Technology: Technology is the use of knowledge to achieve practical goals, both in tangible tools like machines and intangible ones like software. It is essential in science, engineering, and everyday life.

Engineering: Engineering is the application of science, math, and design to solve problems, enhance efficiency, and advance various systems. It encompasses diverse subfields like infrastructure, machinery, electronics, and energy systems, aiming to improve them.

Nanotechnology: Nanotechnology involves manipulating matter at the nanoscale, which is one to 100 nanometers in size. At this scale, surface area and quantum mechanical effects play a significant role in determining properties of materials. Nanotechnology encompasses various research and technologies that leverage these unique properties. It is often referred to as nanoscale technologies or nanotechnologies. In the past, nanotechnology referred specifically to the precise manipulation of atoms and molecules to create larger products, now known as molecular nanotechnology.

Nuclear technology: Nuclear technology involves atomic nucleus reactions, including nuclear reactors, nuclear medicine, and nuclear weapons. It is also utilized in smoke detectors and gun sights.

Technical drawing: Technical drawing is the practice of creating detailed drawings that visually demonstrate how something is constructed or functions.

Biomedical engineering: Biomedical engineering (BME) applies engineering principles to medicine and biology for healthcare purposes, including diagnosis, monitoring, and therapy. Biomedical engineers also manage medical equipment in hospitals, ensuring proper procurement, testing, maintenance, and equipment recommendations. This role is sometimes referred to as a Biomedical Equipment Technician (BMET) or clinical engineer.

Chemical engineering: Chemical engineering is an engineering field focused on designing and operating chemical plants and improving production. It utilizes chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology, and economics to efficiently use energy and materials. Chemical engineers develop processes converting raw materials into useful products, from laboratory-scale nanotechnology to large-scale industrial processes. They are involved in various aspects of plant design, safety assessments, process analysis, control engineering, and construction specifications.

Civil engineering: Civil engineering is an engineering field that focuses on designing, constructing, and maintaining infrastructure such as roads, bridges, buildings, and transportation systems. It also includes managing public works projects like dams, airports, sewage systems, and pipelines.

Architectural engineering: Architectural engineering, also called building engineering, combines engineering and construction in the design and development of buildings. It encompasses various areas including structure, systems, environment, and security. This discipline is distinct from architectural design, focusing on the technical aspects of building creation.

Electrical engineering: Electrical engineering is the study and design of equipment, devices, and systems that utilize electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. It became a recognized field of engineering in the late 19th century following the widespread use of electric telegraphs, telephones, and power generation.

Industrial engineering: Industrial engineering is an engineering field that revolves around enhancing and streamlining intricate processes, systems, and organizations. It accomplishes this by developing, improving, and integrating various elements such as people, money, knowledge, information, and equipment. This profession plays a pivotal role in manufacturing operations.

Mechanical engineering: Mechanical engineering is an ancient branch of engineering that deals with designing, analyzing, manufacturing, and maintaining physical machines. It combines principles of engineering physics, mathematics, and materials science to achieve this.

Aerospace engineering: Aerospace engineering is the main area of engineering that focuses on creating aircraft and spacecraft. It comprises aeronautical engineering and astronautical engineering, while avionics engineering deals with the electronics aspect of aerospace engineering.

Automotive engineering: Automotive engineering is a branch of vehicle engineering that combines mechanical, electrical, electronic, software, and safety engineering. It involves designing, manufacturing, and operating motorcycles, automobiles, and trucks, as well as modifying vehicles. The field is research intensive, applying mathematical models and involves the entire process from concept to production stage. It encompasses production, development, and manufacturing as its core functions.

Military engineering: Military engineering involves the design and construction of military structures, maintenance of military transport and communications, and logistical support for military operations. It differs from civil engineering and also incorporates disciplines like mechanical and electrical engineering. Additionally, it includes CBRN defense in modern times.

Software engineering: Software engineering is a discipline that applies engineering principles to develop and maintain computer software. It involves designing, developing, testing, and evaluating software. A software engineer is an individual who employs the engineering design process in their work, with an emphasis on software development rather than just programming.

Agricultural science: Agricultural science is a multidisciplinary field that combines various sciences to study and practice agriculture. It encompasses biology, economics, and social sciences. Agricultural scientists, also known as agriculturists, are professionals in this field.

Beekeeping: Beekeeping is the maintenance of bee colonies, primarily honey bees, in man-made beehives. It involves collecting honey, beeswax, propolis, bee pollen, and royal jelly, along with other honey-producing bees like stingless bees. Beekeepers also earn income by pollinating crops, raising queens, and selling package bees. Bee hives are kept in an apiary or "bee yard".

Dairy: A dairy is a location where milk is stored, and butter, cheese, and other dairy products are manufactured or sold. It can be a room, building, or larger facility. In the US, it can also refer to a dairy farm or part of a mixed farm dedicated to producing milk for human consumption from various animals.

Extensive farming: Extensive farming is a production system that requires minimal labor, fertilizers, and capital compared to the size of the farmland being used.

Gardening: Gardening is the art of growing plants for various purposes. It involves cultivating ornamental plants for their aesthetic appeal, while also yielding useful plants like fruits, vegetables, and herbs for consumption, dyeing, and medicinal or cosmetic use.

Intensive farming: Intensive farming or intensive agriculture is a method of farming that involves high input and output levels per unit of land. It includes both crop cultivation and animal rearing. Key characteristics of intensive farming are a low fallow ratio, increased use of capital, labor, agrochemicals, and water, and higher crop yields per unit of land area.

Orchard: An orchard is a cultivated area of trees or shrubs grown primarily for food production. It consists of fruit- or nut-producing trees and is usually intended for commercial purposes. Orchards can also enhance the beauty of large gardens and serve both aesthetic and productive purposes. They are similar to fruit gardens but on a smaller, non-commercial scale and may focus more on berry shrubs. Most orchards in temperate zones are arranged in a regular grid pattern with a manageable base, making maintenance and harvesting convenient.

Organic farming: Organic farming, also called ecological or biological farming, is an agricultural system that uses organic fertilizers and emphasizes techniques like crop rotation and companion planting. It emerged in the early 20th century in response to changing farming methods. Certified organic agriculture covers 70 million hectares globally, with over half in Australia. It encourages biological pest control, mixed cropping, and insect predator proliferation. Organic standards allow naturally-occurring substances but restrict synthetic ones, permitting substances like copper sulfate but prohibiting GMOs and sewage sludge. Advocates argue that organic farming offers sustainability, self-sufficiency, health, and food safety benefits.

Sustainable agriculture: Sustainable agriculture is a farming approach that meets current food and textile needs without compromising future generations. It prioritizes ecosystem services and employs various methods to increase sustainability. This practice emphasizes flexible business processes and farming techniques. However, agriculture's significant environmental impact contributes to climate change, water scarcity, pollution, land degradation, deforestation, and more. To counteract these effects, sustainable agriculture relies on environmentally friendly farming methods that protect human and natural systems. It encompasses practices like permaculture, agroforestry, mixed farming, multiple cropping, and crop rotation.

Subsistence agriculture: Subsistence agriculture is when farmers cultivate crops for their own needs on small plots, without generating surplus for trade. It primarily aims at survival and local consumption, with planting decisions based on family requirements rather than market prices. Those practicing subsistence agriculture are self-sufficient and do not rely on regular purchases from the marketplace.

Urban agriculture: Urban agriculture refers to cultivating and distributing food in cities. It includes activities like animal husbandry, aquaculture, beekeeping, and horticulture. It is different from rural peri-urban agriculture that occurs on the outskirts of suburbs.

Aquaculture: Aquaculture, also called aquafarming, is the controlled cultivation of aquatic organisms for various purposes. It involves farming fish, crustaceans, mollusks, algae, and aquatic plants in freshwater, brackish water, or saltwater environments. Unlike commercial fishing, which harvests wild fish, aquaculture provides a way to sustainably produce these resources. Mariculture, also known as marine farming, focuses on cultivating organisms in seawater habitats and lagoons, while pisciculture specifically refers to fish farming for food production.

Pesticide: Pesticides are substances used to control pests, including herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides. They protect plants from weeds, fungi, insects, and other harmful organisms. However, their use can have drawbacks, like potential toxicity to humans and other species.

Barn: A barn is an agricultural building commonly found on farms. In North America, barns house livestock, equipment, and grain. The term "barn" is often qualified to specify its purpose (e.g. tobacco barn, dairy barn). In the British Isles, barns are used mainly for storing unthreshed cereals and fodder, while cow shelters are called byre or shippon, and horses are kept in stables. In mainland Europe, barns were often part of integrated structures known as byre-dwellings. Barns can also serve as equipment storage, covered workplaces, and spaces for activities like threshing.

Farm: A farm is an area of land dedicated to agricultural processes for producing food and crops. It includes specialized units for various crops and livestock types. Farms encompass a range of facilities, such as ranches, orchards, and smallholdings, along with the farmhouse and agricultural buildings. In modern times, farms also extend to industrial operations like wind farms and fish farms, operating on land or at sea.

Garden: A garden is a planned outdoor space for cultivating and displaying plants and nature. Control is a defining aspect, even in wild garden designs. It can consist of both natural and artificial elements.

Granary: A granary is a barn storage room for grain or animal feed. Ancient granaries are made of pottery and are raised above the ground to protect from animals and floods.

Silo: A silo is a structure used for storing bulk materials, such as grain, coal, and food products. It is different from a grain bin, which specifically stores grains. Silos come in three main types: tower silos, bunker silos, and bag silos.

Stable: A stable is a building for housing livestock, like horses. It typically consists of separate stalls for individual animals. Various types of stables exist, such as the American-style barn with individual stalls or free-standing stables. Additionally, the term "stable" can refer to a group of animals owned by one person, regardless of where they are housed.

Animal husbandry: Animal husbandry is the agriculture branch dedicated to raising animals for various products like meat, milk, and fiber. It involves the daily care, breeding, and management of livestock. This practice dates back to the Neolithic Revolution, with animals being domesticated before the first crops were farmed. Early civilizations like ancient Egypt raised cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs on farms.

Breed: A breed is a group of domestic animals with consistent physical appearance, behavior, and characteristics that distinguish them from others of the same species. Breeds are created through genetic isolation, adaptation to the environment, selective breeding, or a combination of these factors. There is no universally accepted definition for breeds, as it depends on the consensus among breeders.

Domestication: Domestication is a long-term mutually beneficial association between humans and other organisms, involving human control and care for a consistent supply of resources, particularly food. This process occurred gradually across different regions and relied on experimentation and learning from mistakes.

Hay: Hay is dried grass or plants used as animal feed, including for livestock like cattle, horses, sheep, and goats, as well as smaller pets like rabbits and guinea pigs. Pigs can consume hay, but not as effectively as herbivores.

Livestock: Livestock refers to domesticated animals raised in agricultural settings to provide labor and a variety of products for consumption, including meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. It can include animals raised for consumption or specific farmed ruminants like cattle, sheep, and goats. In the US, horses are also considered livestock. The USDA classifies pork, veal, beef, and lamb as livestock, categorizing all livestock as red meat. Poultry and fish are not classified as livestock, possibly because fish products fall under FDA regulations instead of USDA.

Selective breeding: Selective breeding is when humans deliberately choose which animals or plants will reproduce to develop specific traits. This process creates different breeds in animals and varieties in plants. Breeding different breeds or varieties can result in crossbreeds or hybrids. Professionals typically handle breeding major crops, while amateurs and professionals breed flowers, vegetables, and fruit-trees.

Agronomy: Agronomy is the science of growing and using plants for various purposes, including food, fuel, and land conservation. It involves research in plant genetics, physiology, meteorology, and soil science. Agronomists are professionals who apply multiple sciences such as biology, chemistry, economics, ecology, earth science, and genetics in their work.

Plant breeding: Plant breeding is the scientific process of altering plant traits to create desired characteristics. It is used to enhance nutrition in products for humans and animals. The main goals are to develop crop varieties with superior traits, such as stress tolerance, yield, quality, and ease of processing.

Cultivar: A cultivar is a cultivated plant selected for desired traits and retains those traits when propagated. Cultivars can be propagated by various methods such as division, cuttings, grafting, or seed production. They can originate from purposeful human manipulation or wild plants with distinctive characteristics. Cultivar names are determined by the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, and not all cultivated plants qualify as cultivars. The term "cultivar" means "cultivated variety" in horticulture.

Fertilizer: Fertilizers are natural or synthetic substances applied to soil or plants to provide essential nutrients. They differ from soil amendments. Fertilizers can be sourced naturally or industrially. In modern agriculture, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are the primary nutrients, sometimes supplemented by micronutrients. Farmers use different application methods such as dry, pelletized, or liquid forms, employing large equipment or manual tools.

Harvest: Harvesting is the gathering of plants, animals, or fish for food, specifically the collection of mature crops. Reaping, done with tools like scythes or sickles, involves cutting grain or pulses. It is a labor-intensive task on smaller farms but uses machinery like combine harvesters on larger ones. Automation has improved efficiency in seeding and harvesting, with specialized equipment replacing manual seedling removal. Harvesting may also involve postharvest handling activities like cleaning, sorting, packing, and cooling.

Irrigation: Irrigation is the controlled application of water to land to aid in crop growth and landscaping. It has been practiced for thousands of years and is used worldwide. Besides supporting agriculture and vegetation in dry areas, irrigation also protects crops, suppresses weeds, prevents soil consolidation, cools livestock, reduces dust, disposes of sewage, and supports mining operations. Drainage, along with irrigation, involves removing water from a location and is often studied together.

Tillage: Tillage is the process of preparing agricultural soil through mechanical agitation like digging, stirring, and overturning. It can be done manually using tools like shovels, hoes, and rakes, or through draft-animal-powered or mechanized methods like ploughing, rototilling, rolling, harrowing, and cultivating.

Horticulture: Horticulture is the cultivation of plants in controlled environments like gardens or greenhouses. It involves growing a wide range of crops such as fruits, vegetables, nuts, herbs, and flowers, as well as non-food plants like grass and trees. Additionally, it encompasses aspects like plant conservation, landscape design and maintenance, and the care of ornamental trees and lawns.

Biotechnology: Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary field that applies natural sciences and engineering to use organisms, cells, and molecular analogues for products and services.

Genetic engineering: Genetic engineering, also known as genetic modification, manipulates an organism's genes using technology. It alters the genetic makeup of cells through gene transfer within and across species to create improved or novel organisms. This is achieved by copying or synthesizing DNA and inserting it into the host organism. Genes can be added or removed, and the process can be random or targeted. The first recombinant DNA molecule was created in 1972.

Genetically modified organism: Summary: A genetically modified organism (GMO) is any organism whose genetic material has been altered through genetic engineering. This includes altering an organism in a way that does not occur naturally. GMOs can be found in animals, plants, and microorganisms.

Cloning: Cloning is the creation of organisms with identical genomes either naturally or artificially. It occurs in nature through asexual reproduction, known as parthenogenesis. In biotechnology, cloning involves creating clones of cells and DNA fragments.

Gel electrophoresis: Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate biomolecules based on their size and charge. It is commonly used in clinical chemistry and molecular biology to separate proteins and DNA/RNA fragments, allowing for analysis of their characteristics and estimation of size.

Polymerase chain reaction: PCR is a technique developed in 1983 by Kary Mullis to rapidly generate millions of copies of a specific DNA sample. This amplification enables detailed study and analysis of even small DNA samples. Kary Mullis and Michael Smith were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993 for their contributions to DNA manipulation.

Computing: Computing encompasses goal-oriented activities utilizing computing machinery, involving the study and experimentation of algorithmic processes, and development of hardware and software. It encompasses scientific, engineering, mathematical, technological, and social aspects. Major disciplines within computing include computer engineering, computer science, cybersecurity, data science, information systems, information technology, and software engineering.

Information technology: Information technology (IT) covers computer systems, software, programming languages, data processing, and storage. It is a part of information and communications technology (ICT). An IT system includes hardware, software, and peripheral equipment, operated by a limited group of users. An IT project involves the creation and implementation of an IT system.

Abacus: The abacus, a hand-operated counting frame, is an ancient calculating tool used in various regions since ancient times. It predates the Hindu-Arabic numeral system by millennia and has been employed in the ancient Near East, Europe, China, and Russia.

Calculator: A calculator is a small and portable electronic device that can perform various calculations, from basic arithmetic to complex mathematics.

Data (computer science): In computer science, data refers to a sequence of symbols. A datum is a single symbol of data. Data becomes information through interpretation. Digital data uses binary representation. In modern computer systems, all data is digital.

Data communication: Data communication refers to the transmission and reception of data in digital or analog form over various communication channels like wires, fibers, or wireless networks. The data is represented as electromagnetic signals such as electrical voltage, radio waves, microwaves, or infrared signals.

Computer science: Computer science is the study of computation, information, and automation. It encompasses theoretical and applied disciplines. While primarily an academic discipline, computer science is closely linked to computer programming.

Artificial intelligence: Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence exhibited by machines or software, developed in computer science, that allows them to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence. It is a field of study focused on creating and understanding intelligent machines, also known as AIs.

Computer architecture: Computer architecture is the structure and design of a computer system. It encompasses the instruction set, microarchitecture, logic design, and implementation. It provides a high-level description of how components come together to form the system.

Computer simulation: Computer simulation is a method of using mathematical models on a computer to predict the behavior or outcome of real-world systems. It is widely used in various fields, including physics, biology, economics, and engineering. Simulations help understand complex systems, estimate performance, and gain insights into new technologies.

Parallel computing: Parallel computing is a method of computation where multiple calculations are done simultaneously. It is used to solve large problems by dividing them into smaller parts that can be solved at the same time. Different types of parallel computing include bit-level, instruction-level, data, and task parallelism. With the increase in power consumption and physical constraints, parallel computing, specifically through multi-core processors, has become the dominant paradigm in computer architecture.

Computer security: Computer security refers to the safeguarding of computer systems and networks from unauthorized access, attacks, and damage by malicious individuals. It involves protecting hardware, software, and data from theft, disclosure, or harm, as well as ensuring uninterrupted services.

Malware: Malware is intentionally designed software that disrupts computer systems, compromises privacy, reveals sensitive information, or gains unauthorized access. It includes various sub-types as researchers classify it.

Cryptography: Cryptography, or cryptology, is the practice of secure communication amidst adversaries. It involves constructing and analyzing protocols to prevent third parties from reading private messages. This field merges mathematics, computer science, and various other disciplines to ensure information security. Cryptography finds applications in electronic commerce, payment cards, digital currencies, passwords, and military communications.

Encryption: Encryption is the encoding of information, converting it from plaintext to ciphertext. Only authorized parties can decipher the ciphertext and access the original information. While it does not prevent interference, encryption denies access to the intelligible content.

Authentication: Authentication is the process of verifying the identity of a computer system user or an object. It involves proving an assertion and validating personal identity documents, digital certificates, carbon dating, or detecting counterfeits.

Computer hardware: Computer hardware refers to the physical components of a computer, including the case, CPU, RAM, monitor, keyboard, mouse, storage, graphics and sound cards, speakers, and motherboard.

Computer: A computer is a programmable machine capable of carrying out arithmetic and logical operations automatically. It can perform various tasks through programs. The term "computer system" refers to a complete unit with hardware, operating system, software, and peripherals or a group of linked computers, like a network or cluster.

Supercomputer: A supercomputer is a highly powerful computer that performs at a much higher level than general-purpose computers. Its performance is measured in FLOPS, with the fastest supercomputers capable of performing over 1017 FLOPS. In comparison, desktop computers usually range from hundreds of gigaFLOPS to tens of teraFLOPS. Linux-based operating systems dominate the world's fastest 500 supercomputers. Ongoing research is focused on developing exascale supercomputers that are even faster and more advanced, being conducted in the United States, the European Union, Taiwan, Japan, and China.

Booting: Booting is the start-up process of a computer, initiated either by hardware or software. When a computer is turned on, the CPU lacks software in its main memory. To enable execution, software needs to be loaded into memory, which can be done by the CPU's hardware or firmware, or by a separate processor in the system.

Central processing unit: The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the main processor in a computer that executes instructions of a computer program. It performs arithmetic, logic, control, and input/output operations. The CPU is distinct from external components like memory and specialized coprocessors such as graphics processing units (GPUs).

User interface: A user interface (UI) is the space where humans and machines interact in fields like industrial design. It enables effective control and operation of machines while providing feedback to aid decision-making. Examples include computer operating systems, hand tools, and machinery controls. Design considerations involve ergonomics and psychology.

Computer monitor: A computer monitor is an output device that displays visual or textual information. It consists of a visual display, support electronics, power supply, housing, connectors, and user controls.

Computer mouse: A computer mouse is a handheld device that detects motion on a surface. It translates this motion into pointer movement on a computer screen, providing smooth control over the graphical user interface.

Touchscreen: A touchscreen combines input and display functions in one device, with a touch panel overlaying an electronic visual display.

Software: Software is a set of programs and data that instruct a computer on specific tasks. It also includes relevant documentation. Unlike hardware, software dictates the system's functions.

Database: A database is a structured data collection managed by a database management system (DBMS), software that handles data input, analysis, and user interaction. The DBMS administers the database and associated applications, creating a cohesive database system. The term "database" can also refer to the DBMS, database system, or related application.

Open-source software: Open-source software (OSS) is computer software released under a license that grants users the rights to use, study, modify, and distribute the software and its source code freely. It is developed collaboratively and allows any capable user to participate in its development. The transparency of the code builds public trust in the software.

Spreadsheet: A spreadsheet is a computer application used for organizing and analyzing data in table format. It was developed as a digital version of paper accounting worksheets. It operates on data entered in cells, which can contain numbers, text, or formulas that automatically calculate and display values. The term may also refer to an electronic document.

Web browser: A web browser is a program that enables access to the internet and websites. It retrieves files from servers and displays web pages on screens. Browsers are used on various devices, with around 4.9 billion people estimated to have used one in 2020. Google Chrome dominates with a 65% global market share, followed by Safari with 18%.

Word processor: A word processor is a device or program for inputting, editing, formatting, and outputting text, often including extra features.

Operating system: An operating system (OS) is software that manages computer hardware and software resources, providing essential services for computer programs.

Computer file: A computer file is a data recording resource on a storage device, identified by its filename. It allows for sharing and transferring data between devices via various means like removable media, networks, or the Internet.

Barcode: Barcode: A visual, machine-readable representation of data using varying line widths, spacings, and sizes. Barcode readers can scan one-dimensional codes, consisting of parallel lines, using optical scanners.

File system: A file system is a method used by the operating system to organize and retrieve data. It divides data into manageable pieces called files, providing a structure and logic to manage these files. Without a file system, data would be one large entity, making it difficult to locate and retrieve specific information. The file system allows for easy isolation and identification of data by assigning names to each file. It operates similarly to a paper-based data management system.

Data storage: Data storage is the process of recording and storing information using various media such as handwriting, magnetic tape, and optical discs. It can also include biological molecules like RNA and DNA. Data can be recorded using different forms of energy, and electronic data storage requires electrical power.

