Social science: Social science is a branch of science that studies societies and the relationships among individuals. Originally focused on sociology, it now includes various disciplines like anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, linguistics, management, communication, and political science.

Meme: A meme is a cultural idea or behavior that spreads through imitation, often expressing symbolic meaning. It serves as a carrier of cultural ideas, symbols, or practices, transmitted through various means like writing, speech, or gestures. Memes are seen as cultural counterparts to genes, replicating, mutating, and adapting to selective pressures. In modern usage, a meme may refer to internet memes, which are shared cultural experiences involving remixed and circulated images online.

Safety: Safety is about being protected from harm and danger. It involves controlling recognized hazards to minimize risks and achieve an acceptable level of safety.

Humanities: Humanities is the study of human society and culture, focusing on fundamental questions. Originally, it referred to the study of classical literature and language. Today, it encompasses any fields of study outside of natural, social, formal, and applied sciences. Humanities use critical, speculative, and interpretative methods, with a strong historical component, distinguishing them from empirical scientific approaches.

Information: Information refers to the power to inform and interpret what can be sensed. It includes both observable patterns and non-random natural processes. While digital signals convey information through discrete signs, other mediums like analog signals or art forms convey it more continuously. Information is not knowledge itself, but the meaning derived from interpreting representations.

Psychology: Psychology is the study of mind and behavior, including conscious and unconscious phenomena, thoughts, feelings, and motives. It is an academic discipline that spans natural and social sciences, aiming to understand human and nonhuman behavior. Biological psychologists link psychology to neuroscience by studying the properties of brains, while psychologists as social scientists strive to understand behavior in individuals and groups.

Clinical psychology: Clinical psychology is a field that combines various sciences to comprehend and address psychological distress, enhance well-being, and stimulate personal growth. It utilizes assessment, formulation, and therapy techniques, but clinical psychologists are also involved in research, teaching, consultation, and forensic testimony. Additionally, clinical psychology is regulated in several countries as a mental health profession.

Cognitive psychology: Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of mental processes like attention, memory, problem solving, language use, perception, creativity, and reasoning.

Developmental psychology: Developmental psychology is the study of human growth, change, and adaptation. It covers infants, children, adolescents, adults, and aging. The field aims to explain how thinking, feeling, and behaviors evolve, focusing on physical, cognitive, and social emotional dimensions. It explores various topics such as motor skills, language acquisition, personality, and identity formation.

Personality psychology: Personality psychology studies the differences in individuals' personalities caused by psychological forces. It investigates the development of personalities, the mental processes involved, and their impact on functioning. It provides a framework to understand the uniqueness of individuals.

Psychology of religion: The psychology of religion applies psychological methods to religious traditions and individuals. It uses both scientific and humanistic approaches to study causal connections and meaningful experiences.

Psychotherapy: Psychotherapy is a psychological technique that uses personal interaction to help individuals change behavior, increase happiness, and overcome problems. It aims to improve mental health, resolve troublesome behaviors, beliefs, and emotions, while enhancing relationships and social skills. Designed for individuals, families, or children, some types of psychotherapy are evidence-based for treating diagnosed mental disorders, while others are criticized as pseudoscience.

Analytical psychology: Analytical psychology is a term coined by Carl Jung to describe his research on the psyche. It differentiates from Freud's psychoanalytic theories. Jung's work is documented in his extensive Collected Works written over six decades.

Behaviorism: Behaviorism is a systematic approach that seeks to understand human and animal behavior. It considers behavior to be influenced by environmental stimuli, reinforcement and punishment, as well as an individual's motivational state and controlling factors. While behaviorists acknowledge the role of heredity, they primarily focus on environmental factors. In modern psychology, behaviorism has been largely replaced by cognitive psychology, which explores internal mental states.

Evolutionary psychology: Evolutionary psychology is a branch of psychology analyzing cognition and behavior from an evolutionary standpoint. It aims to understand how human psychological traits and mechanisms have evolved to solve ancestral problems. These traits are viewed as products of natural or sexual selection, or as by-products of other adaptive traits.

Gestalt psychology: Gestalt psychology is a school of psychology that emerged in the early 20th century. It emphasizes the processing of whole patterns rather than just individual components. It rejects the principles of elementalist and structuralist psychology.

Humanistic psychology: Humanistic psychology emerged in response to Freud's psychoanalytic theory and Skinner's behaviorism, led by key figure Abraham Maslow. It became popular in the 1950s, emphasizing the importance of exploring one's own capabilities and creativity.

Psychoanalysis: Psychoanalysis is a theory and therapy that addresses the unconscious mind and treats mental disorders. It was established by Sigmund Freud based on the work of Josef Breuer. Freud identified key elements as the presence of unconscious mental processes, the theory of repression and resistance, and the significance of sexuality and the Oedipus complex. Adler and Jung developed related but distinct approaches. Neo-Freudian thinkers like Fromm, Horney, and Sullivan further expanded psychoanalysis.

