mind. The immediate nature of the responses helps to bypass conscious thought processes and potentially reveals underlying associations and hidden aspects of the individual’s psyche. This tool of psychological analysis can provide valuable insights into a person’s mental state and thought patterns.
Working Memory: Working memory is a cognitive function that holds, manipulates, and processes brief, transitory information, facilitating complex tasks like understanding, learning, and reasoning.
Expanded Definition
‘Working Memory’ is an integral element of cognitive processing, referring to our brain’s system for temporarily storing and managing information. This type of memory serves as an active workspace where we manipulate, process, and use information in the short-term. Usually, working memory is employed during tasks where we need to keep track of multiple pieces of information simultaneously or when we need to understand, make decisions, or solve problems based on the information we have received momentarily. It essentially underpins our capacity for conscious thought and cognitive activities.

Y

Y Chromosome: The Y chromosome, exclusive to males, pairs with the maternal X chromosome to create a male offspring.
Expanded Definition
The ‘Y Chromosome’ is a specific type of sex chromosome that is exclusive to males in most mammalian species, including humans. Sex chromosomes are integral to determining the sexual composition of offspring. Each individual normally possesses one pair of sex chromosomes and in males, this pair consists of one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. The Y chromosome is inherited from the father, while the X chromosome can come from either the mother or father. When an offspring inherits an X chromosome from the mother and a Y chromosome from the father, the result is typically a male child. The Y chromosome carries genes that are crucial for male sexual development, making it a principal factor in the determination of biological sex.
Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic: The Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic is a theory of color vision asserting that our retina possesses three types of color receptors sensitive to blue, green, and red light.
Expanded Definition
The Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory is a scientific hypothesis in the field of vision science. It posits that the human retina contains three distinct types of color receptors, specifically attuned to perceive the primary colors – blue, green, and red. These receptors, otherwise known as cones, enable our eyes to interpret a wide spectrum of colors based on the varying degrees of stimulation of these three fundamental color channels. Each of these color receptors has a unique sensitivity to different parts of the color spectrum, and the brain combines the signals from these receptors to create our perception of color.

Z

Zygote: A zygote is the initial cell formed when two gamete cells unite during fertilization, marking the start of a new organism.
Expanded Definition
A zygote is a single-celled organism that forms as a result of the union between a sperm cell and an egg cell in the process of fertilization. This biological entity represents the earliest stage of embryonic development in sexually-reproducing organisms, carrying a unique set of genetic material that combines the genetic components from both parents. Essentially, the zygote serves as the initial building block from which all tissues and organs develop through subsequent cell divisions and differentiation.

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