Random-access memory: Random-access memory (RAM) is a type of computer memory that stores working data and machine code. It allows for quick and efficient reading and editing of data, regardless of its physical location within the memory. Unlike other storage media, RAM eliminates delays caused by mechanical limitations, ensuring near-instantaneous data access and manipulation.

Read-only memory: Read-only memory (ROM) is a non-volatile computer memory that cannot be modified once manufactured. It is used to store firmware, which is software that remains unchanged throughout the lifespan of a system. ROM is commonly distributed as plug-in cartridges for programmable devices.

Hard disk drive: A hard disk drive (HDD) is an electro-mechanical data storage device that uses magnetic storage to store and retrieve digital data. It has rapidly rotating platters coated with magnetic material, paired with magnetic heads that read and write data. HDDs provide random-access to data and retain stored information even when powered off. They are commonly found in small rectangular boxes.

Magnetic tape: Magnetic tape is a thin plastic film coated with a magnetizable substance, invented in Germany in 1928. It allows for easy recording and playback of audio, visual, and computer data.

Memory card: A memory card is a portable electronic data storage device that uses flash memory. It is commonly used in digital devices to add extra memory without the need for USB drives.

Optical disc: An optical disc is a flat object that stores information as physical variations on its surface. It can be read using a beam of light. Optical discs can be reflective or transmissive, depending on the position of the light source and detector.

Computer network: A computer network is a collection of computers sharing resources through digital connections. It utilizes different communication protocols and network technologies, including wired, optical, and wireless methods in various topologies.

Email: Email, or electronic mail, is a popular and widely used method of sending and receiving messages through electronic devices. It serves as a digital counterpart to traditional mail and has become an essential component in various aspects of daily life worldwide. An email address is now considered a basic requirement in business, commerce, government, education, entertainment, and other areas.

Ethernet: Ethernet is a wired computer networking technology widely used in LAN, MAN, and WAN. It was introduced commercially in 1980, standardized in 1983 as IEEE 802.3, and has evolved to support higher speeds, more nodes, and longer distances. Ethernet has largely replaced competing technologies like Token Ring, FDDI, and ARCNET in wired LANs.

Router (computing): A router is a networking device that directs data packets between computer networks, both within a network and on the internet. It ensures smooth traffic flow by forwarding packets from one router to another until they reach their destination.

Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi is a wireless network protocol that enables nearby devices to exchange data using radio waves. It allows internet access and device networking in various locations, including homes, offices, coffee shops, hotels, libraries, and airports. Wi-Fi is based on the widely used IEEE 802.11 family of standards.

Internet: The Internet is a global network of interconnected computer networks that communicate using the Internet protocol suite. It consists of various networks, including private, public, academic, business, and government networks, linked through different networking technologies. The Internet facilitates the exchange of a wide range of information resources and services, such as the World Wide Web, email, telephony, and file sharing.

HTML: HTML is the standard markup language for web content displayed in a browser. It defines the structure and content, often used with CSS for styling and JavaScript for interactivity.

HTTP: HTTP is a crucial protocol for the web, enabling data communication between distributed systems. It supports the World Wide Web by facilitating hypermedia information retrieval, allowing users to effortlessly access linked resources by clicking or tapping.

Internet protocol suite: The Internet protocol suite, also known as TCP/IP, is a set of communication protocols used in the Internet and computer networks. It includes essential protocols such as TCP, UDP, and IP. Originally funded by the US Department of Defense, it organizes protocols based on functionality.

Social media: Social media are interactive technologies that enable the sharing and aggregation of content and ideas through virtual communities and networks. It involves user-generated content and profiles created and maintained by the social media organization. Social media facilitates the development of online social networks by connecting users with others. It is a form of media that promotes interactive participation.

Search engine: A search engine is software that systematically searches the internet for specific information based on user queries. It presents search results, including web pages, images, videos, articles, and other files, in a line of results called search engine results pages (SERPs). Google dominates as the most widely used search engine globally, followed by Bing, Yahoo!, Baidu, Yandex, and DuckDuckGo.

Website: A website is a group of web pages with related content, all accessible through a common domain name and published on web servers. Websites focus on specific topics or purposes like news, education, commerce, entertainment, or social networking. Hyperlinks connect web pages and guide navigation, with most websites starting with a home page. Google Search, YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram are currently the top five most visited websites as of May 2023.

World Wide Web: The World Wide Web is an information system for sharing content over the Internet, designed to be user-friendly for all. It allows access to documents and web resources through the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

Computer programming: Computer programming, also known as coding, is the creation of programs with instructions for computers to perform tasks. It involves writing code in programming languages, often high-level, to implement algorithms and procedures. Proficiency in programming requires knowledge of various subjects, including the application domain, programming languages, algorithms, and formal logic.

Character encoding: Character encoding is a system that assigns numbers to written characters, enabling their storage, transmission, and use in digital computers. These numerical values, called "code points", form a "code space" to represent characters in a computer.

Compiler: A compiler is a computer program that translates code from one programming language to another. It mainly converts high-level language to low-level language for creating an executable program.

Programming language: A programming language is a notation system for writing computer programs. It consists of key features essential for creating and communicating instructions to computers effectively.

Programming paradigm: A programming paradigm is a classification system for programming languages based on their characteristics. Different programming languages can belong to multiple paradigms.

Functional programming: Functional programming is a declarative programming paradigm that builds programs using functions instead of imperative statements. Functions are expressed as tree-like structures that transform values, rather than modifying program states.

Structured programming: Structured programming is a programming approach that emphasizes clarity, quality, and efficiency. It uses control flow constructs like selection and repetition, as well as block structures and subroutines, to enhance program development.

Object-oriented programming: Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming approach centered around objects, structures that store data (fields) and instructions (procedures).

Assembly language: Assembly language, often called assembly or ASM, is a low-level programming language that closely matches a computer's machine code. It typically has one statement per machine instruction, along with support for constants, comments, and symbolic labels.

C (programming language): C is a popular computer programming language developed in the 1970s by Dennis Ritchie. It is widely used and influential, with features that match the capabilities of targeted CPUs. It is commonly used in operating systems, device drivers, and protocol stacks, as well as on a wide range of computer architectures. While its usage in application software has decreased, it remains prevalent in various computing domains, from supercomputers to microcontrollers and embedded systems.

Java (programming language): Java is a versatile, object-oriented programming language known for its portability and ease of use. It allows programmers to write code once and run it on any platform that supports Java. Java applications are compiled into bytecode, which can be executed on any Java virtual machine. Its syntax is similar to C and C++, but with fewer low-level features. Additionally, Java offers dynamic capabilities not commonly found in compiled languages.

JavaScript: JavaScript, or JS, is a widely used programming language and a fundamental element of the web. It is employed alongside HTML and CSS to create interactive and dynamic webpages. Its extensive adoption by websites, around 98.7% as of 2023, empowers webpage behavior through client-side scripting. With support from all major web browsers, JavaScript executes code on users' devices. It also enables the integration of third-party libraries to enhance functionality.

Broadcasting: Broadcasting refers to the distribution of audio or video content to a wide audience using electronic mass communication, typically through the electromagnetic spectrum. It began with the popularity of AM radio in the 1920s, enabled by vacuum tube technology. Before this, electronic communication was mostly one-to-one. The term "broadcasting" originated from agricultural practices and was later used to describe widespread distribution of information through printed materials and telegraph. Early examples of "one-to-many" radio transmissions date back to 1898.

Communications satellite: A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that boosts and relays radio signals for various purposes such as television, telephone, internet, and military applications. Most are positioned in geostationary orbit, allowing ground stations to permanently aim their antennas at the satellite. Some satellites form constellations in low Earth orbit, requiring ground antennas to track and switch between satellites.

Cathode-ray tube: A cathode-ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube that emits electron beams to display images on a phosphorescent screen. It can show electrical waveforms, video frames, graphics, or radar targets. In TVs, it is called a picture tube. CRTs have also been used as memory devices. The term "cathode ray" initially described electron beams before their nature was fully understood.

Flat-panel display: A flat-panel display (FPD) is an electronic visual display found in various equipment like consumer products, medical devices, transportation systems, and industrial machinery.

Liquid-crystal display: An LCD is an electronic device that uses liquid crystals and polarizers to produce color or monochrome images. It can display arbitrary or fixed images, with the option to show or hide information. LCDs have small pixels for arbitrary images and larger elements for other displays. They can be normally on or off based on the polarizer arrangement. Character LCDs can have black lettering on a background matching the backlight color or a black background with letters of the same color as the backlight. Optical filters are used in white on blue LCDs for their distinctive look.

Image: An image is a visual representation that can be 2D or 3D. It can be displayed through various media and reproduced through photography or printmaking. Images can also be animated digitally or physically.

Image scanner: An image scanner, or simply scanner, is a device that captures images or text and converts them into digital format. It is commonly used in offices and comes in different types such as desktop flatbed scanners, handheld scanners, and mechanically driven scanners. These scanners have various applications including industrial design, reverse engineering, orthotics, and gaming.

Mail: Mail is a system for physically transporting postcards, letters, and parcels. It can be private or public, although governments often impose restrictions on private systems. National postal systems have become government monopolies since the 19th century, with prepaid fees. Adhesive postage stamps or postage meters are used for proof of payment, especially for bulk mailing.

Courier: A courier is an individual or company that transports messages, packages, or letters from one location or person to another. They usually provide their services through commercial contracts, though some couriers may work for government agencies.

Postage stamp: A postage stamp is a small paper issued by post officials or vendors to customers who pay postage. It is affixed to mail items and processed by the postal system. A postmark or cancellation mark is applied to prevent reuse. Finally, the mail is delivered to the recipient.

Printing: Printing is the process of mass reproducing text and images through a master form or template. It originated from ink rubbings on paper or cloth, evolving into pressing inked images onto paper. Important advancements include movable type (11th century) and the printing press (15th century), driving the Renaissance and Scientific Revolution. Printing has played a pivotal role in the spread of knowledge and the development of the modern knowledge-based economy.

Book: A book is a medium for recording information through writing or images, typically composed of many pages bound together with a protective cover. It can be fiction or nonfiction, handwritten or printed on paper, and is called a codex when bound. The codex replaced the scroll as a physical support for written compositions, with each page being a leaf.

Photocopier: A photocopier is a fast and affordable machine that duplicates images onto paper or film. It uses xerography, an electrostatic process, to transfer toner particles onto paper to create a copy. Heat or pressure fuses the toner onto the paper. While other technologies like inkjet can be used, xerography is the standard for office copying.

Printer (computing): A printer in computing is a peripheral device used to create permanent text or graphic representations on paper. It can produce outputs readable by humans and is available in various types such as inkjet, thermal, laser, and 3D printers.

Printing press: The printing press is a mechanical device that transfers ink from an inked surface to a print medium using pressure. It replaced the need for brushing or rubbing and sped up the printing process. This invention revolutionized the way texts were produced and had a significant impact on the world.

Radio: Radio is a technology that uses electromagnetic waves to transmit and receive signals. It operates within a frequency range of 3 Hz to 300 GHz. A transmitter connected to an antenna generates the waves, which are then received by another antenna connected to a radio receiver. This versatile technology is commonly used in radio communication, radar, navigation, remote control, sensing, and various other applications in modern times.

Amateur radio: Amateur radio, or ham radio, is the non-commercial use of radio frequencies for messaging, experimentation, training, recreation, contesting, and emergency communications. It is undertaken by authorized individuals with personal interests, distinct from commercial or professional radio services.

Radio broadcasting: Radio broadcasting is the transmission of audio and related data to the public through radio waves. It can be done through land-based stations or satellites. Listeners need a radio receiver to access the content. Stations often belong to a network that provides content in a common format. Different types of modulation are used, including AM, FM, and digital standards like DAB and HD radio. Television broadcasting also uses radio frequencies for transmitting video signals.

Sound recording and reproduction: Sound recording and reproduction is the process of capturing and recreating sound waves through electrical, mechanical, electronic, or digital means. It encompasses various forms of audio, like speech, singing, music, and sound effects. The main types of sound recording technology are analog and digital recording.

Loudspeaker: A loudspeaker is an electronic device that converts electrical signals into sound. It consists of a speaker driver, enclosure, and electrical connections. The driver acts as a linear motor, attached to a diaphragm that produces sound by moving air. By amplifying the audio signal, it reproduces the original sound. This is the opposite function of a microphone.

Microphone: A microphone, or mic, is a device that converts sound into an electrical signal. It is used in various applications such as telephones, public address systems, recording and broadcasting. Microphones are also present in electronic devices like computers and mobile phones for recording, speech recognition, and other purposes.

Speech synthesis: Speech synthesis is the creation of human-like speech by computer systems. These systems, known as speech synthesizers, can be implemented in software or hardware. They convert written text into spoken words, and can also interpret phonetic symbols. The opposite process, speech recognition, is also part of this field.

Telecommunications: Telecommunications is the transmission of information using different technologies such as wire, radio, or optical systems. It originated from the need for long-distance communication with similar efficiency to the human voice. Slow systems are not included in this field.

Modulation: Modulation is the process of changing properties of a carrier signal with another signal containing information, such as audio, video, or digital data, to be transmitted.

Telegraphy: Telegraphy is a method of long-distance message transmission that uses symbolic codes known to the recipient. It does not involve physical exchange of objects. Flag semaphore is an example of telegraphy, while pigeon post is not. Ancient signaling systems were limited in transmitting arbitrary text messages, as they relied on fixed and predetermined messages.

Telephone: A telephone is a device that allows people to talk to each other when they are far apart. It converts sound into electronic signals that are sent through cables to another telephone, where the sound is reproduced. The term 'telephone' comes from Greek words meaning distant voice. It is commonly referred to as a phone.

Mobile phone: A mobile phone is a portable telephone that allows calls over radio frequency while moving within a service area. It connects to a mobile phone operator's system and provides access to the telephone network. In North America, mobile phones are called cellphones due to their cellular network architecture. Besides making calls, modern mobile phones support various services like text messaging, email, internet access, and multimedia. They also offer features such as short-range wireless communication, satellite access, business applications, video games, and digital photography. Basic mobile phones are known as feature phones, while those with advanced computing capabilities are called smartphones.

Smartphone: A smartphone is a portable device that combines phone and computer features. It has a touchscreen, allowing access to applications, web browsing, email, social media, and multimedia. It includes a camera, GPS, and supports voice calls, text messaging, and internet-based messaging apps.

Text messaging: Text messaging is the sending of electronic messages containing letters and numbers between mobile devices or computers. Messages can be sent over cellular networks, satellites, or the Internet.

Television: Television (TV) is a medium that transmits moving images and sound. It includes television sets and transmission. It serves as a mass medium for advertising, entertainment, news, and sports.

Cable television: Cable television is a system that delivers television programming to consumers using RF signals through coaxial or fiber-optic cables. Unlike broadcast or satellite TV, it does not rely on over-the-air radio waves. Additionally, cable systems can also provide FM radio, high-speed internet, telephone services, and other non-TV services. Since the 2000s, cable has shifted from analog to digital operation.

Satellite television: Satellite television is a service that transmits TV programming from a satellite orbiting Earth to viewers. It uses a satellite dish and a low-noise block downconverter to receive signals, allowing viewers to access a wide range of channels.

Typewriter: A typewriter is a machine used for typing characters. It has keys that produce single characters on paper by striking an inked ribbon against it. The term 'typewriter' was applied to a person who used this device.

Video: Video is an electronic medium that records, plays, broadcasts, and displays moving visual media. It evolved from mechanical television to CRT and then flat-panel displays.

Video camera: A video camera is an instrument that captures videos, as opposed to a movie camera that uses film. Initially developed for television, video cameras are now widely used for various purposes.

ENIAC: ENIAC, completed in 1945, was the first programmable, electronic, general-purpose digital computer. It had all the key features of other computers combined in one, making it a Turing-complete machine capable of solving a wide range of numerical problems through reprogramming.

Android (operating system): Android is a mobile operating system developed by a group of developers called the Open Handset Alliance. It is based on a modified Linux kernel and is designed for touch-based devices like smartphones and tablets. The most popular version of Android is mainly developed by Google. It was introduced in November 2007 and the first Android device, the HTC Dream, was released in September 2008.

iOS: iOS is Apple's mobile operating system exclusively for iPhones. It is based on macOS and components of the Mach microkernel and FreeBSD, a Unix-like operating system. It was unveiled in January 2007 and launched in June 2007 alongside the first-generation iPhone.

MS-DOS: MS-DOS, developed by Microsoft, is an operating system for personal computers. It was widely used in the 1980s and gradually replaced by graphical user interface-based operating systems, like Microsoft Windows. The term "DOS" encompasses MS-DOS, its rebranding as IBM PC DOS, and other compatible systems.

Mac operating systems: Mac operating systems, created by Apple Inc., consist of two key families. These systems boast a range of notable features and functionalities.

Microsoft Windows: Microsoft Windows is a range of proprietary operating systems crafted by Microsoft, targeting specific sectors of computing. It encompasses Windows NT for desktops, Windows Server for servers, and Windows IoT for embedded systems. Notable predecessors like Windows 9x, Windows Mobile, Windows Phone, and Windows Embedded Compact are no longer active.

Unix: Unix is a multitasking, multi-user computer OS family that originated from AT&T Unix. Developed by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, and others at Bell Labs in 1969, Unix is known for its robustness and support for multiple users and tasks.

Linux: Linux is an open-source operating system family based on the Linux kernel, created by Linus Torvalds in 1991. It is commonly packaged as a Linux distribution, including the kernel, system software, and libraries. GNU software is also significant in Linux distributions, causing some debate over the naming convention.

YouTube: YouTube is a popular online video sharing and social media platform owned by Google. It was launched in 2005 by three former PayPal employees. With headquarters in California, it is the second most visited website globally. YouTube has over 2.5 billion monthly users, watching more than one billion hours of videos daily. The platform sees a rapid upload rate, with over 500 hours of content being added every minute.

Google: Google is a powerful American multinational technology company known for its artificial intelligence, search engine, online advertising, cloud computing, and consumer electronics. It is considered one of the most valuable brands and the most dominant player in the market, thanks to its advanced technology, data collection, and market dominance. Alphabet Inc. is its parent company, which is one of the Big Tech companies alongside Amazon, Apple, Meta, and Microsoft.

Wikipedia: Wikipedia is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers known as Wikipedians. It uses open collaboration and the MediaWiki editing system. As the largest and most-read reference work in history, Wikipedia consistently ranks among the top 10 most popular websites globally. Founded in 2001 by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger, it is hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation.

Facebook: Facebook is a social media and networking service owned by Meta Platforms. It was founded in 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg and his Harvard College roommates. Originally limited to Harvard, it expanded to other North American universities and now allows registration from age 13 or 14 in some countries. With 3 billion monthly users as of December 2022, Facebook is the 3rd most visited website globally, with a significant portion of traffic from the United States. Additionally, it was the most downloaded mobile app of the 2010s.

Electronics: Electronics is a scientific discipline that applies the principles of physics to design and operate devices manipulating electrically charged particles. It involves using active devices to control electric current flow and convert it between different forms. Electronics encompasses various subfields including microelectronics, nanoelectronics, optoelectronics, and quantum electronics, which focus on fabricating and applying electronic devices at different scales.

Circuit design: Circuit design is the process of creating electronic systems, from complex systems to individual transistors. Simple circuits can be designed by one person, while teams often use a systematic approach and computer simulation for more complex designs. In integrated circuit design automation, circuit design refers to the step that produces schematics, usually between logic and physical design.

Printed circuit board: A printed circuit board (PCB) is a medium used to connect components in a circuit. It consists of conductive and insulating layers, with copper traces etched onto them. Components are soldered onto the board, and interconnections are made through vias.

Amplifier: An amplifier, also known as an electronic amplifier or amp, is a device that increases the magnitude of a signal by using electric power from a power supply. It is a two-port electronic circuit that produces a larger amplitude signal at its output compared to the input signal. The level of amplification is measured by its gain, which is the ratio of output to input voltage, current, or power. Amplifiers are circuits with a power gain greater than one.

Vacuum tube: A vacuum tube is a device that controls electric current in a high vacuum between electrodes under an applied electric potential difference.

Capacitor: A capacitor is an electronic device that stores electrical energy by accumulating charges on two insulated surfaces. It is a passive component with two terminals.

Diode: A diode is an electronic component that conducts current in only one direction, with low resistance in that direction and high resistance in the opposite direction.

Light-emitting diode: LED: A semiconductor device that emits light when a current passes through it. Electrons and electron holes recombine in the semiconductor, producing photons. The color of the light is determined by the energy needed for electrons to cross the band gap. White light can be achieved by using multiple semiconductors or a phosphor layer on the device.

Electrical connector: An electrical connector is a device that connects different parts or circuits of an electrical system. It allows electric current to flow between them through a conductor. Connectors typically have a gender, with a male plug connecting to a female socket. They can be removable or permanent, and adapters can be used to connect different types of connectors.

Inductor: An inductor, also known as a coil or choke, is a passive electrical component that stores energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it. It is typically made up of an insulated wire wound into a coil.

Power supply: A power supply is an electrical device that converts electric current from a source into the correct voltage, current, and frequency for powering an electrical load. It is also known as an electric power converter. Power supplies can be separate standalone equipment or built into the appliances they power, like desktop computers and consumer electronics. They may also limit current, protect against electrical faults, condition power to prevent noise or surges, correct power factor, and store energy for temporary interruptions.

Resistor: A resistor is an electrical component used in circuits to control current flow and adjust voltage levels. It provides resistance to the flow of electricity and can be used for various purposes, including signal adjustment and voltage division. High-power resistors dissipate electrical power as heat and are used in motor controls, power systems, and as test loads. Fixed resistors have stable resistance, while variable resistors can be adjusted and used for sensing different aspects like heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

Switch: A switch is an electrical device used to interrupt or redirect an electric current in a circuit. It consists of movable electrical contacts connected to external circuits. When the contacts are touching, current flows, but when separated, current is interrupted.

Relay: A relay is an electrical switch with input and operating terminals. It can have various types of contacts, including make and break contacts.

Sensor: A sensor is a device that detects physical phenomena and generates an output signal.

Transformer: A transformer is a passive device that transfers electrical energy between different circuits without direct electrical connection. It uses a changing current in one coil to create a changing magnetic field in its core, generating a voltage in other coils around it. This principle, discovered by Faraday in 1831, allows for efficient electrical energy transfer.

Consumer electronics: Consumer electronics, also known as home electronics, are electronic devices used in private homes for entertainment, communication, and recreation. They are often referred to as black goods due to their dark casings, distinguishing them from white goods used for housekeeping tasks. In the past, brown goods was a term used in British English. Nowadays, consumer electronics stores sell a wide range of devices including appliances and light fixtures.

Remote control: A remote control is an electronic device that wirelessly operates another device from a distance. It is commonly used in consumer electronics to control devices like TVs and DVD players. Remote controls are primarily used for convenience, allowing operation of devices out of reach. They work best when used from a short distance and can even enable operation of devices that are otherwise unreachable, like garage door openers.