Cognition: Cognition refers to the mental process of gaining knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. It covers various intellectual functions like perception, attention, memory, reasoning, problem-solving, and language comprehension. Cognition involves both using existing knowledge and acquiring new knowledge.

Cognitive development: Cognitive development is the study of a child's mental growth, including information processing, language learning, and perceptual abilities, as they develop into adults. It examines qualitative differences between children and adults in how they think and understand the world. Key factors include genetics and learning. The four stages of cognitive development are reasoning, intelligence, language, and memory, starting around 18 months old. Various experiences, such as playing with toys, listening to parents, and watching TV, contribute to cognitive development.

Confirmation bias: Confirmation bias is the inclination to seek, interpret, and remember information that reinforces existing beliefs. It involves favoring information that aligns with one's views while disregarding opposing evidence. This bias is particularly pronounced for desired outcomes, emotionally charged topics, and strongly held convictions. Although difficult to overcome, it can be mitigated through education and training in critical thinking.

Amnesia: Amnesia is memory loss caused by brain damage or diseases, and can be temporary when triggered by sedatives or hypnotic drugs. The extent of damage determines the complete or partial loss of memory.

Attention: Attention is the act of concentrating on something while ignoring other stimuli. It involves selectively focusing on a specific piece of information, whether it be subjective or objective. William James emphasized that attention is the mind's ability to single out one object or thought from multiple possibilities. It is the allocation of limited cognitive resources and is limited by the brain's capacity to process data, resulting in inattentional blindness.

Consciousness: Consciousness is the awareness of internal and external existence. It has been extensively studied and debated by philosophers, theologians, and scientists. Its nature is complex and opinions vary on what aspects should be considered. In the past, it encompassed introspection and private thoughts, while today it includes cognition, experience, feelings, and perception. Consciousness can involve awareness, self-awareness, or awareness of awareness. The diverse research and speculations in this field raise questions about the right approach to understanding it.

Creativity: Creativity is the ability to generate novel and valuable ideas or objects, encompassing both tangible and intangible outcomes. It involves the process of forming something fresh and significant.

Dream: A dream is a series of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that arise involuntarily during sleep stages. We typically spend about two hours dreaming each night, with individual dreams lasting 5 to 20 minutes. Though the dreamer may perceive the experience as longer, this summary highlights the essential aspects of dreaming.

Human behavior: Human behavior refers to the way individuals or groups respond to internal and external stimuli throughout their lives. It is influenced by a combination of genetic, environmental, and psychological factors. Thoughts and feelings play a role in shaping behavior, providing insight into attitudes and values. Personality traits vary between individuals and contribute to different actions and behavior.

Human intelligence: Human intelligence refers to the advanced cognitive abilities and self-awareness possessed by humans. It enables us to learn, create concepts, understand, reason, recognize patterns, innovate, solve problems, make decisions, retain information, and communicate through language.

Hypnosis: Hypnosis is a state of focused attention where peripheral awareness is reduced, allowing individuals to be more responsive to suggestions.

Imagination: Imagination is the ability to create sensations, thoughts, and feelings within oneself. It includes re-creating past experiences with imagined changes and inventing fantastical scenes. Imagination helps in problem-solving and is crucial for integrating experiences and learning. It can be disciplined and trained through storytelling that evokes worlds with carefully chosen words.

Introspection: Introspection refers to examining one's own thoughts and feelings. It involves observing one's mental state in psychology and soul in spirituality. Introspection is crucial for self-reflection and self-discovery, distinguishing it from external observation.

Memory: Memory is the mental ability to encode, store, and retrieve information when necessary. It enables us to retain information over time, influencing our future actions. Without memory, language, relationships, and personal identity would not develop. Memory loss, often called forgetfulness or amnesia, refers to the inability to recall past events.

Mind: The mind refers to the faculties responsible for thinking, imagining, remembering, willing, and sensing. It encompasses perception, pleasure, pain, belief, desire, intention, and emotion. The mind encompasses both conscious and non-conscious states, as well as sensory and non-sensory experiences.

Mood (psychology): A mood, in psychology, refers to an affective state that is less specific and less intense than emotions or feelings. It is often categorized as positive or negative and is not easily triggered by a specific stimulus. Various factors can influence mood, having either positive or negative effects.

Motivation: Motivation is the internal force that drives individuals to engage in goal-directed behavior. It explains why people or animals start, continue, or stop particular actions. While its definition is disputed, motivation is distinct from apathy and is studied in fields such as psychology and philosophy.

Oedipus complex: The Oedipus complex is a term in psychoanalysis that describes a son's sexual attraction to his mother and hostility towards his father, and a daughter's attraction to her father and hostility towards her mother. It was coined by Sigmund Freud and is linked to the phallic stage of development. Freud introduced the concept in his book The Interpretation of Dreams (1899) and later named it in a paper published in 1910.

Perception: Perception is the processing of sensory information to comprehend and interpret the surrounding environment. It involves the nervous system receiving signals from physical or chemical stimulation of the sensory system, such as light for vision, odor molecules for smell, and pressure waves for hearing.