Semiconductor device: A semiconductor device is an electronic component that uses the properties of a semiconductor material. It has conductivity between conductors and insulators. These devices have replaced vacuum tubes and conduct electric current in the solid state, without the need for a vacuum or ionized gas.

Integrated circuit: An integrated circuit, or microchip, is a device with interconnected electronic components like transistors, resistors, and capacitors. It is made by etching these components onto a small piece of silicon. Integrated circuits are essential in computers, smartphones, and TVs to process and store information. They have revolutionized electronics by enabling smaller devices with enhanced functionality.

Charge-coupled device: A charge-coupled device (CCD) is an integrated circuit with linked capacitors that can transfer electric charge to each other. It is controlled by an external circuit and is primarily used in digital imaging technology.

Transistor: A transistor is a semiconductor device with three terminals that amplifies or switches electrical signals and power. It is a fundamental component of modern electronics, controlling current flow through its terminals. Transistors can amplify signals and are commonly found in integrated circuits. Considered one of the greatest inventions of the 20th century, they are vital to virtually all modern electronic devices.

Signal processing: Signal processing is an electrical engineering subfield that analyzes, modifies, and synthesizes signals like sound, images, and scientific measurements. It optimizes transmissions, enhances digital storage efficiency, corrects distorted signals, improves video quality, and identifies components of interest in measured signals.

Filter (signal processing): Filters are devices or processes used in signal processing to remove unwanted components or features from a signal. They suppress certain aspects of the signal, often by removing frequencies or frequency bands. Filters are used in various fields such as electronics, telecommunication, image processing, and control systems. They can act in domains other than frequency, and are essential in applications like audio recording, radar, computer graphics, and structural dynamics.

Signal-to-noise ratio: Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is a key measure in science and engineering that compares the intensity of a desired signal to the level of background noise. It is defined as the ratio of signal power to noise power and is often expressed in decibels. An SNR higher than 1:1 signifies a stronger signal compared to the background noise.

Oscilloscope: An oscilloscope is an electronic test instrument that shows the voltage of signals over time. It captures information for debugging, analysis, and characterization. The displayed waveform can be analyzed for properties like amplitude, frequency, and distortion. Older models required manual measurement, but modern ones can calculate and display these properties directly.

Antenna (radio): An antenna, also known as an aerial, is a crucial component in radio engineering that serves as the connection between radio waves and electrical currents. It enables the transmission and reception of electromagnetic waves, converting electric currents into waves for transmission and capturing radio wave power to generate electrical currents for reception. Antennas are integral in all radio equipment.

Waveguide: A waveguide is a structure that directs waves in a specific direction by limiting energy transmission. It includes various types like acoustic, optical, and radio-frequency waveguides, directing sound, light, and electromagnetic waves respectively.

Fire: Fire is the result of combustion, causing rapid oxidation of a material. It releases heat, light, and various reaction products. Flames, the visible part of a fire, primarily consist of carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen, and nitrogen. Under certain conditions, the gases may become ionized, forming plasma. The flame's color and intensity depend on the substances burning and any external impurities.

Renewable energy: Renewable energy refers to energy obtained from naturally replenished sources, such as sunlight, wind, water movement, and geothermal heat. While most renewable energy sources are sustainable, some biomass sources may be unsustainable. It is used for electricity generation, heating, and cooling, and is suitable for large-scale projects as well as rural areas and developing countries. Renewable energy plays a crucial role in human development.

Fuel: A fuel is a substance that can react with other materials to release energy as thermal energy or for work. Initially, it referred to materials with chemical energy, but now includes sources like nuclear energy.

Biofuel: Biofuel is a renewable fuel derived from biomass, produced quickly compared to fossil fuels. It can be made from plants, waste, or industrial byproducts. Primarily used for transportation, biofuels can also power heating and electricity. However, controversy arises from concerns over the "food vs fuel" debate, sustainability of production methods leading to deforestation and loss of biodiversity.

Charcoal: Charcoal is a black carbon residue created by heating wood with minimal oxygen to eliminate water and volatile elements. In the traditional method, called charcoal burning, heat is generated by burning a portion of the starting material. Charcoal can also be produced in a closed retort. Some modern charcoal briquettes used for outdoor cooking may include additional substances like coal.

Fossil fuel: Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons like coal, oil, and natural gas formed from dead plants and animals in the Earth's crust. They are extracted and burned for heat, power, and electricity generation. Some fuels are refined into kerosene, gasoline, and propane. These fuels originate from anaerobic decomposition of buried organisms over millions of years.

Coal: Coal is a black or brown sedimentary rock composed mainly of carbon. It forms in coal seams from decaying plant matter that is transformed into coal over millions of years. This fossil fuel was created by heat and pressure in wetlands known as coal forests during the late Carboniferous and Permian periods.

Natural gas: Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbons, primarily methane (97%), with small amounts of higher alkanes. It also contains trace gases like carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, and helium. Methane is colorless and odorless, but contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions. To enhance safety, mercaptan odorizers are added to detect leaks easily.

Oil well: An oil well is a drillhole that extracts petroleum oil and releases associated natural gas. Gas wells extract only gas. Wells are created by drilling into oil or gas reserves and using extraction devices like pumpjacks. Drilling wells is costly, especially in hard-to-reach areas. Modern drilling techniques were developed in the 19th century and improved during the 20th century.

Oil refinery: An oil refinery is an industrial plant that transforms crude oil into useful products like gasoline, diesel fuel, and heating oil through a refining process. It can also produce petrochemical feedstock such as ethylene and propylene directly from crude oil. The refinery typically receives and stores crude oil as well as the final products in an oil depot. In 2020, global refineries had a total capacity of about 101.2 million barrels per day.

Gasoline: Gasoline is a flammable liquid commonly used as fuel for internal combustion engines. It is transparent, yellowish, and made from organic compounds obtained through the distillation of petroleum. Gasoline is also chemically enhanced with additives.

Kerosene: Kerosene, also known as paraffin, is a flammable liquid derived from petroleum. Used as a fuel in aviation and households, it was trademarked in 1854 by Abraham Gesner. Its name comes from the Greek word for "wax" and it is sometimes spelled as kerosine in scientific and industrial contexts.

Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning: HVAC, an abbreviation for Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning, refers to a collection of technologies used to regulate temperature, humidity, and air purity in enclosed spaces. Its purpose is to achieve thermal comfort and maintain acceptable indoor air quality. HVAC system design is a specialized branch of mechanical engineering, grounded in principles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer. The field's abbreviation is often extended to include "Refrigeration" as HVAC&R or HVACR, and sometimes the "Ventilation" component is excluded, resulting in HACR.

Air conditioning: Air conditioning, or A/C, is the process of cooling and dehumidifying an enclosed space for a more comfortable environment. It can be achieved through mechanical air conditioners or other methods like passive cooling. Air conditioning is part of the HVAC family, which also includes heating and ventilation systems. Heat pumps are similar to A/C but can both heat and cool a space using a reversing valve.

Refrigeration: Refrigeration is the process of cooling a space or substance below the surrounding temperature, using artificial methods.

Candle: A candle is a wick immersed in wax or other flammable substance that produces light, fragrance, heat, and can be used to measure time.

Electric light: An electric light refers to an electrical component that emits light, commonly used for artificial lighting. It typically consists of a lamp with a base made of ceramic, metal, glass, or plastic, which is secured in a light fixture known as a "lamp." The connection to the fixture can be established through a screw-thread base, metal pins, metal caps, or a bayonet mount.

Incandescent light bulb: An incandescent light bulb is an electric light that uses a heated wire filament to produce light. It is enclosed in a glass bulb filled with inert gas or vacuum to prevent oxidation. The bulb is connected to a socket for mechanical support and electrical connections to supply current to the filament.

Power station: A power station, also known as a power plant, is an industrial facility that generates electric power. It is connected to an electrical grid.

Electric generator: An electric generator converts mechanical or fuel-based power into electric power for use in circuits. It can be powered by turbines, engines, wind, or even manual cranks. The first electromagnetic generator, invented in 1831 by Michael Faraday, paved the way for modern generators. They are crucial for supplying power to electrical grids.

Electricity generation: Electricity generation is the process of producing electric power from primary energy sources. It occurs before delivery to end users or storage in the electric power industry.

Hydropower: Hydropower, or water power, harnesses the energy of falling or fast-running water to generate electricity or power machinery. It converts the gravitational potential or kinetic energy of water sources into sustainable power, mainly through hydroelectric power generation. It is also used in pumped-storage hydroelectricity systems for energy storage.

Hydroelectricity: Hydroelectricity is generated from hydropower and supplies about one sixth of the world's electricity, more than all other renewables and nuclear power combined. It provides large amounts of low-carbon electricity on demand, contributing to secure and clean energy systems. Hydroelectric power stations with dams and reservoirs offer flexibility in adjusting electricity production quickly. They produce no direct waste and emit significantly fewer greenhouse gases than fossil fuel plants. However, when built in lowland rainforest areas, emissions may increase due to forest inundation.

Watermill: A watermill is a structure that uses hydropower to drive a mechanical process, such as milling, rolling, or hammering. It utilizes a water wheel or turbine to produce various material goods like flour, lumber, paper, textiles, and metal products. Watermills can be gristmills, sawmills, paper mills, textile mills, hammermills, trip hammering mills, rolling mills, or wire drawing mills.

Nuclear power: Nuclear power utilizes nuclear reactions to generate electricity, primarily through nuclear fission of uranium and plutonium in power plants. Additional sources include nuclear decay and the ongoing research on nuclear fusion. It has niche applications like radioisotope thermoelectric generators in space probes. Fusion power remains the subject of international research and focus.

Solar energy: Solar energy is the use of sunlight to create electricity and heat. It is a renewable energy source and can be captured through various technologies. These include solar power, which converts sunlight into electricity, and solar thermal energy, which heats water. The use of solar energy can be categorized as either passive or active, depending on how it is harnessed. Passive techniques involve designing buildings to optimize sunlight and airflow, while active techniques use systems like photovoltaic panels and concentrated solar power.

Solar power: Solar power is the process of converting sunlight into electricity using photovoltaic cells or concentrated solar power. Photovoltaic cells directly convert light into electric current, while concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors to focus sunlight onto a hot spot, typically to power a steam turbine.

Solar cell: A solar cell is an electronic device that generates electricity from light using the photovoltaic effect. It is a type of photoelectric cell that converts the energy of light directly into electricity. Solar cells are commonly used in photovoltaic panels, with the most common type producing around 0.5 to 0.6 volts of open-circuit voltage.

Cooling tower: A cooling tower is a device that cools a stream of water or coolant by either using water evaporation or relying solely on air to remove heat. It helps reject waste heat and lowers the temperature of the working fluid.

Geothermal power: Geothermal power is electricity produced from geothermal energy, utilizing methods like dry steam, flash steam, and binary cycle power stations. It is utilized for electricity generation in 26 countries and for heating purposes in 70 countries.

Turbine: A turbine is a mechanical device that converts fluid flow energy into useful work, like generating electricity. It has a rotor assembly with blades that, when fluid passes through, results in rotational energy. Examples include windmills and waterwheels.

Gas turbine: A gas turbine, also known as a gas turbine engine, is a continuous flow internal combustion engine. Its main components include a rotating gas compressor, a combustor, and a compressor-driving turbine.

Steam turbine: A steam turbine is a machine that uses pressurized steam to generate mechanical energy. It was invented by Charles Parsons in 1884 and has since evolved with advanced metalwork and precision parts. Steam turbines play a crucial role in the energy economics of the 21st century.

Wind turbine: A wind turbine converts wind energy into electricity. Wind farms have hundreds of thousands of turbines, generating over 650 gigawatts of power and growing by 60 GW each year. Wind turbines are vital for renewable energy, reducing costs and reliance on fossil fuels. A study found wind to have the lowest greenhouse gas emissions, least water consumption, and positive social impacts compared to other energy sources like solar, hydro, coal, and gas.

Wind power: Wind power is the harnessing of wind energy to generate useful work, primarily electricity. It historically powered sails, windmills, and windpumps. Nowadays, wind turbines in wind farms are the main source, connected to the grid for electricity generation.

Windmill: A windmill is a structure that utilizes wind power to generate rotational energy. It consists of sails or blades that convert wind energy into useful work, predominantly grinding grain in traditional gristmills. The term "windmill" has also been broadened to include windpumps, wind turbines, and other applications. Additionally, such devices are sometimes referred to as "wind engines."

Electric battery: An electric battery is a power source made up of one or more electrochemical cells, used to power electrical devices. It has a positive terminal known as the cathode, a negative terminal called the anode, and supplies electrons to flow through an external circuit. When connected to an electric load, a redox reaction converts high-energy substances into lower-energy ones, delivering the energy difference to the external circuit. Originally, a battery referred to multiple cells, but now it includes devices with a single cell.

Electric power transmission: Electric power transmission is the transmission of electrical energy from power plants to substations, forming a network. It is different from distribution, which is the wiring to customers. This network connects with distribution to create the electrical grid for electricity delivery.

Electric power distribution: Electric power distribution is the final stage of delivering electricity from the transmission system to consumers. It involves the use of distribution substations and transformers to lower the voltage for residential and commercial use. Primary distribution lines carry power to distribution transformers near customers' premises, while secondary distribution lines connect multiple customers to one transformer. Larger power consumers may be connected directly to higher distribution levels.

Electrical grid: An electrical grid is a network that delivers electricity from producers to consumers through power stations, substations, transmission lines, and distribution systems. It varies in size and can cover entire countries or continents, and includes microgrids, synchronous grids, and super grids.

Electrical wiring: Electrical wiring is the installation of cables, switches, sockets, and other devices used for electricity distribution in buildings or structures.

Electrical cable: An electrical cable is a conductor made up of several wires bundled together. It is used to carry electric current. Cable assemblies, such as cable trees or cable harnesses, are used to connect multiple terminals together.

Circuit breaker: A circuit breaker is an electrical safety device that interrupts current flow to prevent damage from overcurrent, protecting equipment and reducing fire risk. Unlike a fuse, it can be reset for normal operation without replacement.

Fuse (electrical): A fuse is an electrical safety device used in electronics and electrical engineering. It contains a metal wire or strip that melts when there is an excess flow of current, cutting off the circuit. Once a fuse has operated, it needs to be replaced or rewired.

Factory: A factory is an industrial facility with machinery where workers manufacture or process items. They are crucial for modern production, with most goods globally being produced or processed within factories.

Assembly line: An assembly line is a manufacturing process where parts are added sequentially as the semi-finished assembly moves between workstations. By mechanizing the movement of parts and assemblies, products can be assembled more efficiently and with reduced labor compared to manually carrying parts to a stationary location for assembly.

Automation: Automation is the use of technology to decrease human involvement in processes, achieving this by predetermined decision criteria and actions implemented in machines. Various methods are employed, including mechanical, electrical, and electronic devices, as well as computers. Complex systems like factories, airplanes, and ships combine these techniques. Automation brings advantages such as reducing labor, waste, electricity and material costs, while also enhancing quality, accuracy, and precision.

Industrial robot: An industrial robot is an automated and programmable system used in manufacturing. It is capable of moving on three or more axes.

Interchangeable parts: Interchangeable parts are nearly identical components that can be freely replaced in an assembly without custom fitting. They allow easy assembly and repair of devices, minimizing the time and skill required for the task.

Mass production: Mass production is the efficient manufacturing of large quantities of standardized products in a continuous flow, typically on assembly lines. It is one of the three main production methods, alongside job production and batch production.

Mechanization: Mechanization is the transition from manual or animal labor to the use of machinery. Machines are designed to perform specific mechanical operations by utilizing a moving power and facilitating the completion of work tasks. They serve as a link between the power source and the desired operations, allowing for efficient adaptation and performance.

Standardization: Standardization is the establishment of technical standards through consensus among various parties, including firms, users, interest groups, governments, and standards organizations. Its goal is to enhance compatibility, interoperability, safety, repeatability, and quality. Additionally, it enables the normalization of previous custom practices.

Waste: Waste refers to undesirable or inoperable materials that are discarded after being used. It can be a substance of no worth or usefulness. In contrast, a by-product is a less valuable joint product. However, a waste product can potentially be transformed into a by-product, joint product, or resource if its value is increased through innovation.

Landfill: A landfill is a designated site for the disposal of waste materials. It has various names like dump, garbage dump, or trash dump. This method has been widely used for waste disposal since ancient times, but systematic burial with covers started in the 1940s. Previously, waste was left in piles or pits, which is known as a midden in archeology.

Recycling: Recycling is the conversion of waste materials into new objects and materials, including energy recovery. It helps save materials, lowers greenhouse gas emissions, and prevents waste of useful materials. Additionally, recycling reduces consumption of raw materials, energy use, air pollution, and water pollution.

Waste management: Waste management involves the various steps taken to handle and dispose of waste properly. It encompasses collecting, transporting, treating, and disposing of waste, while also monitoring and regulating the entire process. This field encompasses laws, technologies, and economic mechanisms related to waste.

Bleach: Bleach is a chemical used to remove color from fabric and fibers or disinfect after cleaning. It typically refers to a diluted solution of sodium hypochlorite, known as "liquid bleach."

Desalination: Desalination is a process that removes minerals from saline water, making it suitable for human consumption and irrigation. It is also used on ships and submarines. The by-product of the process is brine. Desalination is an important method for providing fresh water, especially in areas with limited rainfall.

Detergent: Detergent is a cleansing agent that contains surfactants. It is available in various forms and commonly includes alkylbenzene sulfonates, which are soap-like compounds. These compounds are highly soluble in hard water, as their polar sulfonate components are less likely to bind to calcium and other ions present in hard water.

Laundry: Laundry is the process of washing, drying, and ironing clothes and textiles. It has been practiced throughout history as clothing became a commonplace. Scholars find interest in studying the various methods cultures use to address this universal human need.

Pasteurization: Pasteurization is a method of preserving food by subjecting it to mild heat treatment below 100°C, eliminating harmful microorganisms and extending its shelf life. This process destroys or deactivates bacteria and enzymes that cause spoilage and disease, although bacterial spores may still survive.

Sanitation: Sanitation refers to efforts to maintain public health by ensuring clean drinking water, proper disposal of human waste, and preventing the spread of disease through feces. Adequate sanitation can help reduce malnutrition, stunted growth in children, and the transmission of various diseases like cholera, hepatitis, and polio.

Sanitary sewer: A sanitary sewer is an underground system that transports sewage from buildings to a treatment plant. It is part of a larger sewage system and may also carry industrial wastewater. Sanitary sewers prevent combined sewer overflows and are smaller than sewers that transport runoff. However, backups can occur due to aging infrastructure and leaks.

Sewage treatment: Sewage treatment is a process that removes contaminants from wastewater to make it safe for release into the environment or for reuse. It addresses wastewater from homes, businesses, and industries, including stormwater from urban areas. The process involves primary and secondary treatment stages, with the option of advanced tertiary treatment for further purification and nutrient removal. Some systems also incorporate a quarternary treatment step to eliminate organic micropollutants. Different types of sewage treatment processes exist, ranging from decentralized to large centralized systems. Sweden has implemented a comprehensive treatment approach that includes all these stages.

Water purification: Water purification is the process of removing chemicals, contaminants, solids, and gases from water to make it safe for specific purposes. It is mainly done for human consumption but also for medical, chemical, and industrial applications. The history of water purification includes various methods like filtration, sedimentation, distillation, slow sand filters, biologically active carbon, flocculation, chlorination, and ultraviolet light treatment.

Soap: Soap is a fatty acid salt utilized in various cleaning and lubricating products. It is a surfactant used in domestic chores like washing and bathing, while in industries it serves as thickeners, catalysts, and a component in lubricants.

Water supply network: A water supply network is an engineered system that provides water supply. It includes raw water collection points, water purification facilities, and water storage facilities. There are also pressurizing components and a pipe network for distributing water to consumers. The sewer system is separate from the water supply system.

Aqueduct (water supply): An aqueduct is a watercourse constructed to transport water from a source to a distant distribution point. It can be comprised of various structures such as pipes, ditches, canals, tunnels, and bridges. Aqueducts were historically used in ancient civilizations like Greece, the Near East, and Rome. They ranged from simple ditches to large channels, sometimes passing through tunnels. Modern aqueducts may utilize pipelines. Their main purposes were to provide irrigation for crops and supply drinking water to large cities.

Qanat: A qanat, also known as kārīz, is an ancient underground aqueduct system that transports water from wells to the surface. It originated in what is now Iran around 3,000 years ago. Similar systems exist in North Africa and the Middle East, with regional names like foggara, khettara, falaj, karez, and 'uyūn. The largest functioning qanat systems can be found in Iran, Afghanistan, Oman, Turfan in China, Algeria, and Pakistan.

Pumping station: Pumping stations, or pumphouses, are facilities with pumps and equipment used to move fluids from one location to another. They play a vital role in various infrastructure systems, including water supply to canals, drainage of low-lying areas, and sewage removal. Additionally, pumping stations are essential components in pumped-storage hydroelectricity installations.

Water tower: A water tower is a tall structure that holds a water tank at an elevated position to provide pressurized water for distribution and emergency fire storage. It can work with underground or surface reservoirs for treated water, but some towers solely store non-potable water for fire protection or industrial use, not connected to public water supply.

Well: A well is a structure dug or drilled into the ground to access liquid resources, especially water. The most common type is a water well, used to tap into underground aquifers. Water is extracted with pumps or manually using containers. Wells can also be used to inject water back into aquifers. They have been constructed for at least eight thousand years, varying in complexity from simple scoops to intricate systems like qanats in Iran and stepwells in India. Adding a lining to the well shaft enhances stability, with wooden or wickerwork linings dating back to the Iron Age.

Abrasive: An abrasive is a mineral material used to shape or finish a workpiece by rubbing, causing friction that wears away part of the workpiece. It can involve polishing for a smooth surface or roughening for satin, matte, or beaded finishes. Ceramics used to cut, grind, and polish softer materials are called abrasives.

Pottery: Pottery is the art of creating durable vessels and objects from clay and other materials, through a high-temperature firing process. It encompasses a wide range of uses such as tableware, decorations, and industrial applications like electrical insulators. The term also refers to the place where these items are made. In the context of art history and archaeology, pottery usually refers to vessels while figurines made from the same material are known as terracottas.

Ceramic: Ceramic is a material created by shaping and firing inorganic, nonmetallic substances like clay at high temperatures. It is known for its hardness, brittleness, heat resistance, and corrosion resistance. Popular examples include earthenware, porcelain, and brick.

Porcelain: Porcelain is a strong and translucent ceramic material created by heating raw materials in a kiln at high temperatures. Its superior quality comes from vitrification and the formation of mullite. Porcelain is commonly used in tableware, decorative items, technology, industry, and scientific purposes.

Leather: Leather is a durable material obtained from animal hides, preventing decay through tanning. It is flexible, strong, and commonly sourced from various animals including cattle, sheep, goats, horses, buffaloes, pigs, and aquatic creatures like seals and alligators.

Parchment: Parchment is a writing material made from untanned animal skins, like sheep, calves, and goats. It has been used for over 2000 years and is a popular medium for writing. Vellum, a higher quality parchment, is made from the skins of young animals such as lambs and young calves.

Natural rubber: Natural rubber, also known as India rubber or latex, is a polymer made from the organic compound isoprene. It is produced with small amounts of impurities and is mainly cultivated in Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Cambodia.

Paper: Paper is a thin sheet material made from cellulose fibers derived from plants. It is produced through a process involving water, mesh, pressing, and drying. Originally made by hand, it is now manufactured on large machines at high speeds. Paper is versatile, used for printing, packaging, writing, and more. It also has various industrial applications, such as in filtering, construction, and currency production.

Papyrus: Papyrus is a durable paper-like material used in ancient times for writing. It was derived from the pith of the papyrus plant and often formed into scrolls, serving as an early type of book.

Plastic: Plastic is a versatile material made mostly from polymers. It can be easily shaped and has many useful properties, including being lightweight, strong, flexible, and cheap to produce. Plastics are commonly derived from fossil fuels, but can now be made from renewable sources like corn and cotton.

Glass: Glass is a clear, hard substance with no crystal structure. It is chemically stable and commonly used for windows, dishes, and lenses.

Adhesive: An adhesive is a substance, also known as glue, that is applied to the surfaces of two separate items to bind them together and prevent separation. It is a non-metallic substance like cement, mucilage, or paste.

Chemical plant: A chemical plant is an industrial facility that produces chemicals on a large scale. Its main goal is to create material wealth through the transformation and separation of substances. Chemical plants employ specialized equipment and technology. They share similarities with polymer, pharmaceutical, food, and beverage production facilities, power plants, refineries, natural gas processing, and wastewater treatment plants. Some may consider oil refineries, pharmaceutical, and polymer manufacturers as types of chemical plants.

Composite material: A composite material is created by combining two or more materials with different properties to form a new material with unique characteristics. Unlike mixtures or solid solutions, the original materials in composites remain separate within the final structure.

Explosive: An explosive is a highly reactive substance with immense potential energy. When released suddenly, it can cause an explosion, generating light, heat, sound, and pressure. It can be either a single ingredient or a mixture of at least two substances.

Dynamite: Dynamite, invented by Alfred Nobel, is an explosive that combines nitroglycerin, sorbents, and stabilizers. Patented in 1867, it quickly became popular as a safer substitute for black powder explosives. Its key advantage lies in harnessing nitroglycerin's explosive power while minimizing the risk of accidental detonation.

Fireworks: Fireworks are low explosive pyrotechnic devices used for entertainment. They create dazzling displays in outdoor settings and are central to cultural and religious celebrations. However, mishandling can lead to fireworks accidents.

Petrochemical: Petrochemicals are chemical products derived from refining petroleum. They can also be made from coal, natural gas, or renewable sources like maize, palm fruit, or sugar cane.

Metallurgy: Metallurgy is a branch of materials science and engineering that examines the properties and behavior of metals, metal compounds, and alloys through their physical and chemical characteristics.

Smelting: Smelting is a metallurgical process that uses heat and a reducing agent to extract base metals from ores. It is commonly used to obtain metals like iron, copper, silver, tin, lead, and zinc. By applying heat and a reducing agent, the ore is decomposed, releasing gases or slag and leaving behind the desired metal. Fossil fuels, like carbon monoxide from coke combustion, are typically used as the reducing agent. The oxygen in the ore binds to carbon, resulting in the formation of carbon dioxide.

Metalworking: Metalworking is the practice of shaping metals to make useful objects, from small engine parts to massive structures like ships and bridges. It involves a range of processes, skills, and tools, and is used to create objects of all sizes.

Die casting: Die casting is a metal casting process where molten metal is forced under pressure into a mold cavity. The mold cavity is created using hardened steel dies that shape the metal similar to an injection mold. It is commonly used for non-ferrous metals like zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, pewter, and tin-based alloys. The choice of machine, hot or cold-chamber, depends on the type of metal being cast.

Wire: A wire is a flexible metal bar used for various purposes.

Extrusion: Extrusion is a manufacturing process that pushes material through a die to create objects with specific cross-sectional profiles. It offers advantages such as the ability to create complex shapes and work with brittle materials by subjecting them to compressive and shear stresses. Additionally, it provides excellent surface finish and allows for design freedom.

Forging: Forging is a metal shaping process using localized compressive forces, typically with a hammer or die. It can be categorized into cold, warm, or hot forging based on the temperature. Forged parts vary in weight from less than a kilogram to hundreds of metric tons. This ancient technique has been used by smiths to create a wide range of products, including kitchenware, hardware, tools, weapons, cymbals, and jewelry.

Heat treating: Heat treating is an industrial process in which the physical and chemical properties of a material, usually metal, are changed through the use of extreme temperatures. The most common application is in metallurgy, but heat treatments are also used in the production of other materials. These treatments involve heating or chilling to achieve desired outcomes like hardening or softening. Various techniques such as annealing, case hardening, and quenching are employed. While heat treatments are intentional processes, heating and cooling may also occur incidentally during other manufacturing methods.

Laser cutting: Laser cutting is a technology that uses a powerful laser to vaporize materials, resulting in precise and clean cuts. Originally used for industrial purposes, laser cutting is now widely adopted by schools, small businesses, architecture, and hobbyists. The process involves directing the laser beam through optics and CNC systems to follow a pattern. The laser beam melts, burns, or vaporizes the material, leaving a high-quality finished edge.

Rolling (metalworking): Rolling is a metalworking process that involves passing metal stock through rolls to reduce thickness and create uniformity. It can be classified as hot or cold rolling depending on the metal's temperature. Hot rolling is used more extensively and cold rolling is the primary cold working process. Rolling mills are used to quickly transform steel into various products like structural steel and bar stock. Steel mills often have rolling mill divisions to convert semi-finished casting products into finished goods.

Soldering: Soldering is a method of connecting metal surfaces using a filler metal known as solder. It involves heating the surfaces, melting the solder, and allowing it to cool to create a strong and durable bond.

Steelmaking: Steelmaking is the production of steel through the processing of iron ore and/or scrap. It involves the removal of impurities, such as nitrogen, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, and excess carbon, from iron. Additionally, alloying elements like manganese, nickel, chromium, carbon, and vanadium are added to create various steel grades.

Welding: Welding is a fabrication process that uses high heat to melt materials like metals and thermoplastics, joining them together and allowing them to fuse upon cooling. It differs from brazing and soldering as it involves melting the base metal.

Textile: Textiles are fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads, and different fabric types. Initially, textiles were limited to woven fabrics, but later, other methods like knitting and non-woven were developed. Textiles now cater to diverse applications, ranging from everyday clothing to specialized items like bulletproof jackets, spacesuits, and doctor's gowns.

Canvas: Canvas is a strong and durable woven fabric widely utilized for creating various items that require sturdiness, like sails, tents, backpacks, and shelters. It is also commonly employed as a surface for oil paintings by artists, often stretched over a wooden frame. Additionally, canvas finds application in fashion objects such as handbags, electronic device cases, and shoes.

Cotton: Cotton is a soft and fluffy fiber that grows around the seeds of cotton plants. It primarily consists of cellulose and may contain small amounts of other substances. Cotton bolls help disperse the seeds naturally.

Felt: Felt is a dense textile made by matting fibers together. It can be produced from natural materials like wool or fur, or synthetic fibers such as acrylic or rayon. Felt possesses unique characteristics like fire-resistance, vibration dampening, sound absorption, and high fluid absorption capacity without feeling wet. Its versatility makes it suitable for various applications.

Fiber: Fiber refers to elongated materials that are used in making various products. It can be natural or man-made and is widely used in manufacturing. Strong engineering materials such as carbon fiber and ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene commonly include fibers.

Jute: Jute is a strong bast fiber derived from the Corchorus plant in the Malvaceae family. It can be spun into coarse threads and is known for its rough texture and shiny appearance. Corchorus capsularis is the preferred source of jute fiber, while Corchorus olitorius is considered inferior.

Lace: Lace is a delicate fabric made of yarn or thread in an open weblike pattern, created by machine or by hand. It can be categorized into needlelace and bobbin lace, with other types including knitted or crocheted lace. This article discusses both needle lace and bobbin lace.

Linen: Linen is a textile derived from flax plant fibers.

Polyester: Polyester is a type of polymer that contains the ester functional group in each repeat unit of its main chain. It commonly refers to polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a specific material. Polyester includes both natural chemicals found in plants and insects and synthetic variations like polybutyrate. While some polyesters are biodegradable, most synthetic ones are not. This versatile material is widely used in clothing production.

Silk: Silk is a natural protein fiber that can be woven into textiles. It is mainly composed of fibroin and produced by insect larvae to form cocoons. The most well-known type of silk comes from the larvae of the mulberry silkworm, which is reared in captivity. The shimmering appearance of silk is a result of its unique triangular prism-like structure, allowing it to reflect light at different angles and produce various colors.

Thread (yarn): A thread is a long strand used to join, create or decorate fabrics. It can be composed of various materials such as plant fibers, wool, hair, cotton, linen, nylon, silk, polyester, and even metal wire. Ancient Egyptians were skilled at making thread from natural fibers.

Wool: Wool is a textile fiber derived from animals like sheep, goats, rabbits, and camelids. It can also apply to mineral and glass materials that share wool-like properties.

Yarn: Yarn is a continuous length of interlocked fibers used in sewing, knitting, weaving, and more. It can be made of natural or synthetic materials, and comes in various colors and thicknesses. Thread, a type of yarn, is used for sewing by hand or machine and may be finished with wax for added strength. Embroidery threads are specifically designed for needlework. While yarn can be dyed different colors, most are solid colored with a uniform hue.

Basket weaving: Basket weaving is the art of crafting three-dimensional objects by weaving pliable materials like mats, bags, and furniture. Those skilled in this craft are called basket makers or weavers. Often practiced in rural areas, basket weaving is a traditional and specialized form of craftsmanship.

Crochet: Crochet is a textile creation process using a crochet hook to interlock loops of various materials. The name comes from the French term for 'hook'. Hooks can be made of different materials. In crochet, each stitch is completed before starting the next one, unlike knitting. Variants like Tunisian crochet and broomstick lace allow multiple stitches to remain open simultaneously.

Dyeing: Dyeing is the process of applying dyes or pigments to fibers, yarns, and fabrics to achieve desired colors that are long-lasting. It involves using a special solution containing dyes and chemicals, and the dye molecules are attached to the fiber through absorption, diffusion, or bonding. Dyeing differs from printing as it covers the entire textile, while printing applies color to specific areas with patterns.

Dye: A dye is a colored substance that chemically binds to a material, distinguishing it from pigments. It is typically applied in a water-based solution and may require a mordant to enhance its durability on fibers.

Embroidery: Embroidery is a needlecraft that involves decorating fabric or materials with thread or yarn. It can also include pearls, beads, quills, and sequins. Embroidery is commonly found on various items like caps, coats, dresses, and more. It offers a wide range of thread or yarn colors and is often used for personalized gifts or clothing.

Knitting: Knitting is a technique that produces fabric by interlacing yarn loops. It is used for creating various types of clothing and can be done either by hand or by machine.

Macramé: Macramé is a textile art created by knotting techniques.

Quilting: Quilting refers to joining layers of fabric using stitching by hand or machine. This creates a padded surface with a three-dimensional effect. The three layers involved are the top fabric, insulating material, and backing.

Sewing: Sewing is the craft of attaching objects with stitches using a needle and thread. It is one of the oldest textile arts, dating back to the Paleolithic era. Stone Age people in Europe and Asia sewed fur and leather clothing with bone or ivory needles and threads made of animal sinew, catgut, and veins.

Hand spinning: Hand spinning is the ancient art of twisting fibers together to create yarn. Initially done by hand with tools like the spindle and distaff, it saw a significant improvement with the invention of the spinning wheel in the 11th century. This led to increased productivity and eventually mass production during the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century. Despite technological advancements, hand spinning continues to be a beloved handicraft.

Loom: A loom is a device to weave cloth and tapestry. It holds the warp threads under tension for weaving the weft threads. Its shape and mechanics may vary, but its purpose remains constant.

Weaving: Weaving is a textile production method where two sets of yarns or threads intertwine at right angles to create cloth. The warp threads run lengthwise, while the weft threads run widthwise. This interlacing affects the cloth's characteristics. Looms are commonly used to weave cloth, but alternative techniques like tablet weaving and back strap loom can also produce fabric.

Tapestry: Tapestry is a hand-woven textile art used for creating images. It is delicate and challenging to make, leading to its historical use as wall hangings or furniture covers. Some periods produced smaller pieces as decorative borders. Commonly, natural warp threads like wool, linen, or cotton are used, while weft threads can be wool, cotton, silk, or metallic materials.

Building: A building is a permanent, enclosed structure with walls and a roof, such as a house or factory. It comes in various sizes, shapes, and functions, and is shaped by factors like materials, weather conditions, land prices, and specific uses. Nonbuilding structures can be studied for comparison.

Infrastructure: Infrastructure refers to the facilities and systems that support a country, city or area. It includes public and private structures like roads, bridges, water supply, electrical grids, and telecommunications. Its main purpose is to enable economic activities and daily living by providing essential services. Infrastructure also plays a crucial role in maintaining the environment.

Brick: Brick: a construction material for walls and pavements made primarily of clay but can also be made of other materials. Joined using mortar, adhesives, or interlocking. Produced in various classes, types, materials, and sizes at brickworks in large quantities.

Cement: Cement is a chemical binder used in construction to bind materials together. It sets, hardens, and adheres to other substances. It is commonly mixed with sand and gravel to produce concrete, which is the planet's second most-consumed resource after water.

Concrete: Concrete is a widely used composite material made from aggregate and cement. It cures over time and is the most commonly used building material globally. Its usage ton for ton is double that of steel, wood, plastics, and aluminum combined.

Masonry: Masonry is the art of constructing structures using materials like brick, stone, and mortar. It involves bonding and joining these materials together, and can also refer to the actual building components.

Quarry: A quarry is an open-pit mine where materials like stone, rock, sand, or gravel are excavated. Regulations exist in certain places to ensure safety and minimize environmental impact of quarry operations.

Scaffolding: Scaffolding, also known as scaffold or staging, is a temporary structure used to support work crews and materials during the construction, maintenance, and repair of various human-made structures. It provides access to heights and difficult-to-reach areas. However, unsafe scaffolding can lead to fatal accidents. Besides construction, it is also utilized for formwork, shoring, seating, concert stages, towers, exhibition stands, ski ramps, half pipes, and artistic projects.

Wood: Wood is a structural tissue found in trees and plants. It consists of strong cellulose fibers embedded in lignin, resisting compression. It supports growth and transfers water and nutrients. Wood can refer to similar tissues in roots and shrubs, as well as engineered materials made from wood and fibers.

Lumber: Lumber is processed wood used for construction and finishing, available in different sizes and referred to as timber in some countries. It has diverse applications beyond home building and is often called timber in other regions to refer to unprocessed wood fiber.

Woodworking: Woodworking is the craft of creating wooden objects, encompassing various disciplines like cabinetry, furniture making, wood carving, joinery, carpentry, and woodturning.

Carpentry: Carpentry is a skilled trade involving the cutting, shaping, and installation of building materials. It has traditionally used natural wood, but now includes other materials and fine trades like cabinetmaking. In the US, the majority of carpenters are male, and in 2006 there were about 1.5 million carpentry positions. Carpenters are often the first and last workers on a job, and historically framed post-and-beam buildings. They learn through apprenticeships or work experience.

Arch: An arch is a curved vertical structure that spans an open space, offering support or decoration. It originated in the fourth millennium BC, but gained popularity during the Roman era in the 4th century BC.

Ceiling: A ceiling is an overhead surface inside a room that covers the upper part. It is not a structural element but conceals the roof structure or upper floor. Ceilings can be decorated with frescoes and artwork, commonly found in religious buildings. They can also serve as the upper limit of a tunnel.

Column: A column is a structural element that carries the weight of a structure through compression. It is a large round support made of stone with a capital and base, while a smaller wooden or metal support is called a post. Piers are supports with a non-round section.

Dome: A dome is an architectural element resembling a hollow upper half of a sphere. It may overlap with the term cupola, which can refer to a dome or a structure atop it. The exact definition of a dome has been debated, resulting in diverse forms and specialized terms.

Door: A door is a movable barrier that allows entry and exit from an enclosure. It provides security by controlling access and is commonly made of materials suited for its task. Doors are typically attached by hinges but can also move in other ways, like slides or counterbalancing.

Elevator: An elevator, also known as a lift, is a vertical transportation system that moves people or goods between different levels. It is powered by electric motors, using traction cables or hydraulic systems.

Façade: A façade refers to the front or exterior of a building. It originates from the French word façade, meaning "frontage" or "face."

Floor: A floor is the base surface in a room or vehicle, ranging from basic dirt to multi-layered modern structures. Floors can be made of various materials like stone, wood, bamboo, or metal, providing necessary support for expected weight loads.

Foundation (engineering): A foundation in engineering connects a structure to the ground, transferring loads. It can be shallow or deep. Foundation engineering uses soil and rock mechanics in designing foundation elements.

Ladder: A ladder is a set of rungs used for climbing up or down. There are two types: self-supporting rigid ladders and rollable ladders. Rigid ladders have stringers or rails, can be portable or fixed, and are commonly made of metal, wood, or fiberglass.

Lighting: Lighting is the intentional use of light for practical or aesthetic purposes. It involves artificial and natural sources, such as lamps and daylighting in buildings. By using natural light, energy consumption can be reduced. Proper lighting improves task performance, enhances appearance, and positively affects occupants' psychology.

Roof: A roof is the uppermost layer of a building that shields it from various elements such as rain, snow, sunlight, temperature variations, and wind. It is an integral part of the building structure, providing protection and support.

Room: A room is an enclosed space in a building or ship with entry through a door, connecting to other rooms or the outdoors. It accommodates multiple people and is designed to support specific activities with appropriate size, fixtures, furnishings, and placement.

Stairs: Stairs are structures that span vertical distances, dividing it into smaller vertical distances using a series of rectangular platforms called steps. They can be straight, round, or comprised of several straight pieces connected at angles.

Wall: A wall is a structure that defines an area, provides security or shelter, and can be decorative. It can be found in various forms, such as building walls, glass walls, border barriers, brick walls, defensive walls, solid fences, retaining walls, stone walls, and walls that protect from oceans or rivers. Each type serves different purposes like separating rooms, enhancing privacy, preventing floods, or adding aesthetic appeal.

Window: A window is an opening in a surface that allows light to pass through and sometimes sound and air. It consists of a frame and a transparent or translucent material. Windows can be opened or closed for ventilation and protection from weather, and may have mechanisms to lock or hold them open.

Dock: A dock is a human-made structure used for handling boats or ships. In American English, it refers to these structures, while in British English it refers to the water area near a wharf or quay. The meaning of the term varies among different English variants.

Harbor: A harbor is a sheltered body of water where ships can dock. It is often used interchangeably with a port, which is a facility for loading/unloading and receiving passengers. Harbors typically have one or more ports. Alexandria Port in Egypt serves as an example of a harbor with two ports.

Lighthouse: A lighthouse is a tower or building that emits light using lamps and lenses to guide ships and boats safely through waterways, aiding navigational assistance for maritime pilots at sea or on inland water bodies.

Pier: A pier is a raised structure that extends into a body of water, providing access to offshore areas. It is supported by piles or pillars and is used for fishing, boat docking, and recreational activities. Piers allow tides and currents to flow freely, unlike quays or wharfs, which can act as breakwaters. They can range in size and complexity, from lightweight wooden structures to massive ones extending over thousands of feet. In American English, a pier may be called a dock.

Port: A port is a facility where ships load and unload cargo and passengers. It can be located on a sea coast or estuary, or far inland with access to the sea through rivers or canals. Port cities have witnessed significant cultural changes due to their roles as entry points for immigrants and soldiers during war.

Pagoda: A pagoda is an Asian tiered tower with multiple eaves. It is primarily used for religious purposes, predominantly Buddhist or Taoist. The pagoda originated from the stupa in ancient India and is common in various parts of Asia, including China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. Chinese pagodas are recognized for their architectural significance and offer breathtaking views.

Pyramid: A pyramid is a geometric structure with triangular outer surfaces that converge at the top, forming a single step. The base of a pyramid can have various polygon shapes, but it always has at least three outer triangular surfaces. A common type of pyramid is the square pyramid, which has a square base and four triangular outer surfaces.

Office: An office is a space where employees perform administrative work for an organization to support its goals. It can also refer to a position within an organization with specific duties. The term "office" can also encompass business-related tasks. In law, the term "office" applies to any place where a company has an official presence. Offices can range from small spaces in a home or business to entire floors or massive buildings dedicated to one company. Generally, an office is where white-collar workers carry out their functions.

Warehouse: A warehouse is a large building used for storing goods by manufacturers, importers, exporters, wholesalers, and transport businesses. Typically located on the outskirts of cities or industrial parks, warehouses are plain structures that serve as a central location for inventory storage and management.

Tower block: A tower block, also known as a high-rise or apartment tower, is a tall building that is used for residential, office, and other purposes. Its height varies depending on the location. In some English-speaking countries, such as the UK, it is referred to as a tower block or a multi-dwelling unit (MDU). A very tall high-rise building is called a skyscraper.

Skyscraper: A skyscraper is a tall building with multiple floors, typically at least 100 or 150 meters in height. Originally, it referred to buildings with 10 to 20 stories, starting in the 1880s. Skyscrapers can accommodate offices, hotels, residential areas, and retail spaces.

Tower: A tower is a tall, self-supporting structure, usually much taller than its width. Unlike masts, towers lack guy-wires and are often accompanied by tall buildings.

Apartment: An apartment is a self-contained housing unit in a building, commonly on one floor. It can have various names. Apartments can be owned, rented, or part of public housing.

House: A house is a residential building with plumbing, electricity, and HVAC systems. It protects inhabitants from weather and has doors and locks for security. It typically includes bedrooms, bathrooms, kitchen, and living room. Some houses have separate dining or recreation rooms. In rural societies, animals may coexist with humans.

Hut: A hut is a small dwelling built using locally available materials like wood, stone, grass, or fabric. It is a type of vernacular architecture, traditionally constructed using techniques passed down through generations.

Igloo: An igloo is a shelter made of snow, also known as a snow house or snow hut.

Palace: A palace is a prestigious dwelling for royalty or high-ranking officials, typically named after Rome's Palatine Hill.

Villa: A villa is a type of house that originated in ancient Rome and has evolved over time. Initially, villas were upper-class country houses, but later they turned into fortified farming compounds and then transformed into elegant upper-class homes during the Middle Ages. In the early modern period, any detached house with a garden near a city or town was referred to as a villa. Nowadays, the term "villa" encompasses various types and sizes of residences, from semi-detached houses to large countryside mansions, particularly found around the Mediterranean.