Personality: Personality refers to the unique combination of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions that shape an individual's way of adapting to life. These patterns are relatively consistent but can evolve gradually over time.

Stereotype: A stereotype is a generalized belief about a group of people, including expectations about their personality, preferences, appearance, or ability. Stereotypes are often overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new information. They can be positive, neutral, or negative.

Thought: Thought refers to conscious cognitive processes, including judging, reasoning, concept formation, problem solving, and deliberation. It can occur independently of sensory stimulation and encompasses considering ideas, memory, and imagination. Thought can also include perception and unconscious mental processes. Additionally, thought can refer to mental states or systems of ideas resulting from these cognitive processes.

Emotion: Emotions are mental states triggered by changes in the body and mind, linked to thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and varying degrees of pleasure or displeasure. While a clear definition lacks consensus in science, emotions are intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and creativity.

Agreeableness: Agreeableness is a personality trait characterized by kind, sympathetic, and cooperative behavior. It is one of the five major dimensions of personality that reflects individual differences in cooperation and social harmony.

Anger: Anger, or wrath, is an intense emotional state triggered by a perception of provocation, hurt, or threat. It involves a strong and non-cooperative response.

Anxiety: Anxiety is an unpleasant emotion that causes inner turmoil and includes feelings of dread over anticipated events. It is distinct from fear as it involves anticipation of future threats rather than an immediate response to a real threat. Anxiety is often accompanied by nervous behavior, such as pacing, physical complaints, and rumination.

Conscientiousness: Conscientiousness is a personality trait characterized by being careful, diligent, and having a strong desire to do tasks well. Conscientious individuals are efficient, organized, and show self-discipline. They take obligations to others seriously, aim for achievement, and display planned behavior rather than being spontaneous. Additionally, they are generally dependable and exhibit behaviors such as being neat, systematic, thorough, and deliberate.

Courage: Courage is the act of confronting and willingly facing challenges like agony, pain, danger, uncertainty, or intimidation. It can be synonymous with bravery, particularly in battle.

Curiosity: Curiosity is the inherent drive for exploration and learning in humans and animals. It plays a crucial role in human development, fueling the desire to acquire knowledge and skills.

Disgust: Disgust is an emotional response to something offensive, revolting, or unpleasant. It can be triggered by things that are potentially contagious or distasteful. Disgust is closely connected to the sense of taste, as well as smell, touch, and vision. It can even be experienced in response to disharmonious sounds. Research shows a link between disgust and anxiety disorders like arachnophobia and obsessive-compulsive disorder related to contamination fear.

Doubt: Doubt is a mental state of uncertainty and indecision between contradictory propositions. It involves a lack of conviction, distrust, and may lead to delaying or rejecting action due to fear of making mistakes or missing opportunities.

Extraversion and introversion: Extraversion and introversion, first introduced by Carl Jung, are traits that play a central role in human personality theories. Extraversion is characterized by outgoing and energetic behavior, while introversion is marked by reflective and reserved behavior. Jung defined introverts as being focused on subjective thoughts, while extraverts concentrate on external stimuli.

Fear: Fear is a strong and unpleasant emotion triggered by perceiving a danger or threat. It leads to psychological changes and can cause aggressive actions or avoidance. Fear can be in response to a current stimulus or anticipated future danger. It prompts us to confront or escape from the threat, sometimes resulting in freezing.

Guilt (emotion): Guilt is a moral emotion experienced when a person believes they have compromised their own standards of conduct or violated universal moral standards, leading to a significant sense of responsibility. It is closely linked to remorse, regret, and shame.

Happiness: Happiness is a positive emotion, ranging from contentment to intense joy, triggered by positive experiences or thoughts. It can also arise with no obvious cause. The level of happiness for longer periods is strongly correlated with life satisfaction, well-being, flourishing, and eudaimonia. The word happy is often used to appraise these measures or as a shorthand for a source of happiness. Defining happiness precisely has been an ongoing debate in philosophy.

Hatred: Hatred is a strong negative emotion directed at people, things, or ideas, typically stemming from opposition or repulsion. It encompasses intense feelings of anger, contempt, and disgust, often regarded as the opposite of love.

Hope: Hope is an optimistic mindset based on anticipating positive outcomes in life or the world. It involves expecting with confidence and cherishing desires with anticipation.

Humour: Humour is a quality that stimulates laughter and amusement. It originates from ancient Greek humoral medicine, which believed that bodily fluids, known as humours, influenced human well-being and emotions.

Love: Love refers to a variety of strong and positive emotions, from deep affection to simple pleasure. It encompasses different meanings, such as the love of a mother, spouse, or even for food. Primarily, it is a powerful attraction and emotional attachment.

Lust: Lust is a strong psychological force that generates intense desire for something, even if there is already a substantial amount of the desired object. It can manifest in various forms such as sexual desire, a craving for money or power, or even a longing for specific smells that trigger memories. Unlike passion, which drives individuals towards positive goals, lust is solely driven by desire and does not necessarily lead to benevolent intentions.