Hotel: A hotel is a paid lodging establishment that offers short-term accommodation. Rooms can vary from basic to luxurious with amenities such as beds, dressers, refrigerators, TVs, and bathrooms. Smaller hotels may have limited services, while larger ones may provide extras like pools, business centers, childcare, sports facilities, restaurants, spas, and event spaces. Rooms are usually numbered, and some high-end hotels have uniquely designed rooms. In Japan, capsule hotels offer tiny rooms for sleeping and shared bathrooms.

Bathroom: A bathroom is a room in a home or residential building that typically includes a bathtub or shower. It commonly features a wash basin and is sometimes combined with a toilet. In India, bathrooms usually have a toilet, while in other places it may have a separate dedicated room. In the United States, the term "bathroom" is often used for any room with a toilet, regardless of bathing facilities.

Bedroom: A bedroom is a room used for sleeping in a residence. It typically includes one or two beds, a closet, and bedside and dressing tables with drawers. Bedrooms are usually located on floors above ground level and can accommodate various bed sizes, from cribs to California kings. These rooms are designed to keep out insects, reduce light and noise, and provide privacy for a good sleep.

Garage (residential): A residential garage is a structure attached to or separate from a home for storing vehicles. It typically accommodates one or two cars but can house up to three. The garage has a person door for entry into the house and a wider, taller garage door for vehicles. It protects vehicles from weather, theft, and vandalism. Moreover, garages often double as workshops for various projects and can be used for storage or entertainment purposes.

Kitchen: A kitchen is a room or part of a room used for cooking and food preparation. It is equipped with a stove, sink, refrigerator, worktops, and cabinets. Additional appliances may include a microwave and dishwasher. The main functions of a kitchen are to store, prepare, and cook food. It can also be used for dining, entertaining, and laundry. Kitchen design and construction is a significant global market.

Sauna: A sauna is a place where people experience dry or wet heat sessions, causing them to perspire. It can be a room or a building, often equipped with thermometers to measure temperature and hygrometers to measure humidity. Saunas are not considered to include infrared therapy, as per Finnish sauna organizations.

Tent: A tent is a portable shelter made of fabric attached to poles or ropes. It was initially used by nomads as homes and now serves as temporary accommodation for camping and other outdoor activities.

Dam: A dam is a barrier that controls water flow, creating reservoirs for various uses like irrigation, drinking water, and power generation. It can also store water for distribution. Dams primarily retain water, while other structures manage water flow in specific areas.

Drainage: Drainage is the process of removing water from an area with excessive surface and sub-surface water. It can occur naturally or be facilitated through artificial means. Agricultural soils often require internal or artificial drainage to prevent waterlogging and enhance productivity or water management.

Flood control: Flood control encompasses methods to mitigate the negative impacts of floodwaters. It involves reducing flood effects caused by extreme weather, as well as human alterations to waterbodies. There are two types of approaches: structural, which physically constrain floods, and non-structural, which do not. While traditional hard infrastructure like flood walls is effective, modern trends emphasize the use of soft infrastructure and natural systems such as marshes and floodplains. Additionally, coastal management practices play a crucial role in addressing both natural tidal processes and rising sea levels.

Flood control in the Netherlands: Flood control is vital in the Netherlands since a large portion of its land is at risk of flooding and it has a high population density. To combat this, the country utilizes natural sand dunes, constructed dikes, dams, and floodgates to protect against storm surges from the sea. River dikes are also employed to prevent flooding from major rivers. Additionally, an intricate network of drainage ditches, canals, and pumping stations keeps low-lying areas habitable and suitable for agriculture. Local water control boards are responsible for maintaining this system.

Levee: A levee is a structure (usually made of earth) that prevents river course changes and protects against flooding in surrounding areas. It is often parallel to rivers in floodplains or low-lying coastlines.

Reservoir: A reservoir is a man-made or natural lake created by a dam to store fresh water.

Bridge: A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles, providing passage over difficult or impossible-to-cross terrain. Various designs of bridges exist, tailored to specific functions, terrains, materials, and available funds.

Tunnel: A tunnel is an underground or undersea passageway created by digging through soil, rock, or laying it under water. It is enclosed, except for the entrance and exit at both ends. Recent tunnels may use immersed tube construction techniques instead of traditional tunnel boring.

Aswan Dam: The Aswan Dam, also known as the Aswan High Dam, is one of the world’s largest embankment dams built across the Nile river in Aswan, Egypt. Completed in 1970, it surpassed the height of the previous Aswan Low Dam and became the tallest earthen dam at the time. The construction of the High Dam was a crucial objective of Egypt's Free Officers movement, aiming to control flooding, provide water storage for irrigation, and generate hydroelectricity to support industrialization. This dam has had a significant impact on Egypt's economy and culture.

Hoover Dam: The Hoover Dam is a concrete arch-gravity dam on the Colorado River bordering Nevada and Arizona. It was constructed between 1931 and 1936 during the Great Depression and was dedicated by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1935. The massive project involved thousands of workers and claimed over 100 lives. Initially named the Boulder Dam, it was later renamed Hoover Dam in 1947 by Congress.

Itaipu Dam: The Itaipu Dam is a large hydroelectric dam on the Paraná River, situated on the Brazil-Paraguay border. It ranks as the world's third largest hydroelectric dam, with a reservoir that is the 45th largest globally.

Three Gorges Dam: The Three Gorges Dam is a massive hydroelectric dam in China spanning the Yangtze River near Yichang. It is the world's largest power station, generating enormous amounts of electricity, with the capacity to produce 95-112 TWh annually, depending on rainfall. It surpassed the previous world record for electricity production set by Brazil's Itaipu Dam.

Akashi Kaikyo Bridge: The Akashi Kaikyo Bridge is a suspension bridge connecting Kobe and Awaji Island in Japan. It is part of the Kobe-Awaji-Naruto Expressway and spans the turbulent Akashi Strait. Completed in 1998, it held the record for the longest central span of any suspension bridge in the world at 1,991 meters (6,532 ft). It is currently the second-longest suspension bridge, with the new record held by the Çanakkale Bridge in Turkey.

Brooklyn Bridge: The Brooklyn Bridge is a hybrid cable-stayed/suspension bridge in NYC, connecting Manhattan and Brooklyn across the East River. It opened in 1883, becoming the first fixed crossing of the river. At that time, it was also the world's longest suspension bridge with a main span of 1,595.5 feet. Initially known as the New York and Brooklyn Bridge, it was officially renamed the Brooklyn Bridge in 1915.

Golden Gate Bridge: The Golden Gate Bridge is a suspension bridge that spans the Golden Gate strait, connecting San Francisco with Marin County. It carries both car and bike traffic, and is part of U.S. Bicycle Route 95. Recognized as one of the Wonders of the Modern World, it has become an iconic symbol of San Francisco and California.

London Bridge: London Bridge is a historic river crossing over the Thames in central London. It has seen multiple iterations, with the current bridge being a box girder bridge made of concrete and steel. It opened in 1973, replacing a 19th-century stone-arched bridge and a 600-year-old medieval structure. Over the years, the bridge has supported a bustling area of homes and businesses and was guarded by a large stone City gateway. The history of the bridge dates back to a timber bridge built by the Romans in 50 AD. It remains an iconic symbol of London.

Channel Tunnel: The Channel Tunnel, also known as the Chunnel, is a 50.46-kilometer undersea railway tunnel that opened in 1994. It connects Folkestone in England with Coquelles in France beneath the English Channel. It is the only fixed link between Great Britain and mainland Europe. The tunnel reaches a depth of 75 meters below the seabed and 115 meters below sea level. With a 37.9-kilometer underwater section, it is the longest of its kind globally and the third-longest railway tunnel in the world. Trains can travel at speeds up to 160 kilometers per hour. The Channel Tunnel is currently owned and operated by Getlink, formerly Groupe Eurotunnel.

Machine: A machine is a physical system powered by various sources to perform tasks by applying forces and controlling movement. It applies to both man-made devices like engines and motors, as well as natural biological macromolecules known as molecular machines. Machines can be driven by animals, people, wind, water, or energy sources like chemical, thermal, or electrical power. They consist of mechanisms that shape input to achieve specific output forces and movement. Additionally, machines may involve computers and sensors to monitor performance and plan movement in what is referred to as mechanical systems.

Robotics: Robotics is the study of creating and using robots, encompassing their design, construction, operation, and various applications.

Robot: A robot is a programmable machine capable of performing complex actions automatically. It can be controlled externally or internally. While some robots resemble humans, most are functional machines designed for specific tasks rather than aesthetic appeal.

Engine: An engine is a machine that converts energy into mechanical energy.

Electric motor: An electric motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy through the interaction between a magnetic field and electric current in a wire winding, generating torque on the motor's shaft. It is similar to an electric generator, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Internal combustion engine: An internal combustion engine is a heat engine that uses combustion of fuel with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber to produce high-temperature and high-pressure gases. These gases then apply direct force to pistons, turbine blades, a rotor, or a nozzle, converting chemical energy into kinetic energy to power the engine and anything attached to it.

Diesel engine: A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that ignites fuel through compressed air in the cylinder. It is named after Rudolf Diesel and differs from spark plug-ignition engines like petrol or gas engines.

Four-stroke engine: A four-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine that completes four separate strokes while turning the crankshaft. These strokes are intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust. In the intake stroke, the piston creates a vacuum to pull in an air-fuel mixture. In the compression stroke, the piston compresses the mixture in preparation for ignition. The combustion stroke ignites the mixture, producing mechanical work. Finally, the exhaust stroke expels the spent mixture.

Steam engine: A steam engine is a heat engine that uses steam as its working fluid to perform mechanical work. It utilizes steam pressure to move a piston back and forth in a cylinder, which can then be transformed into rotational force for work. Steam engines are external combustion engines that operate on the Rankine cycle. The term "steam engine" typically refers to reciprocating engines and does not include steam turbines. It can pertain to complete steam plants, such as locomotives and portable engines, or just the piston or turbine machinery alone.

Siphon: A siphon is a device that uses the flow of liquids through tubes, particularly a tube shaped like an inverted "U". It allows liquids to flow upwards without a pump, using gravity to drive the liquid down the tube and discharge it at a lower level than the source reservoir.

Pipe (fluid conveyance): A pipe is a tubular object that can convey fluids, including liquids, gases, slurries, powders, and small solids. It can also be used structurally as hollow pipe is more rigid per unit weight than solid objects.

Gasket: A gasket is a mechanical seal that prevents leakage between joined objects under compression. It is a deformable material used to create and maintain a static seal in mechanical assemblies.

Valve: A valve is a device that controls the flow of a fluid by opening, closing, or partially obstructing passageways. It regulates the direction from high pressure to low pressure. The term comes from the Latin word for the moving part of a door, indicating its function to turn or roll.

Plumbing: Plumbing is a versatile system that transports fluids using pipes, valves, fixtures, and tanks. It serves various purposes like HVAC, waste removal, and delivering safe drinking water. Its origins can be traced back to the Roman era where lead pipes were first employed.

Sink: A sink is a bowl-shaped fixture with a tap for hot and cold water, used for washing hands, dishes, and other purposes. It has a drain to remove used water, a strainer, and an overflow-prevention device. Some sinks also have a spray feature for rinsing and an integrated soap dispenser. They are commonly found adjacent to or inside kitchen counters.

Toilet: A toilet is a sanitary fixture that collects human waste and sometimes toilet paper. Flush toilets use water, while non-flush toilets do not. They can be designed for sitting or squatting positions. Flush toilets are connected to a sewer system in urban areas, while dry toilets are connected to storage or treatment devices. The waste is called blackwater and when combined with other sources, it becomes sewage. Some toilets also include features for those with disabilities, such as a toilet seat or urine diversion.

Chainsaw: A chainsaw is a powered saw with rotating teeth on a chain that cuts along a guide bar. It is used for various tasks like tree cutting, pruning, firebreak creation, firewood harvesting, and more. Chainsaws have a history in surgery and the first patents for wood chainsaws emerged in the late 19th century.

Combine harvester: The combine harvester is a machine that harvests various grain crops by combining multiple harvesting operations into one process. It can harvest crops like wheat, rice, oats, barley, corn, soybeans, and more. After harvesting, the straw can be used for livestock bedding or ploughed back into the field.

Cotton gin: The cotton gin is a machine that efficiently separates cotton fibers from their seeds, increasing productivity. It allows the fibers to be processed into different cotton goods and undamaged cotton is used for textiles. The separated seeds can be used for growing more cotton or producing cottonseed oil.

Cultivator: A cultivator is an agricultural equipment used for secondary tillage. It can refer to frames with teeth that penetrate the soil or machines that use rotating disks or teeth. A key example is the rotary tiller.

Irrigation sprinkler: An irrigation sprinkler is a device used for watering and cooling various areas, including crops, lawns, landscapes, and golf courses. It efficiently distributes water through a network of pumps, valves, pipes, and sprinklers, resembling controlled rainfall. Moreover, it helps control airborne dust.

Lawn mower: A lawn mower is a device with revolving blades used to cut grass to an even height. The height can be adjusted by the operator through a lever or mechanism. It can be powered by manual force, battery, or an internal combustion engine. Smaller mowers require human power while larger ones are either self-propelled or ride-on types. Some mowers can operate autonomously with a robotic design.

Home appliance: A home appliance, a domestic or electric appliance, aids in cooking, cleaning, and food preservation in households.

Clothes dryer: A clothes dryer, or tumble dryer, is a powered household appliance used to remove moisture from clothing, bedding, and textiles after they are washed.

Dishwasher: A dishwasher is an automatic machine that cleans dishware, cookware, and cutlery by spraying hot water at them, eliminating the need for manual scrubbing. It uses temperatures between 45 and 75 °C, adjusting to delicate items.

Furnace (central heating): A furnace is a heating appliance used to heat buildings, commonly a part of central heating systems. It generates heat using natural gas or other fuels like LPG, fuel oil, wood, or coal. Furnaces can use air, steam, or hot water to distribute heat. Modern high-efficiency furnaces can be up to 98% efficient and do not require a chimney. They can be vented through flue pipes or PVC pipes. Fuel efficiency in gas furnaces is measured in AFUE.

Ironing: Ironing is the process of using a heated iron to remove wrinkles from fabric. The temperature used ranges from 180-220 °Celsius, depending on the type of fabric. By heating the fabric, the long-chain polymer molecules in the fibers are loosened, allowing them to be straightened by the weight of the iron. Adding water can help loosen the intermolecular bonds in fabrics like cotton. Modern fabrics, however, are often designed to require minimal or no ironing. Permanent press clothing combines wrinkle-resistant polyester with cotton to reduce the need for ironing.

Lock and key: A lock is a device that can be opened by a physical object, secret information, or a combination. It may only allow access from one side, like a door chain.

Microwave oven: A microwave oven or simply microwave is an electric appliance that uses electromagnetic radiation to quickly and efficiently heat and cook food. By causing the molecules in the food to rotate through dielectric heating, it produces thermal energy. This method of heating is uniform and effective in the outer layer of high-water-content food items.

Cavity magnetron: The cavity magnetron is a high-power vacuum tube used in radar systems, microwave ovens, and particle accelerators. It generates microwaves by interacting electrons with a magnetic field while passing through small cavities in a metal block. The resonant frequency of the cavities determines the resulting microwaves. Unlike other vacuum tubes, the magnetron cannot amplify microwave signals; it solely functions as an electronic oscillator to generate microwaves from direct current electricity.

Oven: An oven is a versatile tool that exposes materials to controlled heat. It consists of a hollow chamber and can be used for various tasks since ancient times. There are different types of ovens, each designed for specific purposes and heat generation methods.

Refrigerator: A refrigerator, also known as a fridge, is an appliance that cools a thermally insulated compartment using a heat pump. This technique lowers the temperature inside to prevent spoilage by reducing bacteria reproduction. The optimal temperature range for perishable food storage is 3 to 5 °C. It replaced the icebox, which was a common household appliance for a long time. The United States Food and Drug Administration recommends keeping the refrigerator at or below 4 °C and the freezer at −18 °C.

Sewing machine: A sewing machine is a device that stitches fabric with thread, revolutionizing the clothing industry by reducing manual labor. Invented in 1790 by Thomas Saint, it significantly enhances efficiency and productivity in garment manufacturing.

Stove: A stove is a heat-generating device used for cooking or heating. It can be powered by various fuels such as electricity, natural gas, gasoline, wood, or coal.

Vacuum cleaner: A vacuum cleaner, also called a vacuum, is an electric device that uses suction to remove dirt from various surfaces like floors, upholstery, and draperies.

Washing machine: A washing machine is a water-based home appliance used for laundry; it cleans clothes using laundry detergent in liquid, powder, or sheet form.

Centrifuge: A centrifuge is a device that separates fluids based on their densities by spinning them at high speed. It causes denser substances to move outward and settle at the bottom, while less dense substances rise to the top. This process is used in laboratories to separate components of fluids and filter contaminants.

Crane (machine): A crane is a powerful machine used for lifting and moving heavy materials. Equipped with hoist ropes, wire ropes or chains, and sheaves, it can transport objects vertically and horizontally. By utilizing simple machines, cranes create mechanical advantage to move loads beyond human capability. They are commonly employed in transportation, construction, and manufacturing industries for loading, unloading, and assembling heavy objects and equipment.

Lathe: A lathe is a machine that rotates a workpiece to perform operations like cutting, sanding, drilling, and turning. It uses tools to shape the workpiece symmetrically around its axis.

Machine press: A machine press is a tool that uses pressure to reshape workpieces. It is operated by a tool-setter.

Potter's wheel: A potter's wheel is a machine used in pottery to shape clay into round ceramic ware. It is also used for trimming excess clay, applying decorations, and adding color. The wheel was widely used in the Old World but not in the Pre-Columbian New World, where pottery was made by hand using techniques like coiling and beating.

Chain: A chain is a series of connected metal links, resembling a flexible rope, that can bear tension and transmit power or provide support. The design of a chain depends on its purpose: lifting, pulling, securing, or transferring power in machines. Chains for lifting and securing have torus-shaped links, allowing flexibility in two dimensions, while power-transfer chains have toothed links and flexibility in only one dimension.

Rope: Rope is a durable and robust structure made by twisting or braiding together various yarns, plies, fibers, or strands. It possesses high tensile strength, making it suitable for tasks such as dragging and lifting. Compared to cord, string, and twine, rope is both thicker and stronger.

Knot: A knot is a deliberate twist in a cord that can serve practical or decorative purposes. Practical knots serve various functions, such as fastening ropes together or creating loops. Knots can also include stoppers or knobs to prevent slipping. They have been of interest throughout history for their practical uses and mathematical intricacy studied in knot theory.

Spring (device): A spring is an elastic device made of rigid material that can return to its shape after being compressed or extended, allowing it to store energy. Coil springs are the most common type, but there are various designs. They are typically made of spring steel. An example of a non-metallic spring is the bow, which stores energy to propel an arrow when drawn.

Fastener: Fasteners are hardware devices used to join or affix objects together. They create non-permanent joints, allowing for easy removal without causing damage. Steel fasteners are commonly made of stainless steel, carbon steel, or alloy steel.

Nail (fastener): A nail is a small metal fastener used in woodworking and construction, acting as a peg or decoration. It typically has a sharp point and a flat head, although headless nails exist. Nails come in various forms, like wire nails, pins, tacks, brads, spikes, and cleats, catering to specific purposes.

Nut (hardware): A nut is a threaded fastener used with bolts to join multiple parts together. It relies on friction, bolt stretching, and compression to keep the parts secured.

Rivet: A rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener with a smooth shaft and a head on one end. The other end, called the tail, is deformed during installation and forms a shop head or buck-tail.

Washer (hardware): A washer is a thin plate with a hole that distributes the load of a threaded fastener. It can also be used as a spacer, spring, wear pad, preload indicating device, locking device, and to reduce vibration.

Gear: A gear is a circular machine part with teeth that meshes with another part to transmit rotation power, allowing for changes in speed, torque, and rotational axis. The teeth on the gears are of the same shape.

Simple machine: A simple machine is a mechanical device that alters force direction or magnitude. They are basic mechanisms that use mechanical advantage to increase force. The term generally includes the six classical machines: lever, wheel and axle, pulley, inclined plane, wedge, and screw.

Inclined plane: An inclined plane, also called a ramp, is a flat surface tilted at an angle used to raise or lower loads. It is a simple machine and commonly used to overcome vertical obstacles. Examples include loading goods onto trucks, pedestrian ramps, and vehicles climbing steep grades.

Lever: A lever is a simple machine that consists of a rigid rod pivoted at a fixed point. It can rotate on itself and is divided into three types based on the positions of the fulcrum, load, and effort. This mechanical advantage device amplifies input force to produce a greater output force, providing leverage. Levers are one of the six simple machines identified by Renaissance scientists.

Pulley: A pulley is a wheel that helps move and change the direction of a cable or belt. It can also transfer power between itself and a shaft. A sheave or pulley wheel is a pulley with an axle supported by a frame or shell to guide a cable or exert force.

Screw (simple machine): A screw is a simple machine that converts rotational motion to linear motion. It consists of a cylindrical shaft with helical grooves called threads. By rotating the screw, it moves along its axis, either through a threaded hole or with a threaded collar rotating around it. The screw is commonly used to apply force or fasten objects together. Geometrically, it can be seen as an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder.

Wedge: A wedge is a triangular tool and one of the six simple machines. It can separate or lift objects and hold them in place. By converting force from its blunt end, it generates perpendicular forces on its inclined surfaces. A wedge's mechanical advantage depends on the ratio of its slope length to width. The length and angle of the wedge affect its efficiency, with shorter and wider wedges requiring more force than longer and narrower ones.

Wheel: A wheel is a circular component designed to rotate on an axle bearing. It is a crucial part of the wheel and axle, one of the six simple machines. Wheels, in combination with axles, enable effortless movement and transportation of heavy objects, support loads, and aid in machine labor. They serve various purposes, such as steering wheels, ship's wheels, potter's wheels, and flywheels.

Bearing (mechanical): A bearing is a mechanical component that enables smooth movement between parts while reducing friction. It can allow linear or rotational motion and control forces to prevent undesired movement. Bearings are categorized based on their operation, allowed motions, or load directions. Their primary function is to minimize friction and facilitate desired motion.

Wheel and axle: The wheel and axle is a simple machine where a larger wheel and a smaller axle rotate together. It transfers force from one part to the other and can be seen as a version of a lever. The drive force is applied to the wheel's perimeter while the load force is applied to the axle, which acts as a fulcrum.

Axle: An axle is a central shaft used in wheeled vehicles for rotating wheels or gears. It can be either fixed to the wheels and rotate with them, or fixed to the vehicle while the wheels rotate around it. Bearings or bushings are used to support the axle when it is fixed to the wheels, while a bearing or bushing inside the wheel allows it to rotate around the axle when the axle is fixed to the vehicle. In bicycles, this type of axle is sometimes called a spindle.