Neuroticism: Neuroticism is a core personality trait in psychology, characterized by high levels of moodiness and the experience of negative emotions like anxiety, anger, and guilt. Those with high neuroticism are more vulnerable to stress and tend to interpret minor difficulties as insurmountable. They may engage in maladaptive behaviors to cope with these emotions, such as substance use or procrastination.

Pleasure: Pleasure is a positive experience that feels good and is enjoyable. It contrasts with pain and suffering, and is closely linked to value, desire, and action. Various activities can be pleasurable, such as eating, sex, and listening to music. Pleasure is related to mental states like ecstasy and flow, and is important in theories of hedonism. It is distinct from happiness and well-being.

Sadness: Sadness is an emotional pain linked to feelings of despair, loss, and sorrow. It may cause individuals to become silent, withdrawn, and lethargic, distancing themselves from others. Depression, a severe form of sadness, can be triggered by major depressive disorder or persistent depressive disorder. Crying often accompanies sadness.

Self-esteem: Self-esteem is one's confidence and belief in their own value, abilities, and principles. It includes various emotional states like pride, shame, triumph, and despair. It is defined as the positive or negative evaluation of oneself and how one feels about it.

Surprise (emotion): Surprise is a sudden, mental and physical reaction to an unexpected event. It can have different emotional valences and intensity levels, ranging from very strong to mild. Animals and humans can experience surprise, which can trigger fight-or-flight response or a less intense reaction.

Suffering: Suffering refers to the unpleasant experience or aversion resulting from perceived harm or threat. It is a fundamental component of negative emotions, contrasting with pleasures and happiness.

Aggression: Aggression is hostile behavior that aims to cause harm, but can also be channeled positively. It can occur reactively or without provocation and is triggered by factors like frustration or perceived disrespect. Human aggression can be classified as direct (harming individuals physically or verbally) or indirect (harming social relations).

Altruism: Altruism is the act of prioritizing the well-being and happiness of others over oneself. It is a widely valued moral principle found in various cultures and religions, and is often synonymous with selflessness as opposed to selfishness.

Blame: Blame is the act of criticizing or holding someone accountable for socially or morally irresponsible actions or inaction. It is the opposite of praise. When a person is morally responsible for doing wrong, their action is blameworthy. On the other hand, when a person is morally responsible for doing right, their action is regarded as praiseworthy. Blame and praise can also be used in non-ethical contexts, such as commenting on someone's fashion choices.

Bullying: Bullying is repeated, forceful behavior that aims to intimidate or dominate, often involving hurtful teasing or threats. It requires an imbalance of power and distinguishes from normal conflict. Bullying is a form of aggressive behavior, characterized by hostile intent and long-term repetition.

Charisma: Charisma is an alluring personal quality that captivates others. It encompasses presence, charm, and the ability to compel and engage people.

Competition: Competition is a rivalry between parties striving for a shared goal that cannot be mutually achieved. It can occur between various entities, such as organisms, individuals, economic and social groups. The rivalry is centered around obtaining exclusive goals, which may include recognition.

Conformity: Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms. It often happens due to the ease of following the path others have already made. This tendency to conform occurs in small groups or society as a whole and can result from subtle unconscious influences or direct social pressure. Conformity can occur when an individual is alone as well, such as when people follow social norms while eating or watching television.

Dignity: Dignity is the modern concept of valuing and respecting individuals for their own sake. It encompasses inherent rights, morality, ethics, law, and politics, following the principles of the Enlightenment era. It can also refer to personal behavior, such as conducting oneself with dignity.

Embarrassment: Embarrassment is an emotional state that occurs when someone does something socially unacceptable or frowned upon in front of others. It is closely related to shame and guilt and can greatly affect a person's thoughts and behavior.

Empathy: Empathy is the capacity to comprehend, feel, and potentially share and respond to someone else's perspective and experiences. It encompasses social, cognitive, and emotional processes aimed at understanding others. The concept can be further categorized into types like cognitive, emotional, somatic, and spiritual empathy.

Forgiveness: Forgiveness is the intentional and voluntary process of changing feelings and attitudes towards someone who caused harm. It involves overcoming negative emotions such as resentment and a desire for revenge. The extent of forgiveness varies among theorists, with some believing it includes replacing negative emotions with positive attitudes and reconciling with the offender. In legal contexts, forgiveness involves absolving someone of debt or other claims.

Honour: Honour is a quality that combines social teachings and personal ethics, expressed through a code of conduct. It includes valour, chivalry, honesty, and compassion. It is an abstract concept that affects a person's social standing and self-evaluation, as well as institutions like families, schools, and nations. It determines worth and stature based on individuals adhering to specific codes of honour and societal moral values.

Jealousy: Jealousy is the mental state of feeling insecure and fearful due to a perceived lack of possessions or safety.

Lie: A lie is a false assertion used to deceive or mislead someone, with the act of lying being the practice of communicating lies. Those who lie are called liars. Lies can be deliberately false or misleading statements, serving various purposes for individuals.

Prejudice: Prejudice is an affective feeling towards a person based on their group membership. It involves preconceived evaluations or classifications based on personal characteristics like political affiliation, gender, age, religion, race, ethnicity, nationality, and more.