Clutch: A clutch is a mechanical device that separates the output shaft from the rotating input shaft. It enables disconnection of the motor from the working mechanism.

Tool: A tool is an object that enhances a person's ability to modify their environment or achieve specific tasks. While some animals use simple tools, humans have been observed using tools for making other tools, dating back hundreds of millennia.

Archimedes' screw: The Archimedes' screw, also known as the Archimedean screw or water screw, is an ancient hydraulic machine used for lifting water. It consists of a screw-shaped surface inside a pipe that rotates to raise water from a lower body into irrigation ditches. Although it cannot generate pressure, it has been used as a water pump for centuries. Nowadays, Archimedes' screws are commonly used in wastewater treatment plants and for dewatering low-lying areas. Interestingly, when reversed, these screws can function as small hydroelectric power plants, suitable for low head sites and moderate flow rates. This reversible feature allows them to operate both as pumps and generators, meeting various power and water flow requirements.

Harrow (tool): A harrow is an agricultural tool used for surface tillage after ploughing to break up clods and create a suitable soil structure for seed planting. It also removes weeds and covers seeds when sown.

Hoe (tool): A hoe is a versatile hand tool used in agriculture and horticulture. It is used to shape soil, remove weeds, clear soil, and harvest root crops. Its functions include piling soil around plants, digging furrows and trenches for planting seeds, weeding and clearing the soil of old roots. Hoes can also be used to harvest root crops like potatoes.

Machete: A machete is a versatile tool with a broad blade, used in both agriculture and combat. It typically has a length of 30 to 66 centimeters and a thickness of under 3 millimeters. The word "machete" may derive from the Spanish word for "sledgehammer" or the Greek and Roman name for the falcata, a type of sword. The term "matchet" is rarely used in English. In parts of the Caribbean, such as Jamaica and Barbados, the term "cutlass" is used for similar agricultural tools.

Plough: A plough is a farm tool used to prepare soil for planting, traditionally pulled by oxen or horses but now by tractors. It has a frame made of wood, iron, or steel and a blade to cut and loosen the soil. This tool has been essential for farming throughout history. The Romans used a wheel-less plough called the aratrum, while the Celts introduced wheeled ploughs during the Roman era.

Rake (tool): A rake is an outdoor broom used for collecting leaves, hay, grass, and more. It consists of a handle attached to a toothed bar or tines, and is used in gardening for various tasks like loosening soil, light weeding, leveling, and removing dead grass from lawns. It serves similar purposes as a harrow in agriculture.

Sickle: A sickle is an agricultural tool with curved blades used for harvesting grains or cutting forage for livestock. It is also known as a bagging hook, reaping-hook, or grasshook. The term "falx" was once used interchangeably but later referred to tools with curved blades.

Shovel: A shovel is a versatile tool for digging, lifting, and moving various materials like soil, coal, gravel, snow, sand, or ore.

Ink: Ink is a colored substance used to create images or text on a surface. It can be in the form of gel, sol, or solution and contains dye or pigment. Inks are used for drawing and writing with various tools like pens, brushes, and quills. Thicker ink pastes are widely used in letterpress and lithographic printing.

Modelling clay: Modelling clay, or modelling compound, is a malleable substance used for building and sculpting. It can be shaped and molded easily due to its pliability. The composition and production processes of modelling clay vary significantly.

Paint: Paint is a colored liquid that forms a film when it dries on a solid surface, resulting in a painting. It comes in various colors and types, with oil-based and water-based being the most common. Each type has unique qualities.

Brush: A brush is a versatile tool with bristles or filaments attached to a handle or block. It is used for cleaning, grooming, painting, and various other purposes. Brushes are designed with materials that withstand hazards such as chemicals, heat, and abrasion. They are commonly found in households and there are numerous types available.

Pastel: Pastel is an art medium made of powdered pigment and a binder. It can be found in various forms, like sticks, squares, pebbles, or pans of color. The pigments used in pastels are similar to those in oil paints, and the binder has a neutral hue and low saturation. Pastels create a color effect that closely resembles natural dry pigments.

Pencil: A pencil is a writing tool with a solid pigment core inside a casing, reducing breakage and preventing marks on the user's hand.

Pigment: A pigment is a color powder that alters visual appearance. It is insoluble and chemically unreactive in water. In contrast to dyes, pigments are often inorganic substances. Examples of important pigments throughout history include ochre, charcoal, and lapis lazuli.

Pen: A pen is a writing instrument that applies ink to a surface, typically paper. Early pens like reed, quill, dip, and ruling pens were manually recharged with ink. Today, they are mostly used for illustration and calligraphy. Writing pens have been replaced by ballpoint, rollerball, fountain, and felt/ceramic tip pens. Ruling pens for technical drawing have been replaced by technical pens. Modern pens have built-in ink reservoirs, eliminating the need for dipping in ink while writing.

Container: A container is a durable receptacle used for storage, packaging, and transportation, including shipping. It provides protection to its contents, with materials that can be rigid and durable.

Axe: An axe is a versatile tool and symbol that has been used for centuries to shape, split, and cut wood, harvest timber, serve as a weapon, and hold ceremonial importance. It typically comprises an axe head and a handle, known as a haft or helve.

Chisel: A chisel is a hand tool with a blade on one end that is used for carving or cutting hard materials like wood, stone, or metal. It is struck with a mallet or can be powered by machines. The handle and blade are typically made of metal or wood and have a sharp cutting edge.

Clamp (tool): A clamp is a tool that applies pressure to hold objects firmly in place. In the UK, the term "cramp" is used for temporary positioning during construction and woodworking, while "clamp" refers to holding devices like wheel or surgical clamps.

Drilling: Drilling is a cutting process that uses a rotary drill bit to create circular holes in solid materials. The drill bit is pressed against the work-piece and rotated at high speeds, resulting in the removal of chips or swarf from the hole being drilled.

Hammer: A hammer is a hand tool with a weighted head attached to a long handle for delivering impacts to objects. It can drive nails, shape metal, crush rock, and has various applications in carpentry, blacksmithing, warfare, and music. It is versatile for driving, shaping, breaking, and non-destructive striking purposes.

Plane (tool): A hand plane is a woodworking tool that uses force to shape wood surfaces. It is suitable for fine-scale planing, unlike motorized power planers which are better for larger tasks.

Saw: A saw is a cutting tool with a toothed blade or chain used to cut through different materials. It can have various toothed and abrasive features.

Scissors: Scissors are hand-operated cutting tools with two pivoted blades that slide against each other to cut thin materials like paper, cloth, and wire. There are different types of scissors, including hair-cutting shears with specific blade angles for cutting hair, and kitchen shears for trimming foods like meats. Using the wrong scissors can cause damage or split ends when cutting hair.

Instrumentation: Instrumentation refers to the use, creation, and study of measuring instruments for indicating, measuring, and recording physical quantities. It encompasses the fields of metrology, automation, and control theory, and traces its origins to the art and science of scientific instrument-making.

Barometer: A barometer is a scientific instrument for measuring air pressure, used to forecast short term changes in weather. It assists in surface weather analysis by detecting troughs, pressure systems, and frontal boundaries.

Calipers: Calipers, or callipers, are instruments for measuring object dimensions, such as hole diameter or depth. The term originated from Latin roots, signifying precise pincer-like tools.

Ruler: A ruler, or rule, is an instrument used to measure length by reading from markings called "rules" along its edge. It is usually rigid with a straightedge to draw straight lines. Some rulers are non-rigid, like tape measures. There are also specialty rulers with flexible edges for sewing, arts, and crafts.

Photometer: A photometer measures electromagnetic radiation across the UV to infrared range, including visible light. It converts light into an electric current using a variety of methods such as a photoresistor, photodiode, or photomultiplier.

Spectrometer: A spectrometer is a scientific instrument that separates and measures spectral components of a physical phenomenon. It can measure the spectrum of colors in visible light or the masses of atoms or molecules in a gas. Spectrometers were developed in early studies of physics, astronomy, and chemistry to determine chemical composition. They are used in astronomy to analyze stars and planets, and gather data on the origin of the universe.

Thermometer: A thermometer is a device to measure temperature or temperature changes. It comprises two main elements: a temperature sensor and a way to convert the change into a numerical value. Thermometers are used in various fields like technology, industry, meteorology, medicine, and scientific research for monitoring processes.

Theodolite: A theodolite is a highly precise optical instrument for measuring angles between visible points in both horizontal and vertical planes. It is commonly utilized in land surveying, construction projects, and specialized areas like meteorology and rocket launching.

DNA profiling: DNA profiling is the identification of an individual's unique DNA characteristics. It involves analyzing the individual's DNA to determine their genetic makeup. This process is used to establish a person's identity or to identify a specific species through DNA barcoding.

Electrocardiography: Electrocardiography, or ECG, is the process of recording the heart's electrical activity over multiple cardiac cycles. By using electrodes placed on the skin, it creates a graph showing voltage changes over time. This technique detects small electrical alterations resulting from the heart's depolarization and repolarization during each heartbeat. It is useful in identifying various cardiac abnormalities, such as rhythm disturbances, insufficient blood flow to the coronary arteries, and electrolyte imbalances.

Endoscopy: Endoscopy is a medical procedure that uses an endoscope to examine the inside of the body. It is inserted directly into a hollow organ or cavity, providing a detailed view not available with other imaging techniques.

Medical imaging: Medical imaging is the technique of visualizing the inside of the body for clinical analysis and intervention. It helps to diagnose diseases, identify abnormalities, and understand organ function. It creates a database of normal anatomy and physiology by revealing hidden internal structures.

Magnetic resonance imaging: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a radiation-free medical imaging technique that uses strong magnetic fields, radio waves, and magnetic field gradients to create detailed images of the body's anatomy and physiological processes. MRI does not involve X-rays or ionizing radiation, distinguishing it from other imaging methods like CT scans and PET scans. Additionally, MRI is a specific application of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and can also be used for imaging in other NMR applications.

Medical ultrasound: Medical ultrasound is a diagnostic and therapeutic technique that uses sound waves to create images of internal body structures. It can be used to examine tendons, muscles, joints, blood vessels, and internal organs, measure characteristics, and generate audible sound. The visual images produced by ultrasound are called ultrasonograms, and the machine used is called an ultrasound machine or sonograph. This technique is widely used in medicine and is known as medical ultrasonography or simply sonography. The examination of pregnant women with ultrasound is called obstetric ultrasonography, and it was one of the early developments in clinical ultrasound.

Radiography: Radiography is an imaging technique that uses X-rays or similar radiation to visualize the internal structure of objects. It is commonly used in medical and industrial settings, as well as airport security. By projecting X-rays onto an object, the radiation that passes through is captured by a detector to create a two-dimensional image. In computed tomography, the subject moves through a rotating X-ray beam to generate three-dimensional images by analyzing the attenuation of multiple X-ray beams from different directions.

Artificial organ: An artificial organ is a human-made device or tissue that replaces or enhances the function of a natural organ. It can interface with living tissue, allowing patients to return to a normal life. Artificial organs are not limited to life support functions and can include replacements for bones and joints.

Prosthesis: A prosthesis is an artificial device used in medicine to replace a missing body part due to trauma, disease, or a condition present at birth. It aims to restore normal functions and is part of amputee rehabilitation coordinated by a team of professionals. Prostheses can be handmade or designed using computer-aided design (CAD) software for analysis and optimization.

Wheelchair: A wheelchair is a mobile chair with wheels, a footrest, and armrests, mainly used when walking is challenging or impossible due to various health conditions or disabilities.

Cardiopulmonary bypass: Cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) refers to a technique in which a machine takes over the function of the heart and lungs during cardiac surgery. It maintains blood circulation and oxygen supply to the body, often using a heart-lung machine or "the pump." Perfusionists operate CPB pumps, and this method is a type of extracorporeal circulation. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is commonly used for longer-term treatment.

Dialysis (chemistry): Dialysis in chemistry is the separation of molecules in a solution using a semipermeable membrane based on their varying diffusion rates.

Ambulance: An ambulance is a vehicle equipped to transport patients to hospitals, while also providing medical care during transport.

Weapon: A weapon is any tool or device used to harm, kill, or threaten others. It serves various purposes, such as increasing efficiency in hunting or crime, enabling self-defense or law enforcement, engaging in warfare, or even self-inflicted harm. Weapons are broadly defined and can encompass anything used to gain an advantage over an adversary.

Military technology: Military technology is the use of specialized technology for warfare. It includes technologies that are unique to the military and not used by civilians, often due to their dangerous nature or lack of civilian applications.

Battering ram: A battering ram is a siege weapon used to break down walls or gates. It consists of a large log swung with force against the target. Some rams were enclosed in a fire-resistant canopy on wheels, with the log swung from chains or ropes inside.

Stealth technology: Stealth technology, also known as low observable technology, is a military tactic that involves methods to reduce visibility to different detection methods such as radar, infrared, sonar, and others. It applies to personnel, vehicles, aircraft, ships, submarines, missiles, and satellites, resembling camouflage for the electromagnetic spectrum.

Armour: Armour, a protective covering, shields objects, individuals, or vehicles from physical harm caused by direct weapons or projectiles in combat or hazardous environments. Personal armour safeguards soldiers and war animals, whereas vehicle armour is employed in warships, armoured fighting vehicles, and certain ground attack aircraft.

Bulletproof vest: A bulletproof vest is body armor that absorbs impact and prevents penetration from bullets and explosions. It comes in soft form for protection against stabbings or light projectiles, and hard form with metallic or para-aramid components for protection against rifle ammunition. It is worn by police officers, prison officers, security guards, soldiers, and tactical units.

Chain mail: Chain mail is a mesh-like armor made of small metal rings that was widely used in Europe from the 3rd century BC until the 16th century AD. It was also utilized in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East until the 17th century. This type of armor is commonly referred to as a hauberk or byrnie.

Plate armour: Plate armour is a type of body armor made from bronze, iron, or steel plates that fully encase the wearer. It originated in Europe during the Late Middle Ages and was developed as an upgrade to mail suits worn over the 14th century.

Helmet: A helmet is protective headgear that shields the brain, with some serving ceremonial purposes. Soldiers utilize combat helmets, usually constructed from lightweight synthetic fibers like Kevlar.

Shield: A shield is portable armor used to block and protect against attacks in combat. It can intercept close-ranged weapons and projectiles like arrows, providing both active and passive defense.

Fortification: A fortification is a military structure built to defend territories during warfare and establish control in peaceful times. Derived from Latin origins, it combines strength and construction.

Castle: A castle is a fortified structure built in the Middle Ages by the nobility or royalty. It was primarily used as a private residence for lords and nobles, distinguishing it from mansions, palaces, and villas. Although different in form, castles commonly included features such as curtain walls, arrowslits, and portcullises. The term has also been used for structures resembling castles, like hill forts and modern homes.

Defensive wall: A defensive wall is a fortification used to protect settlements from attackers. It can range from simple barriers to complex structures with towers and gates. These walls, like city walls, enclose towns and cities. In some cases, walls extended beyond cities to enclose regions or define boundaries. In mountainous regions, walls were combined with castles to seal valleys. Besides defense, walls also had symbolic importance to represent the identity and autonomy of the communities they protected.

Battle axe: A battle axe is a combat-specific axe that evolved from utility axes. It was crafted for one-handed or two-handed use in combat situations.

Club (weapon): A club is a short wooden stick used as a weapon since prehistoric times. It has been responsible for causing blunt-force trauma, evidenced by archaeological findings like the Nataruk site in Kenya where a conflict between hunter-gatherer groups occurred 10,000 years ago.

Bayonet: A bayonet is a weapon that attaches to the end of a firearm, turning it into a spear-like weapon. It was commonly used by infantry from the 17th to the 20th century. Today, it is considered a secondary weapon, mainly utilized for ceremonial purposes.

Knife: A knife is an ancient tool or weapon with a sharp edge, typically held by a handle. It has evolved over time, being made from various materials like wood, bone, stone, copper, bronze, iron, steel, ceramic, and titanium. Knives are versatile and come in fixed or folding blade designs. They boast diverse patterns and styles, influenced by the maker and country of origin.

Dagger: A dagger is a sharp-pointed fighting knife. It is used for close combat and has historic associations with ritual, ceremony, assassination, and self-defense. Double-edged knives have varied roles in different social contexts.

Spear: A spear is a long pole weapon with a pointed head. The head can be the sharpened end of the shaft or made of materials like bone, obsidian, iron, or steel. Commonly used for hunting and warfare, spearheads are often shaped like triangles, diamonds, or leaves. Fishing spears have multiple sharp points, with or without barbs.

Sword: A sword is a bladed weapon used for cutting or thrusting. It has a longer blade than a knife, attached to a hilt, and can be straight or curved. Thrusting swords have straight blades with pointed tips, while slashing swords are often curved with sharpened cutting edges. They are designed for both thrusting and slashing. The definition of a sword varies with time and location.

Katana: A katana is a curved, single-edged Japanese sword used by samurai in feudal Japan. It has a long grip for two-handed use and is worn with the edge facing upward. In Japan, the specific term for katana is uchigatana, while the term katana often refers to single-edged swords from all over the world.

Rapier: A rapier is a slender, straight sword with a sharply pointed, long, and two-edged blade. It was used in Renaissance Spain and became widely popular in Western Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries. It symbolized the status of nobility or gentlemen.

Boomerang: A boomerang is a thrown tool that spins in flight and has a curved shape. It can be designed either to return to the thrower or as a straight weapon. Some Aboriginal Australians use non-returning boomerangs for hunting.

Sling (weapon): A sling is a hand-thrown projectile weapon used for hurling stones or other blunt objects. It is also known as a shepherd's sling or slingshot and those skilled in using it are called slingers.

Bow and arrow: The bow and arrow is a weapon system consisting of a bow and arrows. It was used for hunting and warfare throughout history. However, it became less relevant with the introduction of firearms. Today, it is primarily used for hunting and sports.

Crossbow: A crossbow is a ranged weapon with a bow-like assembly called a prod mounted horizontally on a tiller. It shoots bolt-like projectiles and is held similar to a long gun. The person who shoots a crossbow is called a crossbowman or an arbalist.

Artillery: Artillery refers to ranged weapons that surpass the range and firepower of infantry firearms. Initially designed to breach fortifications during sieges, they evolved from heavy, immobile siege engines to lighter, more mobile field cannons for use on battlefields. Today, self-propelled artillery vehicles represent the bulk of an army's firepower, offering great versatility and mobility.

Cannon: A cannon is a type of artillery that launches large projectiles using explosive chemical propellant, such as gunpowder. Before the late 19th century, gunpowder was the primary propellant until the invention of smokeless powder. Cannons have varying attributes such as gauge, range, mobility, rate of fire, angle of fire, and firepower, and are considered heavy artillery weapons.

Mortar (weapon): A mortar is a portable weapon that launches explosive shells in high-arcing trajectories. It consists of a metal tube attached to a base plate with a lightweight bipod mount and sight. Mortars are used as indirect fire weapons for close fire support, featuring a variety of ammunition options.

Catapult: A catapult is an ancient siege engine used to launch projectiles over long distances. It relies on the release of stored potential energy, typically achieved through tension or torsion, to propel its payload.

Ballista: The ballista, also known as a bolt thrower, was an ancient missile weapon used to launch bolts or stones at distant targets.

Firearm: A firearm is a portable weapon utilizing an explosive charge to be carried and used by individuals. The term's legal definition varies across countries.

Handgun: A handgun is a one-handed firearm that is shorter in range and harder to shoot accurately compared to long guns. The two most common types are revolvers and semi-automatic pistols, while other handguns like derringers and machine pistols are also used occasionally.

Musket: A musket is a muzzle-loaded long gun that originated in the early 16th century as a heavier version of the arquebus. Initially used for penetrating plate armor, it continued as a generic term for smoothbore long guns until the mid-19th century. The decline of heavy armor led to the disappearance of this type of musket in the mid-16th century. It was further replaced by rifled muskets and breech-loading firearms in the 19th century, ultimately ending the era of the musket.

Rifle: A rifle is a firearm designed for accuracy and power, featuring a barrel with rifling for improved shooting. It is held with both hands and braced against the shoulder for stability. Rifles are widely used in warfare, law enforcement, hunting, and target shooting.

Assault rifle: An assault rifle is a select fire rifle using an intermediate-rifle cartridge and detachable magazine. They first gained widespread use during World War II, with the German StG 44 being the first prominent example. After the war, assault rifles became the standard weapon for most armies, replacing full-powered rifles and submachine guns. Notable modern designs include the AK-47 and M16 and their derivatives.

Shotgun: A shotgun is a firearm that shoots shotshells containing multiple small spherical projectiles or a single solid slug. It is typically smoothbore, but rifled barrels for shooting slugs are also available.

Machine gun: A machine gun is a fully automatic firearm designed for sustained direct fire with rifle cartridges. It differs from automatic shotguns, rifles, and submachine guns in its capacity for continuous firepower. Machine guns do not fire handgun cartridges and are distinct from autocannons which have a caliber of 20 mm or more.

Ammunition: Ammunition refers to materials discharged from weapons that cause an effect on a target. It includes both expendable weapons and component parts of other weapons.

Gunpowder: Gunpowder, also known as black powder, is the oldest explosive compound. It is made up of sulfur, carbon, and potassium nitrate. While sulfur and carbon act as fuels, potassium nitrate aids in the process of combustion. This mixture has been extensively used as a propellant in firearms, artillery, rockets, and fireworks. Additionally, gunpowder is employed as a blasting agent for tasks like mining, quarrying, and constructing pipelines, tunnels, and roads.

Missile: A missile is a self-propelled airborne weapon. It can use a propellant, jet engine, or rocket motor for flight. The term historically included any projectile aimed at a target. Unguided rocket artillery is considered a type of missile. Explosive devices without propulsion are called shells when fired from artillery and bombs if dropped from an aircraft.

Bomb: A bomb is an explosive weapon that rapidly releases energy through an exothermic reaction. It causes damage through mechanical stress, pressure-driven projectiles, and explosion-generated effects. Bombs have been used since the 11th century, originating in East Asia.

Improvised explosive device: An improvised explosive device (IED) is a non-conventional bomb that uses military explosives and a triggering mechanism, often made from artillery shells. These homemade or roadside bombs are commonly used outside traditional military operations.

Cluster munition: Cluster munitions are explosive weapons released from the air or ground, dispersing smaller explosive submunitions. They include cluster bombs, which eject bomblets to kill personnel and destroy vehicles, and other variants for destroying runways or power lines.

Grenade: A grenade is an explosive weapon thrown by hand or launched from a rifle or launcher. It contains an explosive charge, a detonator, and an arming safety. The user removes the safety and throws the grenade. Once released, the safety is disengaged, allowing the detonator to ignite the main charge.

Land mine: A land mine is an explosive device hidden on the ground, designed to destroy or disable enemy targets like combatants and vehicles as they pass by or near it.

Napalm: Napalm is a deadly incendiary mixture used in warfare. It was developed in 1942 by chemist Louis Fieser at Harvard University. Its main ingredients are a gelling agent and a volatile petrochemical. Napalm was first used for fire bombing during World War II and later adopted in flamethrowers.

Horses in warfare: Summary: Horses in warfare have a long history, starting around 4000-3000 BC in Eurasia. The use of horses in war is depicted in a Sumerian illustration from 2500 BC. Chariot warfare became popular in the Ancient Near East by 1600 BC, with improved harness and chariot designs. Training manuals for war horses were written as early as 1350 BC. The use of cavalry replaced chariot tactics, leading to new training methods and extensive treatises on horsemanship. Technological advancements, like the saddle, stirrup, and horse collar, further enhanced the effectiveness of horses in battle.

Chariot: A chariot is a horse-drawn cart used for rapid transportation. The oldest known chariots, found in Russia and Central Anatolia, date back to around 1950–1880 BCE. The invention of the spoked wheel enabled the construction of lightweight chariots.

Tank: A tank is a powerful armored vehicle used for offensive purposes in ground combat. It combines heavy firepower, strong armor, and battlefield mobility provided by tracks and a powerful engine. Tanks are equipped with a turret-mounted main armament and have been a mainstay in modern ground forces, playing a crucial role in combined arms combat.

War elephant: A war elephant is a trained combat elephant used to charge enemies, break their ranks, and cause fear. Elephantry refers to military units with elephant-mounted troops.

Military aircraft: Military aircraft are aircrafts used by legal or rebellious military organizations. There are two types: combat aircraft designed to destroy enemy targets, and non-combat aircraft used for supportive roles. Combat aircraft are procured by military forces, while non-combat aircraft may be developed by either military forces or civilian organizations.

Attack aircraft: An attack aircraft, also known as strike aircraft, is a tactical military plane designed for precise airstrikes against strong low-level air defenses. It specializes in close air support, naval air-to-surface missions, and ground-attack roles.

Bomber: A bomber is a military aircraft used to attack ground and naval targets by dropping bombs, launching torpedoes, or deploying air-launched cruise missiles. It was first used in the Italo-Turkish War and played a devastating role in both World Wars, causing extensive damage to cities, towns, and rural areas. The Italian Caproni Ca 30 and British Bristol T.B.8 were the first purpose-built bombers in 1913. Bombers were sometimes decorated with nose art or victory markings.

Fighter aircraft: Fighter aircraft are military planes designed for air-to-air combat, aiming to achieve air superiority in battle. By controlling the airspace, they enable bombers and attack aircraft to strategically engage and bombard enemy targets.

Warship: A warship is a naval vessel primarily intended for warfare. It belongs to a nation's armed forces and is equipped with weapons, ammunition, and crew supplies. Warships are designed to withstand damage and are faster and more maneuverable than merchant ships. While usually associated with navies, warships have also been operated by individuals, cooperatives, and corporations.

Aircraft carrier: An aircraft carrier is a warship serving as a mobile airbase with a full-length flight deck and facilities for aircraft operations. It is the main ship in a fleet, allowing global air power projection independently from land bases. Carriers have evolved from wooden vessels to nuclear-powered warships, accommodating various aircraft types including fighters, helicopters, and strike aircraft. Carriers possess diplomatic and tactical power, mobility, autonomy, and diverse resources, making them the centerpiece of modern combat fleets. They replace battleships as fleet flagships, offering advantages such as international waters operation, eliminating the need for overflight permission and enhancing aircraft availability in the combat zone.

Battleship: Battleship: A heavily armored warship with large guns, dominant in late 19th to early 20th-century naval warfare.

Galley: A galley was a type of oar-propelled ship used for warfare, trade, and piracy in Europe. It had a slender hull, shallow draft, and low freeboard. Galleys used both oars and sails, originating from the Mediterranean region during antiquity and lasting until the early 19th century. The term "galley" came from Greek and included unrelated vessels with similar military functions, like Scandinavian longships and North American gunboats.

Ship of the line: A ship of the line was a 17th to 19th-century warship designed for the line of battle tactic. It featured cannons along its sides to volley fire with opposing ships. More cannons meant more firepower, giving an advantage to the ship with more cannons.

Submarine: A submarine is a watercraft that operates independently underwater. It is different from a submersible as it has greater underwater capability. The term can also refer to remotely operated vehicles and smaller vessels. Submarines are called boats, not ships, regardless of their size.

Naval mine: A naval mine is a self-contained explosive device placed in water to damage or destroy ships or submarines. It waits until triggered by the approach of a vessel and can be used offensively or defensively. Mines force adversaries to undertake difficult and risky actions, such as minesweeping, challenging the minefield, or facing enemy firepower in unmined waters.

Torpedo: A torpedo is a self-propelled underwater weapon launched above or below the water surface with an explosive warhead. Originally, it referred to various types of devices including mines, but since 1900 it specifically refers to a self-propelled underwater explosive device.

Weapon of mass destruction: A weapon of mass destruction (WMD) is a type of weapon that can cause widespread harm and damage to people, structures, and the environment. It includes biological, chemical, radiological, nuclear, and other destructive technologies. The term has evolved over time and is often used more for political purposes than technical accuracy. Originally, it referred to aerial bombing with chemical explosives in World War II, but now encompasses large-scale weaponry in warfare, like biological, chemical, radiological, and nuclear warfare.

Biological warfare: Biological warfare, also called germ warfare, involves the use of biological toxins or infectious agents like viruses, bacteria, insects, and fungi to harm or kill humans, animals, or plants during warfare. These biological weapons are living organisms or replicating entities. Entomological warfare is a subset of biological warfare that focuses on using insects as weapons.

Chemical weapon: A chemical weapon is a munition that is designed to harm or kill humans using chemicals. It includes any chemical compound or its precursor that can cause death or injury through chemical action. Munitions or delivery devices designed for chemical weapons are also considered weapons themselves. (Source: Wikipedia)

Nuclear weapon: A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that utilizes nuclear reactions, generating immense destructive force through fission or a combination of fission and fusion reactions. These bombs release significant energy from minimal amounts of matter.

Thermonuclear weapon: A thermonuclear weapon, also known as a fusion weapon or hydrogen bomb, is a second-generation nuclear weapon design that is more destructive and compact than first-generation nuclear bombs. It uses nuclear fusion reactions, which allow for the use of non-fissile depleted uranium as fuel, increasing efficiency in the use of uranium-235 or plutonium-239. The United States conducted the first full-scale thermonuclear test in 1952, and since then, most nuclear powers have employed this concept in the design of their weapons.

Navigation: Navigation is the practice of overseeing and directing the movement of a craft or vehicle. It encompasses land, marine, aeronautic, and space navigation as its main categories.

Compass: A compass is a navigation device that shows cardinal directions, used for geographic orientation. It typically includes a magnetized needle or card that aligns with magnetic north. It may also use gyroscopes, magnetometers, or GPS receivers for navigation purposes.

Cardinal direction: Cardinal directions refer to the four main compass directions: North, South, East, and West. These directions are represented by their initials N, S, E, and W respectively. The directions East, South, and West are positioned at 90-degree intervals clockwise from North.

Celestial navigation: Celestial navigation, or astronavigation, is the ancient practice of determining precise location using stars and celestial bodies. It allows navigators to accurately determine their position without relying solely on estimates or modern technology like satellite navigation.

Sextant: A sextant is a navigation instrument that measures the angle between two visible objects. It is used primarily for celestial navigation, determining the angle between an astronomical object and the horizon.

Dead reckoning: Dead reckoning in navigation is the method of determining the current location of a moving object based on a previously known position, along with estimates of speed, direction, and time. In biology, this concept is referred to as path integration, which describes how animals update their estimates of position or direction.

Gyroscope: A gyroscope is a device that measures or maintains orientation and angular velocity. It consists of a spinning wheel or disc with a freely rotating axis. The orientation of this axis remains unaffected by tilting or rotation of the mounting due to the conservation of angular momentum.

Satellite navigation: Satellite navigation, also known as satnav, is a system that uses satellites to provide geopositioning. It can cover the entire globe and is referred to as a global navigation satellite system (GNSS). There are currently four operational global systems: the US GPS, Russia's GLONASS, China's BeiDou, and the EU's Galileo.

Global Positioning System: The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system owned and operated by the United States government. It provides accurate geolocation and time information to GPS receivers worldwide. Users do not need to transmit data and can access GPS independently of telephonic or Internet reception. The system is crucial for military, civil, and commercial applications, and it is freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.

Radar: Radar is a radiolocation system that uses radio waves to detect and track objects such as aircraft, ships, and vehicles. It determines the distance, angle, and velocity of these objects relative to the radar station. The system includes a transmitter, antennas, and a receiver with a processor to analyze the reflected waves and provide information about the objects' positions and speeds.

Sonar: Sonar is a method of using sound to navigate, measure distances, communicate, and detect objects underwater. It is employed to locate and communicate with vessels and objects beneath water surfaces.

Calendar: A calendar is a system for organizing time, categorizing days, weeks, months, and years. It designates specific days and can be a physical record. Additionally, it can refer to a list of planned events or a chronological list of documents.

Clock: A clock is a centuries-old device that displays time and measures intervals shorter than natural units. It has evolved using various physical processes throughout history.

Leap year: A leap year has an extra day to keep the calendar in line with the solar year. This avoids a drift between the calendar and the seasons. By adding a leap day or month, the discrepancy is corrected.

Time zone: A time zone is a designated area that maintains a consistent standard time for legal, commercial, and social purposes. Instead of strictly adhering to longitude, time zones generally align with international boundaries to facilitate efficient communication and synchronization within connected regions.

Daylight saving time: Daylight saving time (DST) is the practice of adjusting clocks during warmer months to extend daylight into the evening. Clocks are set forward by one hour in the spring and set back by one hour in the fall, creating longer days in spring and longer nights in autumn. This results in a 23-hour day in spring and a 25-hour day in autumn. DST is also known as daylight savings time, daylight time, or summer time.

Gregorian calendar: The Gregorian calendar, introduced in 1582, is now widely used worldwide. It replaced the Julian calendar and made key changes to the way leap years are spaced out to better align with the Earth's revolution around the Sun, resulting in a more accurate average calendar year.

Julian calendar: The Julian calendar is a solar calendar with 365 days in a year and a leap day every fourth year. It is still used as a religious calendar by Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Amazigh people.

Chinese calendar: The Chinese calendar is a complex system with many variations developed over a long history. It identifies years, months, and days based on astronomical phenomena, striving to align solar and lunar cycles. It uses the sexagenary cycle, known as ganzhi, which combines Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches. Different factors like mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, and politics shape the different permutations of the calendar. Similar calendar systems exist in other regions, and the Chinese calendar has global influence. The Chinese zodiac is a popular component of this calendar, which also includes methods for calculating years, eras, months, days, and hours.

Islamic calendar: The Islamic calendar, known as the Hijri calendar, is a lunar calendar with 12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days. It is used to determine Islamic holidays and rituals, including fasting and the pilgrimage. While most Islamic countries use the Gregorian calendar for civil purposes, the Hijri calendar is used for religious events.

Atomic clock: An atomic clock measures time by monitoring atoms' resonant frequency, which is based on their different energy levels. This phenomenon serves as the basis for the definition of a second in the International System of Units (SI). The second is defined by the fixed numerical value of the caesium frequency, specifically the unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition frequency of caesium-133 atom.

Pendulum: A pendulum is a free-swinging device suspended from a pivot, subject to gravity's restoring force that causes it to oscillate. It swings back and forth around its resting position, with the time for one complete cycle known as the period. Period depends on the pendulum's length and slightly on its swing width.

Sundial: A sundial is a device that tells time based on the position of the Sun. It consists of a flat plate with hour-lines and a gnomon that casts a shadow onto the dial. The style, or edge of the gnomon, shows the time by aligning with the shadow. The gnomon can be a rod, wire, or decorative metal. For accuracy, the style must be parallel to Earth's rotation axis and its angle from horizontal corresponds to the sundial's latitude.

Watch: A watch is a portable timepiece designed to be carried or worn by a person. It keeps consistent movement despite the person's activities. Wristwatches are worn around the wrist with various strap options. Pocket watches are intended to be carried in a pocket, often attached to a chain.

Lens: A lens is an optical device that uses refraction to focus or disperse light. It can be a simple lens made of transparent material or a compound lens made of multiple simple lenses. Lenses can be made of glass or plastic and are shaped through grinding, polishing, or molding. Unlike prisms, lenses can form images by focusing light. The term "lens" is also used for devices that focus or disperse waves and radiation in various fields such as microwave, electron, acoustic, and explosive lenses.

Anti-reflective coating: An anti-reflective coating reduces reflection on lenses and optical elements, improving efficiency and contrast in imaging systems. It eliminates reflections, making eyes more visible through glasses and reducing glint from binoculars or telescopes.

Diffraction grating: A diffraction grating is an optical device that diffracts light into different beams due to its periodic structure. This creates structural coloration. The directions and angles of the beams depend on the incident angle, spacing between grating elements, and the light's wavelength. It acts as a dispersive element and is used in monochromators, spectrometers, optical encoders, and wavefront measurement.

Mirror: A mirror, also called a looking glass, reflects images. It reverses the image and allows viewers to see themselves or objects behind them. Mirrors have been made from various materials throughout history, with silver or aluminium coatings on glass being common in modern mirrors due to their reflectivity and smooth surfaces.

Optical fiber: Optical fiber is a flexible glass or plastic fiber that transmits light over long distances and at high bandwidths. It is used in fiber-optic communications for its superior transmission capabilities, as it suffers minimal loss and is not affected by electromagnetic interference. Optical fibers are also utilized for illumination, imaging, and for carrying light into confined spaces. Specialized fibers have other applications like fiber optic sensors and fiber lasers.

Polarizer: A polarizer is an optical filter that allows light waves of a specific polarization to pass through while blocking other polarizations. It can filter mixed polarization light into well-defined polarized light. Common types include linear and circular polarizers. They are used in various optical techniques and instruments, including photography and LCD technology. Polarizers can also be designed for other types of electromagnetic waves like radio waves, microwaves, and X-rays.

Prism (optics): An optical prism is a transparent element that refracts light, typically with one angled surface. Triangular prisms are the most common type, with a triangular base and rectangular sides. Not all prisms are geometric, and they can be made from various transparent materials such as glass or acrylic.

Binoculars: Binoculars are a pair of telescopes aligned to point in the same direction, enabling the user to view distant objects with both eyes. They come in various sizes, from handheld to large military models.

Glasses: Glasses, or eyeglasses, are vision aids that consist of lenses mounted in a frame. They are worn in front of the eyes, with a bridge over the nose and hinged arms (temples) resting over the ears. The lenses can be clear or tinted.

Interferometry: Interferometry is a technique that utilizes the interference of combined waves for gathering data. It is widely employed in various fields such as astronomy, fiber optics, engineering, oceanography, seismology, spectroscopy, and quantum mechanics. Interferometry is pivotal in measuring properties like mechanical stress, velocity, and surface profiles, as well as in making holograms.

Microscope: Microscopes are laboratory instruments that enable the examination of objects too small to be seen with the naked eye. They are used in the field of microscopy, which involves investigating tiny objects and structures. Microscopic refers to things that are invisible to the naked eye without the aid of a microscope.

Electron microscope: An electron microscope uses a beam of electrons to magnify images and produce high-resolution results. It has a much higher resolution than light microscopes, allowing for detailed imaging at around 0.1 nm. There are different types of electron microscopes like transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron microprobe, ultrafast scanning electron microscopy, low-energy electron microscopy (LEEM), and photoemission electron microscopy (PEEM). These different types serve various purposes such as chemical analysis, surface imaging, and fast operation.

Optical microscope: An optical microscope, also known as a light microscope, uses visible light and lenses to magnify small objects. It is the oldest type of microscope and was possibly invented in the 17th century. While basic models are simple, advanced designs aim to enhance resolution and contrast in samples.

Laser: A laser is a light-emitting device that amplifies light through stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. Originally an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, the first laser was built in 1960 by Theodore Maiman, inspired by the work of Charles H. Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow.

Camera: A camera is an instrument used to capture images and videos digitally or chemically. It has been pivotal in the fields of photography, videography, visual arts, media, entertainment, surveillance, and scientific research. The camera was invented in the 19th century and has evolved through technological advancements, resulting in a wide variety of models today.

Holography: Holography is a technique that records and reconstructs wavefronts, allowing for the creation of realistic 3D images. It has various applications and can be used with any type of wave.

Photographic film: Photographic film is a transparent strip coated with light-sensitive silver halide crystals, which determine the film's sensitivity, contrast, and resolution. The film is segmented into frames that create separate photographs.

Photography: Photography is the creation of images by recording light, using either electronic sensors or light-sensitive materials. It is used in various fields such as science, manufacturing, and business, as well as in art, film, recreational activities, hobbies, and mass communication.

Digital photography: Digital photography is the use of cameras with electronic sensors to capture images that can be digitally stored, processed, and shared. This modern form of imaging replaces traditional photographic film with an array of electronic photodetectors.

Fine-art photography: Fine-art photography is a form of creative expression where photographers aim to depict their artistic vision. It diverges from representational photography, which captures objective reality, and commercial photography, which focuses on advertising. The main goal of fine-art photography is to convey ideas, messages, or emotions.

Telescope: A telescope is a device that observes distant objects using electromagnetic radiation. Originally, it used lenses or mirrors, but now it includes a wide range of instruments that detect various regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Optical telescope: An optical telescope collects and focuses visible light to create magnified images for visual inspection, photography, and data collection using electronic image sensors.

Radio telescope: A radio telescope is an antenna and receiver that detects radio waves from celestial sources. It is used in radio astronomy to study the radio frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum emitted by astronomical objects. Unlike optical telescopes, radio telescopes can be used during the day and night.

Hubble Space Telescope: The Hubble Space Telescope, launched in 1990, is a renowned space telescope named after astronomer Edwin Hubble. It is one of the largest and most versatile telescopes, vital for research and a public relations boon for astronomy. Hubble remains in operation in low Earth orbit and is one of NASA's Great Observatories. The Space Telescope Science Institute selects its targets and processes its data, while the Goddard Space Flight Center controls the spacecraft.

Atacama Large Millimeter Array: The Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) is an astronomical observatory in northern Chile consisting of 66 radio telescopes. It is located in the Atacama Desert at an elevation of 5,000 m (16,000 ft) for optimal observation conditions. ALMA's main purpose is to study electromagnetic radiation at millimeter and submillimeter wavelengths. It helps us understand star and planet formation and provides detailed images of these processes.

Mauna Kea Observatories: The Mauna Kea Observatories (MKO) are a collection of independent astronomical research facilities and massive telescopes situated on Mauna Kea, a mountain on the Big Island of Hawaiʻi, United States. These facilities are located within the "Astronomy Precinct," a 525-acre special land use zone established in 1967 within the 11,228-acre Mauna Kea Science Reserve. The observatories' presence is contentious due to their cultural and environmental impact, as the mountain holds great cultural significance for Native Hawaiians and hosts unique ecosystems.

Spaceflight: Spaceflight is the use of astronautics to fly objects, including spacecraft and satellites, into outer space. It can be manned or unmanned, using either telerobotic or autonomous control. Human spaceflight has achieved significant milestones like reaching the Moon and establishing permanent presence in space through space stations. Prominent programs include Soyuz, Shenzhou, Apollo Moon landing, Space Shuttle, International Space Station, and China's Tiangong Space Station.

Rocket: A rocket is a jet-propelled vehicle that operates in the vacuum of space. It uses an engine that generates thrust by expelling high-speed exhaust. Unlike other vehicles, a rocket carries its own propellant and does not require air for acceleration. Rockets perform more efficiently in a vacuum but experience a loss of thrust in the presence of atmospheric pressure.

Launch pad: A launch pad refers to an above-ground facility used to vertically launch rockets or space vehicles. It includes a central launch platform, as well as additional facilities such as a launch mount, service structure, and infrastructure for propellants, power, communications, telemetry, rocket assembly, and payload processing. It also encompasses storage facilities, equipment, access roads, and drainage.

Launch vehicle: A launch vehicle is a rocket-powered vehicle used to transport payloads from the Earth's surface to outer space. It includes various types of vehicles such as multistage rockets and the Space Shuttle. Launch vehicles operate from launch pads with support from control centers, assembly systems, and fueling. They are designed with advanced aerodynamics and technologies, but the high operating costs are a significant factor.

Rocket engine: A rocket engine is a reaction engine that uses stored propellants as fuel to create a high-speed jet of hot gas, generating thrust through the ejection of mass in accordance with Newton's third law. While most rocket engines rely on chemical combustion, there are non-combusting variants like cold gas thrusters and nuclear thermal rockets. Rocket engines power vehicles used in ballistic missiles and rockets, enabling them to carry their own oxidizer and operate in a vacuum for space travel and missile propulsion.

Satellite: A satellite is a spacecraft placed in orbit around a celestial body. It serves various purposes including communication, weather forecasting, navigation, broadcasting, scientific research, and Earth observation. Some military applications include reconnaissance, early warning, and signals intelligence. Satellites can also be defunct or used as rocket stages for placing other satellites in orbit.

Space station: A space station is a spacecraft designed for humans to live in space for an extended time. It is an artificial satellite without landing or propulsion systems. Stations need docking ports for crew and supply transfers. They are primarily launched for scientific research but also military purposes.

Astronaut: An astronaut is a trained and equipped space traveler who serves as a commander or crew member aboard a spacecraft. This term can include professionals, scientists, politicians, journalists, and tourists who venture into space.

Space capsule: A space capsule is a spacecraft that can transport cargo, experiments, and astronauts to and from space. Unlike other spacecraft, it can survive reentry and return to Earth. Capsules have a blunt shape with no wings and minimal fuel for a safe return. They are often accompanied by a service module and can include additional modules for extended space missions. While capsules are the main design for crewed spacecraft, the Space Shuttle is the only crewed spaceplane that has flown in orbit.

NASA: NASA is the US government agency in charge of the civil space program, aeronautics research, and space research. It replaced NACA in 1958 and has been at the forefront of American space exploration, including the Apollo Moon landing missions. Currently, NASA supports the International Space Station, develops the Orion spacecraft, oversees the Commercial Crew spacecraft, and plans the Lunar Gateway space station for the crewed lunar Artemis program.

Apollo program: The Apollo program, also known as Project Apollo, was a human spaceflight program carried out by NASA from 1968 to 1972. It successfully landed the first humans on the Moon and was dedicated to President Kennedy's goal of "landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth." Apollo followed the one-person Project Mercury and was preceded by the two-person Project Gemini, which aimed to extend spaceflight capabilities.

Kennedy Space Center: The Kennedy Space Center (KSC) is NASA's main launch center for human spaceflight, research, and technology. It is located in Merritt Island, Florida, and has been operational since December 1968. KSC was the launch site for the Apollo, Skylab, and Space Shuttle programs. It is closely connected to the Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, with shared resources and facilities.