Privacy: 'Privacy' refers to an individual or group's capacity to hide personal information and decide when and how to reveal it, allowing for selective self-expression and seclusion.

Punishment: Punishment refers to the imposition of unpleasant consequences on individuals or groups by authorities as a response and deterrent to undesirable behavior. It spans a wide range of contexts, from child discipline to criminal law. The concept of punishment is multifaceted and encompasses various understandings.

Remorse: Remorse is a distressing emotion felt by someone who regrets their past actions, considering them shameful or hurtful. It is similar to guilt and self-directed resentment. People express remorse through apologies, trying to make amends, or punishing themselves. It can arise from facing consequences or regretting inaction.

Respect: Respect is an emotion or action demonstrating admiration and high regard for someone or something. It involves honoring others by showing care, concern, and consideration for their needs and feelings.

Shame: Shame is a self-conscious emotion linked to negative self-evaluation, motivation to quit, and feelings of pain, exposure, distrust, powerlessness, and worthlessness.

Shyness: Shyness is the feeling of discomfort or awkwardness around others, particularly in new or unfamiliar situations. Shy individuals may avoid such situations due to fear of negative reactions and worry about how others perceive their behavior. In severe cases, shyness can escalate into social anxiety or social phobia.

Trust (social science): Trust in social science refers to believing that someone will fulfill their expected obligations. It involves vulnerability and the expectation that the other person will act in a beneficial way. The trustor lacks control over the trustee's actions. There are two types of trust: generalized (extends to unfamiliar others) and particularized (relies on specific situations or relationships).

Society: A society is a collection of individuals who interact socially within a shared territory under the same political authority. It is defined by the relationships, culture, and institutions that exist among its members.

Civil society: Civil society refers to the third sector of society, separate from the government and business, which encompasses the family, private sphere, non-governmental organizations, and institutions. It involves individuals and organizations that operate independently from the government, working for the benefit and will of citizens.

Institution: An institution is a created system of rules and norms that govern how individuals behave. It involves persistence and continuity. Laws, rules, social conventions, and norms are examples of institutions that can be formal or informal.

Public: Public refers to groups of individuals, while the term "publics" in public relations represents these groupings collectively. This concept differs from the sociological notion of the public sphere. Political science, psychology, marketing, and advertising also define and discuss the concept of a public. However, its definition in public relations and communication science can be unclear due to its conflation with audience, market segment, community, constituency, and stakeholder.

Social norm: Social norms are shared standards of acceptable behavior that apply to groups. They can be informal understandings or formal rules and laws. These norms heavily influence human behavior and are well incorporated into theories explaining human behavior. Norms are distinct from private beliefs and values, and they vary depending on context, social group, and historical circumstances. They are crucial components of institutions.

Social order: Social order refers to both a specific system of social structures and institutions, such as ancient or capitalist order, and a stable state of society where the existing social structure is accepted and maintained by its members. It addresses the problem of order, which is the question of how and why social orders exist, and is a central concern in sociology, political science, and political philosophy.

Solidarity: Solidarity is the sense of unity among groups or classes, based on shared interests, objectives, and standards. It acknowledges individuals as the foundation of society and emphasizes the bonds that bind people together. It is widely studied in sociology, social sciences, philosophy, and bioethics. Additionally, solidarity holds importance in Catholic social teaching and Christian democratic political ideology.

Community: A community is a social unit characterized by shared characteristics like place, norms, culture, religion, values, or identity. They can exist in physical or virtual spaces. Communities are defined by strong relationships beyond family ties, influencing their identity and roles in social institutions. They can be small or large, including national, international, and virtual groups.

Organization: An organization is a group of people with a specific purpose, such as a company or institution. It consists of one or more individuals working together towards achieving their goals.

Club (organization): A club is an organization of people with a shared interest or goal. It can range from charity and hobby clubs to social, political, and religious clubs.

Non-governmental organization: A Non-governmental organization (NGO) is an independent, nonprofit entity engaged in humanitarian or social science activities. They can provide services to members and others, and also serve as lobby groups for corporations. NGOs are different from international and intergovernmental organizations, as they are not directly involved with sovereign states and governments.

Nonprofit organization: A nonprofit organization, also known as a non-profit, is a legal entity operated for the collective, public, or social benefit rather than for profit. Revenues exceeding expenses must be used for the organization's purpose rather than for private gain. Nonprofits encompass a wide range of entities, such as political organizations, schools, churches, and social clubs. They may seek tax-exempt status and qualify to receive tax-deductible contributions, but can incorporate as nonprofits even without tax-exempt status.

Secret society: A secret society is a concealed organization with hidden activities, events, inner workings, or membership. It may or may not try to hide its existence, but excludes covert groups like intelligence agencies or guerrilla warfare insurgencies that maintain a public presence while hiding their activities and memberships.

Support group: A support group is formed by individuals facing similar challenges. They offer one another nonprofessional support and share coping strategies. The group aims to empower its members and create a sense of community. Help is provided through information exchange, sharing personal experiences, and establishing social networks. Support groups may also engage in public awareness and advocacy efforts.

Trade union: A trade union, also known as a labor union or simply a union, is an organization of workers aiming to enhance their employment conditions. This includes improving wages, benefits, working conditions, and safety standards. Additionally, trade unions establish procedures to address grievances, create rules regarding employee status, and protect and strengthen workers' bargaining power.

Tribe: The term tribe refers to a social group found in various contexts. In anthropology, it is primarily used and debated, due to conflicting theories and applications. Anthropologists compare tribes to other social and kinship groups, noting their intermediate size. Tribes can have legal recognition and political autonomy, although this may contradict anthropological definitions.

Voluntary association: A voluntary association is a group of individuals who come together, often as volunteers, for a common purpose. Examples include trade unions, professional associations, and environmental groups.

Social network: A social network is a group of individuals connected through relationships and interactions. It involves analyzing the structure and patterns within these networks using social network analysis. This helps identify influential entities, study network dynamics, and understand local and global patterns in social structures.

Emergency management: Emergency management is a function that helps communities reduce vulnerability to hazards and cope with disasters. It focuses on managing disasters rather than minor emergencies. Activities include preparedness, response, mitigation, and recovery, aiming to prevent or reduce harmful impacts of disasters.

Firefighting: Firefighting is the profession of controlling and extinguishing fires. Firefighters receive extensive technical training in areas such as structural and wildland firefighting. They also specialize in various types of firefighting such as aircraft, shipboard, aerial, maritime, and proximity firefighting.

Orphanage: Orphanage - A residential institution for orphaned or abandoned children who cannot be cared for by their biological families due to various reasons. Parents may be deceased, absent, abusive, or unwilling to care for the child. Government-run orphanages have been reduced in developed countries but still exist in other regions. It is widely recognized that orphanages can harm children's emotional wellbeing, and efforts now go towards supporting the family unit.

Prison: A prison, also known as jail, is a state-run facility where individuals are confined against their will as punishment for crimes. It restricts their freedom and is commonly used within the criminal justice system. People awaiting trial or convicted of crimes may be imprisoned for a specified period.

Social work: Social work is an academic discipline and profession aimed at improving the well-being of individuals, families, groups, communities, and society at large. It integrates various fields like psychology, sociology, and economics to address social issues, develop interventions, and promote social responsibility. Core objectives include improving lives, addressing biopsychosocial concerns, empowering individuals and communities, and striving for social justice.

Social issue: A social issue refers to a widespread problem affecting society that people strive to solve. It arises from factors beyond individual control and leads to conflicting opinions on what is morally right or wrong. While distinct from economic issues, some problems have social and economic dimensions. Warfare is an example of an issue that does not fall into either category.

Abortion: Abortion is the deliberate ending of a pregnancy by removing the embryo or fetus. Miscarriage, or spontaneous abortion, occurs naturally in about 30% to 40% of pregnancies. When steps are taken to end a pregnancy, it is called induced abortion. The most common reasons for having an abortion are birth-timing and limiting family size. Other reasons include maternal health, financial constraints, domestic violence, lack of support, young age, education or career plans, and unwanted pregnancies resulting from rape or incest.

Animal welfare: Animal welfare refers to the well-being of non-human animals. It involves different standards that vary depending on the context, often debated by animal welfare groups, legislators, and academics. The assessment of animal welfare involves factors like longevity, disease, behavior, physiology, and reproduction, although the best indicators are still a matter of debate.

Child labour: Child labour is the exploitation of children through work that harms their childhood, education, and well-being. It is globally prohibited, although certain exceptions exist for child artists, family responsibilities, supervised training, Amish children, and Indigenous children in the Americas.

Corruption: Corruption is dishonesty or a criminal offense committed by individuals or organizations in positions of power, aiming to gain illicit benefits or abuse authority for personal gain. It involves activities like bribery, influence peddling, and embezzlement, some of which may be legal in certain countries. Political corruption occurs when government employees exploit their positions for personal profit. Most prevalent in kleptocracies, oligarchies, narco-states, and mafia states.

Deforestation: Deforestation refers to the removal of forests or trees from land to make way for non-forest purposes like agriculture or urbanization. Tropical rainforests experience the highest levels of deforestation. Currently, only 31% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests, which is one-third less than before agriculture expansion. Approximately 15 to 18 million hectares of forest, equivalent to the size of Bangladesh, are lost annually. Shockingly, around 2,400 trees are cut down per minute on average.

Disability: Disability refers to any condition that hinders a person's ability to perform certain activities or have equal access in society. It can be cognitive, developmental, intellectual, mental, physical, sensory, or a combination of factors, and can be present from birth or acquired later in life. Disabilities are not binary and can vary in unique characteristics for each individual. They can be visible or invisible in nature.

Environmentalism: Environmentalism is a philosophy and movement that supports the protection of life and habitats. It focuses on nature-related aspects of green ideology and politics. Ecologism, a term more used in continental Europe, combines social ecology and environmentalism. While environmentalism is more common in English, both words have slightly different connotations.