Soviet space program: The Soviet space program, active from 1955 to 1991, was the national space program of the USSR. It played a significant role in space exploration and research until the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Baikonur Cosmodrome: The Baikonur Cosmodrome is a Russian-operated spaceport in Kazakhstan. It is the largest space launch facility in terms of area and is located in the city of Baikonur. This site is responsible for launching all Russian crewed spaceflights.

Roscosmos: Roscosmos is a state corporation in Russia focused on space activities, flights, cosmonautics programs, and aerospace research.

European Space Agency: The European Space Agency (ESA) is an intergovernmental organization established in 1975 with headquarters in Paris. It consists of 22 member states and aims to advance space exploration. ESA has a global staff of about 2,200 people as of 2018 and operates with an annual budget of €7.08 billion for 2023.

China National Space Administration: The China National Space Administration (CNSA) is the government agency of China responsible for civil space administration and international cooperation. It is headquartered in Beijing and operates under the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology. The CNSA organizes foreign exchanges and cooperation in the aerospace field.

International Space Station: The International Space Station (ISS) is the largest space station ever built. It is located in low Earth orbit and serves as a platform for conducting microgravity and space environment experiments. The ISS is a collaborative effort of five space agencies: NASA, Roscosmos, JAXA, ESA, and CSA.

Mir: Mir was a modular space station operated by the Soviet Union and later Russia from 1986 to 2001. Assembled in orbit, it was the largest artificial satellite in its time, serving as a microgravity research laboratory. Mir allowed for experiments in various fields, including biology, physics, and spacecraft systems, with the aim of developing technologies for long-term space habitation.

Space Shuttle: The Space Shuttle was a reusable spacecraft system, operated by NASA from 1981 to 2011. It was designed for low Earth orbit missions and was part of the Space Shuttle program. The official program name was Space Transportation System (STS) and it was the only funded item from a 1969 plan for a reusable spacecraft system.

Saturn V: The Saturn V was a powerful American rocket developed by NASA for the Apollo program. It had three stages, used liquid fuel, and was designed for human exploration of the Moon. From 1967 to 1973, it successfully completed nine crewed missions to the Moon and also launched Skylab, the first American space station.

Soyuz (spacecraft): Soyuz is a Soviet-designed spacecraft that has been active since the 1960s, with over 140 flights. It replaced the Voskhod and was initially developed for the lunar programs. Launched from Kazakhstan's Baikonur Cosmodrome using a Soyuz rocket, it served as the primary means to transport crew to and from the International Space Station between 2011 and SpaceX Crew Dragon's 2020 demo flight. It remains heavily used for this purpose, although China's crewed Shenzhou flights did not dock with the ISS during this period.

Sputnik 1: Sputnik 1 was the first man-made satellite launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. It transmitted radio signals to Earth for three weeks before its batteries died. It re-entered the atmosphere on January 4, 1958.

Voyager program: The Voyager program is an American scientific program that sent two robotic probes, Voyager 1 and Voyager 2, into interstellar space. Launched in 1977, the Voyager probes took advantage of the alignment of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune to collect data during flybys. Voyager 2 was specifically sent to Uranus and Neptune to gather additional information.

Transport: Transport refers to the organized movement of people, animals, and goods between different places. It utilizes various modes such as air, land, water, cable, pipelines, and even space. The field encompasses infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. Its crucial role lies in facilitating trade, a vital aspect for societal advancement.

Public transport: Public transport refers to passenger travel systems available for everyone, not just private use. It operates on a schedule and follows established routes, often charging a fee. Examples include buses, trams, trains, and ferries in cities, while airlines, coaches, and intercity rail dominate between cities. High-speed rail networks are being developed globally.

Travel: Travel refers to the act of journeying between different places, which can be achieved by various modes of transportation and with or without luggage. It encompasses both one-way and round trip movements, including shorter stays during the course of traveling, such as tourism experiences.

Freight transport: Freight transport, also known as freight forwarding, involves the movement of goods and cargo. It encompasses transportation by sea, land, and air, and is often referred to as shipping. This term is closely related to logistics, which refers to the planning and management of transporting goods.

Cargo: Cargo refers to goods transported by land, water, or air. It specifically refers to freight when conveyed by water or air. In economics, freight is goods transported at a commercial gain. The term cargo is also used for perishable inventory in transit, even when stored in cold or climate-controlled facilities.

Traffic collision: A traffic collision, also known as a motor vehicle collision, is when a vehicle hits another vehicle, pedestrian, animal, or obstacle. It can cause injuries, death, and property damage, resulting in financial costs for both society and individuals involved. Although road transport is highly dangerous, media attention is often limited compared to less frequent tragedies. The term "car accident" is less preferred, as some collisions are intentional attacks or staged incidents.

Vehicle: A vehicle is a self-propelling machine used for transporting people or cargo. It encompasses a wide range of modes such as wagons, bicycles, motor vehicles, watercraft, aircraft, and more.

Driving: Driving is the controlled operation and movement of land vehicles. Permission to drive on public highways is granted based on meeting certain conditions and following road and traffic laws. The term has evolved from working animals to automobiles. Driving skills have developed over time, encompassing physical, mental, and safety abilities. Driving laws not only pertain to drivers but also the drivability of vehicles.

Filling station: A filling station is where motor vehicle owners can purchase fuel and engine lubricants. Gasoline and diesel fuel are the most commonly sold fuels at these facilities.

Parking: Parking is the act of leaving a vehicle unoccupied. It is allowed on roads, sometimes with limitations, and buildings often provide parking for their users. Governments establish guidelines for parking space design and usage.

Tire: A tire or tyre is a ring-shaped component that transfers a vehicle's load from the axle to the ground and provides traction. It is usually filled with air and acts as a cushion to absorb shock. Tires have a contact patch that matches the weight of the vehicle with the strength of the surface, avoiding excessive deformation.

Train station: A train station, also known as a railroad depot, is a facility where trains stop for passengers and freight. It typically has platforms, tracks, and a station building providing services like ticket sales and waiting rooms. Stations on single-track lines often have passing loops to aid traffic flow.

Road: A road is a paved route used by vehicles and pedestrians for transportation purposes. Unlike streets, roads primarily serve as thoroughfares with improved surfaces to convey traffic efficiently.

Highway: A highway is a road or public way on land, encompassing major roads as well as public tracks. In the US, it can refer to a controlled-access highway or be used as a translation for terms like Autobahn or autoroute.

Controlled-access highway: A controlled-access highway is designed for fast traffic, regulating entry and exit. It is commonly referred to as a freeway, motorway, or expressway, and may also be called throughway or parkway. Some versions are limited-access, offering less separation from other traffic.

Trail: A trail, also called a path or track, is a pathway for non-motorized travel through natural areas. In the UK and Ireland, it is known as a footpath. Trails can also be found along rivers and highways in North America. Historically, the term "trail" was used for routes used by explorers and migrants in wild territories. In the US, "trace" is a synonym for trail.

Bus: A bus is a vehicle that carries more passengers than a car but less than a train. It is used for public transport, charter purposes, or privately owned. Buses can carry 30 to 300 passengers, with single-deck, double-decker, articulated, midibuses, and minibuses being common types. Coaches are used for longer distances. Some buses charge fares, while others are free, like school or shuttle buses. Bus drivers usually require a special license.

Car: A car is a motor vehicle with wheels that is primarily used for transporting people. It typically has four wheels, seats one to eight people, and runs on roads. The first steam-powered car was built by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot in 1769, while the first internal combustion-powered car was invented by François Isaac de Rivaz in 1808.

Motorcycle: A motorcycle is a motor vehicle with two or three wheels and is controlled by a handlebar from a seat.

Truck: A truck is a motor vehicle designed for transporting freight or performing utilitarian work. It comes in various sizes and configurations, with most having body-on-frame construction and an independent cabin. Some smaller trucks resemble automobiles. Commercial trucks can be large and powerful, often equipped with specialized equipment like refuse trucks or fire trucks. In American English, a truck without a trailer is called a "straight truck," while one designed for pulling a trailer is called a "tractor."

Van: A van is a road vehicle used for transporting goods or people. It can be larger or smaller than a pickup truck and SUV, and bigger than a common car. The word's meaning varies among English-speaking countries. Microvans are the smallest, used for tiny quantities of goods or people. Small vans transport people in small quantities. Larger vans with passenger seats are used for institutional purposes, while those with front seats are used for business purposes. TV stations use specially equipped vans as mobile studios and postal services use large step vans for package delivery.

Taxi: A taxi, or taxicab, is a hired vehicle with a driver, used by individuals or small groups for non-shared rides. Unlike public transport, passengers can choose their pick-up and drop-off locations.

Rail transport: Rail transport is a land transportation system that uses wheeled vehicles on track. It is the second primary means of land transport, used for 8% of global passenger and freight travel due to its energy efficiency and potential for high speed.

Railway track: A railway track, also called a train track or permanent way, is the structure that supports trains. It includes rails, fasteners, railroad ties, ballast, and subgrade. It provides a dependable surface for train wheels to roll on. Originally made with wooden or cast iron rails and sleepers, rails have been made with steel since the 1870s.

Train: A train is a chain of connected vehicles that travel on railway tracks to carry people or goods. It is pulled or pushed by locomotives and can be self-propelled. Passengers and cargo are transported in railroad cars (or wagons) and trains are built to a specific gauge. They operate on steel tracks with steel wheels, providing high efficiency compared to other modes of transportation.

Locomotive: A locomotive is a rail vehicle that powers trains, providing motive power. It may also be referred to as a multiple unit, motor coach, railcar, or power car if it can carry a payload.

Steam locomotive: A steam locomotive is a self-propelled vehicle that operates by using the force generated from the expansion of steam. It burns combustible material in its boiler to heat water, increasing its volume 1,700 times. Essentially, it is a mobile steam engine.

Cable transport: Cable transport refers to various modes of transportation that utilize cables to move passengers and goods. These modes commonly include cable cars. The cables can either be driven or passive, and the movement can be achieved through pulling, sliding, sailing, or internal drives. Cable transport frequently employs pulleys and load balancing mechanisms. It is particularly useful in mountainous regions, allowing for transportation across significant elevation disparities.

Aerial tramway: An aerial tramway, or sky tram, is an aerial lift that uses stationary ropes for support and a moving rope for propulsion. The cabin grip is fixed to the propulsion rope during operations. Aerial tramways have lower line capacities and longer wait times compared to gondola lifts.

High-speed rail: High-speed rail (HSR) is a form of railway transportation that operates trains at much higher speeds than traditional rail systems. It involves the use of specialized trains and dedicated tracks, with speeds exceeding 250 km/h (155 mph) or upgraded lines above 200 km/h (124 mph).

Tram: A tram is an urban rail transit consisting of a rail vehicle that travels on tracks along public streets. Some tramlines have dedicated lanes. They are commonly known as trams or streetcars and are used for public transportation. Many modern tramways are referred to as light rail.

Rapid transit: Rapid transit, also known as mass rapid transit (MRT), heavy rail, or metro, is a high-capacity public transport system built in urban areas. It includes subways, tubes, or underground systems that primarily run below the surface. These railways are exclusive to electric trains, operate in tunnels or on elevated railways, and are separate from pedestrians and vehicles.

Monorail: A monorail is a railway track made up of a single rail or beam. It is commonly used to describe elevated rail systems and people movers. Monorails are typically found in airport transfers and medium-capacity metros. They are always separated from other traffic and pedestrians, distinguishing them from trams and light rail systems.

Carriage: A carriage is a horse-drawn vehicle for people, serving as public transport akin to modern taxis. It can have four wheels, with suspension using leather strapping or steel springs. Two-wheeled carriages are less formal and typically driven by the owner.

Cart: A cart or dray is a two-wheeled vehicle generally pulled by draft animals like horses, donkeys, or oxen. It can also be pulled by smaller animals such as goats or large dogs. Its primary purpose is transportation.

Saddle: A saddle is a supportive structure fastened to an animal's back, commonly used in equestrianism. It evolved from a simple blanket attached by a surcingle or girth to more elaborate padded designs. The invention of the solid saddle tree and paired stirrups completed the basic form still used today. Modern saddles come in various styles, designed for specific disciplines, and require proper fit for both rider and horse. Careful maintenance can prolong a saddle's useful life for decades. This invention played a crucial role in the increased use of domesticated animals in the Classical Era.

Bicycle: A bicycle, also known as a pedal cycle or bike, is a human-powered vehicle with two wheels attached to a frame. It is pedal-driven and has a single-track design, with one wheel behind the other. The rider of a bicycle is called a cyclist or bicyclist.

Rickshaw: A rickshaw is a cart typically pulled by one person carrying one passenger. It was first used in 1879 and has evolved into different types such as cycle, auto, and electric rickshaws. Nowadays, these newer variants have largely replaced the original pulled rickshaw, except in certain tourist areas.

Baby transport: The term 'Baby transport' refers to different methods used for transporting children throughout history and across cultures. These methods include baby carriages, car seats, strollers, slings, backpacks, and bicycle carriers. Each method serves the purpose of providing a convenient and secure way to transport babies and allows parents to go about their daily activities with ease.

Pipeline: A pipeline is a system of pipes used to transport liquids or gases over long distances. There are approximately 2,175,000 miles (3,500,000 km) of pipelines worldwide, with the United States, Russia, and Canada having 76% of the total.

Tractor: A tractor is a slow-moving engineering vehicle used in agriculture, mining, and construction. It provides high tractive effort to haul trailers and machinery. Typically used on farms, tractors power agricultural tasks and can tow or mount various implements. They also serve as a power source for mechanized equipment.

Ship: A ship is a large vessel that travels on oceans and waterways, carrying cargo, passengers, or supporting specialized missions. It differs from a boat in terms of size, shape, load capacity, and purpose. Ships have played key roles in exploration, trade, warfare, migration, colonization, and scientific research. They are crucial for world commerce.

Canal: Canals are man-made waterways used for drainage management and water transportation. They resemble artificial rivers, providing a calm and unrestricted surface flow under atmospheric pressure.

Lock (water navigation): A lock is a device used to move watercraft between water levels on river and canal waterways. It has a chamber where the water level can be changed, unlike other systems where the chamber itself rises or falls.

Barge: A barge is a flat-bottomed vessel used for inland waterway transport, lacking its own propulsion. Initially pulled by tugs, most are now pushed by pusher boats or other vessels. Barges have a varied history, resulting in the existence of numerous types.

Boat: A boat is a smaller watercraft, distinct from a ship by its size, shape, cargo/passenger capacity, or ability to carry other boats.

Canoe: A canoe is a lightweight narrow water vessel propelled by one or more paddlers using paddles. It is pointed at both ends and open on top. In British English, the term canoe can also refer to a kayak, while canoes are called Canadian or open canoes. The American distinction between a kayak and a canoe is typically adopted for official competition purposes.

Cargo ship: A cargo ship, also known as a freighter, transports goods and materials between ports. They are equipped with cranes for loading and unloading and come in various sizes. Made of welded steel, they typically have a lifespan of 25 to 30 years. They play a crucial role in international trade, handling the majority of shipments worldwide.

Ferry: A ferry is a boat that transports passengers, vehicles, and cargo across water. Sometimes referred to as water taxis or water buses, such as in Venice, Italy, they often make several stops along their route.

Fishing vessel: Summary: Fishing vessels are boats or ships designed for the purpose of catching fish and other valuable aquatic organisms, operating in seas, lakes, and rivers. They are utilized for commercial, artisanal, and recreational fishing.

Hovercraft: A hovercraft, or air-cushion vehicle, is a versatile craft that can travel over multiple surfaces including land, water, mud, ice, and more.

Merchant ship: A merchant ship, also known as a merchant vessel, is a watercraft that transports cargo or passengers for hire. It differs from pleasure craft used for personal recreation and naval ships used for military purposes.

Passenger ship: A passenger ship is a merchant ship primarily used to transport passengers at sea. Unlike cargo vessels with limited passenger accommodations, passenger ships are designed to carry substantial numbers of passengers and often transport freight as well. In the past, ocean liners were equipped with cargo holds for mail, package freight, and other cargo, but this capacity has been eliminated in recent years for cruise ships.

Riverboat: A riverboat is a versatile watercraft designed for navigation on lakes, rivers, and artificial waterways. They are used for various purposes including transporting freight and people, as well as for entertainment enterprises. Riverboats can be specialized for different tasks such as dredging, surveying, fisheries management, firefighting, and law enforcement.

Sail: A sail is a fabric structure that uses wind power to propel various types of sailing craft, including ships, boats, and land vehicles. These sails can be made from different materials and are typically three- or four-sided in shape.

Sailing ship: A sailing ship is a sea vessel that uses sails on masts to harness wind power and move. There are different sail plans like square-rigged or fore-and-aft sails. Some ships have square sails on each mast, while others have only fore-and-aft sails. Some ships use a combination of square and fore-and-aft sails.

Sailing: Sailing is the use of wind to propel a craft over water, ice, or land. It involves using sails, wingsails, or kites to navigate a chosen course, often part of a broader navigation plan.

Shipbuilding: Shipbuilding is the creation of ships and floating vessels in shipyards by skilled shipbuilders, also known as shipwrights. This specialized occupation dates back to ancient times.

Steamboat: A steamboat is a boat powered by steam, using propellers or paddlewheels. It is often designated as SS, S.S., S/S, or PS, although these designations are mostly used for steamships.

Tanker (ship): A tanker is a ship that transports or stores liquids or gases in bulk. Major types include oil tankers, chemical tankers, cargo ships, and gas carriers. They also carry commodities like vegetable oils, molasses, and wine. Tankers were first developed in the late 19th century, utilizing iron and steel hulls and pumping systems. Currently, there are over 4,000 tankers and supertankers with a capacity of 10,000 LT DWT or greater operating worldwide. In the US Navy, a tanker used to refuel other ships is called an oiler, while many other navies use the term tanker or replenishment tanker.

Aviation: Aviation refers to the mechanical flight and aircraft industry. It encompasses various types of aircraft, including fixed-wing and rotary-wing, morphable wings, wing-less lifting bodies, and lighter-than-air craft like hot air balloons and airships.

Aircraft: An aircraft is a flying vehicle that relies on the air to counter gravity. It achieves this through static or dynamic lift from an airfoil or downward thrust from engines. Examples of aircraft include airplanes, helicopters, gliders, airships, paramotors, and hot air balloons.

Jet aircraft: A jet aircraft is propelled by jet engines and can have one or more engines.

Unmanned aerial vehicle: An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), or drone, is an aircraft that operates without a human pilot or crew on board. Originally created for military purposes, UAVs have become crucial assets for various industries. Improved control technology and reduced costs have expanded their applications to include tasks such as aerial photography, precision agriculture, monitoring natural disasters, surveillance, inspections, deliveries, and entertainment activities like drone racing.

Airport: An airport is a facility for commercial air transport, with a landing area and buildings to monitor and maintain aircraft. Larger airports may have additional features like taxiways, control centers, and passenger facilities. Some countries also have fixed-base operators for general aviation.

Air traffic control: Air traffic control (ATC) is a ground-based service that guides aircraft both on the ground and within controlled airspace. It aims to prevent collisions, facilitate air traffic flow, and assist pilots through advisory services and essential information.

Parachute: A parachute is a device that creates drag or lift to slow down the descent of an object in the atmosphere. It is commonly used for recreational purposes or as a safety measure for aviators, allowing them to safely exit an aircraft and land on the ground.

Balloon (aeronautics): A balloon is an unpowered aerostat that floats due to its buoyancy in aeronautics. It can be free-moving or tethered, unlike an airship, which is a powered aerostat that can move itself in a controlled way.

Hot air balloon: A hot air balloon is a lighter-than-air aircraft with a bag containing heated air and a basket for passengers and heat source. The heated air makes it buoyant, and the envelope doesn't need to be sealed at the bottom. Modern balloons are made of nylon and can have various shapes.

Airship: An airship, also known as a dirigible balloon, is a self-propelled aircraft that can travel through the air. It operates by utilizing a lifting gas that is lighter than the surrounding air to generate lift.

Fixed-wing aircraft: A fixed-wing aircraft is an airplane that can fly using wings that generate lift from its forward airspeed and wing shape. It is different from rotary-wing aircraft and ornithopters. The wings can be flexible or morphing, and examples include kites, hang gliders, and variable-sweep wing aircraft.

Airplane: An airplane, also known as an aeroplane or plane, is a type of fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by engines. It can be powered by a jet engine, propeller, or rocket engine. Airplanes vary in size, shape, and wing configuration. They have various uses such as recreation, transportation of goods and people, military operations, and research. Commercial aviation plays a major role, carrying billions of passengers and tons of cargo annually. While most airplanes are piloted by humans, some are designed to be remotely or computer-controlled, like drones.

Glider (aircraft): A glider is a type of aircraft that relies on the air's reaction against its lifting surfaces to remain in flight. Unlike most aircraft, gliders do not have an engine and instead depend on the forces of nature to fly. However, there are motor-gliders that have small engines for additional flight capabilities, including self-launching and sustaining altitude.

Helicopter: A helicopter is a rotorcraft that can take off and land vertically, hover, and move in any direction. It uses horizontally spinning rotors for lift and thrust. Unlike fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters can operate in congested or isolated areas without a runway.

Aircraft engine: An aircraft engine, also known as an aero engine, is the power source for an aircraft's propulsion system. It enables powered flight and can be either a piston engine or a gas turbine. In some cases, aircraft engines have been rocket powered, and electric motors are now used in small UAVs.

Jet engine: A jet engine is a reaction engine that generates thrust by expelling a fast-moving jet of heated gas. It refers to various air-breathing engines like turbojets, turbofans, ramjets, pulse jets, and scramjets. Jet engines are typically internal combustion engines.

Wing: A wing is a specialized fin that creates lift in fluid, usually air. It has a streamlined shape and acts as an airfoil. The wing's efficiency is determined by its lift-to-drag ratio, which indicates the ability to generate lift while minimizing drag. It can produce lift that is much greater than the drag it experiences. A higher lift-to-drag ratio allows the wing to generate sufficient lift with less thrust.

New York City Subway: The New York City Subway is a government-owned rapid transit system in Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, and the Bronx. It is run by the New York City Transit Authority, a part of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority. It dates back to October 27, 1904, making it one of the oldest and most widely used public transit systems globally, boasting a record 472 operational stations.

London Underground: The London Underground is a rapid transit system serving Greater London and nearby counties in England.

Shinkansen: The Shinkansen, commonly referred to as the bullet train, is a high-speed railway network in Japan. Originally developed to boost economic growth by connecting outlying regions to Tokyo, it now serves as both long-distance travel and commuter rail. It is owned by Japan Railway Construction, Transport and Technology Agency and operated by five Japan Railways Group companies.

Trans-Siberian Railway: The Trans-Siberian Railway, also known as Transsib, is the world's longest railway line spanning over 9,289 kilometers. It connects European Russia to the Russian Far East, running from Moscow in the west to Vladivostok in the east.