Euthanasia: Euthanasia is intentionally ending life to relieve pain and suffering.

Famine: A famine is a severe shortage of food due to reasons like war, natural disasters, or government policies. It leads to malnutrition, starvation, epidemics, and higher mortality rates. Famine has occurred on every inhabited continent throughout history. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Southeast and South Asia, Eastern and Central Europe suffered the most fatalities. However, famine deaths have decreased significantly since the 1970s. Africa has been the most affected continent by famine since 2010.

Homelessness: Homelessness refers to the condition of lacking stable, safe, and functional housing. It includes living on the streets, moving between temporary shelters, residing in boarding houses without basic amenities, and not having access to permanent or secure housing. Internally displaced persons who flee civil conflict and become refugees within their country are also considered homeless.

Human migration: Human migration involves the movement of people to new places, whether for permanent or temporary settlement.

Immigration: Immigration refers to the movement of people to a country where they are not usual residents or lack nationality, for the purpose of becoming permanent residents. It excludes short-term stays and tourism, but may include seasonal labor immigration.

Human overpopulation: Human overpopulation refers to the worry that human populations may grow to a size that exceeds the capacity of the environment or available resources to support them. This issue is typically discussed in relation to global population, but it can also pertain to countries, areas, or cities.

One-child policy: The one-child policy in China, implemented from 1979 to 2015, aimed to control population growth by allowing only one child per family. It had significant social, cultural, economic, and demographic impacts. The effectiveness of birth rate reduction and ethical concerns surrounding human rights remain controversial.

Humanitarianism: Humanitarianism is the active belief in the value of human life, involving benevolent treatment and assistance to reduce suffering and improve humanity's condition. It encompasses emergency aid, human rights advocacy, government actions, development assistance, and philanthropy. It raises critical issues such as religious beliefs, motivations for aid, market affinity, imperialism, gender and class relations, and the role of humanitarian agencies. A practitioner of humanitarianism is called a humanitarian.

Pacifism: Pacifism, coined by Émile Arnaud in 1901, is the opposition to war, militarism, and violence. It is closely associated with the concept of ahimsa found in Indian religions. While its modern connotations started in the 19th century, ancient references also exist.

Peace: 'Peace' refers to societal friendship and harmony, characterized by the absence of hostility and violence. It signifies a state of societal tranquility, absence of conflict, and freedom from fear of violence among individuals or groups.

World peace: World peace envisions a state of harmony among all individuals and nations worldwide. It is an ideal concept embraced by diverse cultures, religions, philosophies, and organizations, each offering different perspectives on achieving this state.

Pollution: Pollution occurs when contaminants are introduced into nature, resulting in harmful alterations. It can involve various substances or energy sources, including both artificial and natural pollutants.

Air pollution: Air pollution is the presence of harmful substances in the air, both indoors and outdoors, that can cause health issues and damage the environment. It includes various types of pollutants, such as gases, particles, and biological agents. It can lead to diseases, allergies, and even death for humans and harm animals, crops, and natural/built environments. Air pollution can be caused by human activities and natural events.

Water pollution: Water pollution refers to the contamination of water bodies by harmful substances, caused mostly by human activities. Sources include sewage, industry, agriculture, and urban runoff. It affects lakes, rivers, oceans, reservoirs, aquifers, and groundwater. This pollution degrades aquatic ecosystems, spreads water-borne diseases, and diminishes the services these water resources offer.

Population ageing: Population ageing is the increasing median age in a population due to declining fertility rates and longer life expectancy. This trend is present in most countries, including developing nations. Only 18 countries are exceptions to this global phenomenon. The aged population is currently at its highest level in history, with projections indicating a further increase. The UN predicts that the rate of population ageing in the 21st century will surpass that of the previous century. The number of individuals aged 60 and above has tripled since 1950 and is expected to reach 2.1 billion by 2050. Different countries are experiencing varying degrees and pace of ageing, with implications that require adaptation.

Poverty: Poverty is a state of lacking financial resources and essentials for a particular standard of living. It can result from various social, economic, and political factors. Absolute poverty measures income against basic needs, while relative poverty compares living standards among individuals in a specific time and place. Variations in the definition of relative poverty exist among countries and societies.

Social movement: A social movement is a large, loosely organized group of people working towards a common social or political goal. It aims to bring about social change or counter existing changes. Social movements can empower oppressed populations to challenge and resist those in power. They can be driven by individuals or organizations. However, some social movements seek to maintain or amplify existing power structures, like fascism.

Sustainable development: Sustainable development is an approach that aims to meet human needs without harming the natural environment. It seeks to find a balance between economic growth, environmental protection, and social well-being. The concept, defined in the Brundtland Report of 1987, emphasizes meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Today, sustainable development focuses on economic, social, and environmental aspects for the well-being of future generations.

Violence: Violence is the application of physical force to cause harm to individuals, animals, or property, resulting in pain, injury, death, damage, or destruction. It involves the intentional use of force or power, whether threatened or actual, against oneself, others, or a group/community, with a high likelihood of resulting in various forms of harm such as injury, death, psychological damage, maldevelopment, or deprivation.

Economic inequality: Economic inequality refers to unequal distribution of income, wealth, and consumption. It can be measured within or between nations and sub-populations.

Feminism: Feminism is a movement aiming to establish gender equality in politics, economics, and society. It recognizes that societies favor men and seeks to challenge gender stereotypes, improve education and professional opportunities, and address unjust treatment of women.

Gender equality: Gender equality, also called sexual equality, is the fair distribution of resources and opportunities independent of gender. It encompasses equal participation in the economy and decision-making. Moreover, it involves acknowledging and valuing diverse behaviors, aspirations, and needs irrespective of gender.

Women's rights: Women's rights are the rights and entitlements that women and girls worldwide claim. These rights were the foundation of the women's rights movement in the 19th century and feminist movements in the 20th and 21st centuries. They vary in enforcement and support across countries, with some countries institutionalizing and others suppressing these rights. Unlike broader notions of human rights, women's rights address a historical bias favoring men and boys in the exercise of rights.

Human rights: Human rights are moral principles protected by laws that apply universally to all people, regardless of their characteristics. They encompass fundamental rights inherent to all individuals, emphasizing equality and empathy. Upheld by the rule of law, they should only be infringed upon through a fair legal process.

Liberty: Liberty is the freedom individuals enjoy in society, where they are not burdened by authoritarian rules that limit their way of life, actions, or political opinions.

Social equality: Social equality refers to a societal condition where all individuals enjoy equal rights, freedoms, and status. This encompasses civil rights, freedom of expression, autonomy, and fair access to public goods and social services.

Minority group: A minority group refers to a smaller segment within a population. Typically, these groups have fewer people compared to the majority. They often lack power and influence compared to the larger group. The term can be applied in various contexts.

Political freedom: Political freedom is a crucial aspect in history and political thought, particularly in democratic societies. It encompasses the absence of oppression or coercion, the fulfillment of enabling conditions, and freedom from external and internal constraints on action. It involves the exercise of rights, capacities, and possibilities for action, as well as the protection of civil liberties and human rights by the state.

Race (human categorization): Race is a human categorization based on shared physical or social qualities within a society. It originated in the 16th century to refer to different kinds of groups and later encompassed physical traits and national affiliations. Modern science views race as a socially constructed identity, lacking inherent physical or biological significance. The concept of race is closely linked to racism, the belief in the superiority of one race over others.

Social stratification: Social stratification is the system where people are divided into groups based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, ethnicity, gender, occupation, social status, or power. It determines the relative social position of individuals in different categories or units within a society.

Slavery: Slavery is the ownership of a person as property for labor, with the slave's work and living arrangements controlled by the owner. Enslavement refers to the act of placing an individual into slavery, making them a slave or an enslaved person.

Caste: A caste is a social group someone is born into within a system of social hierarchy. Individuals are expected to marry within their caste, follow occupation-linked lifestyles, hold ritual rankings, and interact based on exclusionary cultural beliefs. The caste system is exemplified by India's division into rigid social groups, rooted in ancient history. While still present, its economic significance has declined due to urbanization and affirmative action. Sociologists and anthropologists study the Hindu caste system, which is also used as a basis for studying caste-like divisions outside Hinduism and India. The term "caste" also applies to social groupings in certain insects.

Caste system in India: The caste system in India is a social classification based on castes that originated in ancient India. It has evolved over time under different rulers, particularly after the collapse of the Mughal Empire and the establishment of the British Raj. Today, it serves as the basis for affirmative action programs enforced by the Indian constitution. The system comprises two key concepts, varna and jati, which offer different perspectives on its structure.

Social class: Social class refers to the division of people into hierarchical categories such as upper, middle, and lower classes. It is determined based on factors like education, wealth, occupation, income, and affiliation with specific subcultures or social networks.

Clergy: Clergy are leaders of established religions, overseeing rituals and teaching doctrines. They are known as clergyman, clergywoman, clergyperson, churchman, ecclesiastic, or cleric. The term clerk in holy orders has historical usage but is now uncommon.

Eunuch: A eunuch is a castrated male. Historically, castration had social implications.

Upper class: The upper class comprises the wealthiest and most influential individuals in society, holding high social status and significant political power. This class is characterized by immense inherited wealth, and in the past, aristocracy emphasized inherited noble status rather than just recent wealth.

Middle class: The middle class is a social group positioned between the highest and lowest in society, often characterized by their occupation, income, education, or social status. It is historically associated with modernity, capitalism, and political discussions. Defining the middle class can vary, from the middle fifth of income earners to excluding only the poorest and wealthiest 20%. Theories like the "Paradox of Interest" analyze wealth distribution and decile groups to assess the size and wealth share of the middle class.

Working class: The working class consists of employees who receive wages or salaries. They typically work in blue-collar and pink-collar occupations. They rely solely on income from their job and can encompass most of the workforce in industrialized economies and urban areas in non-industrialized or rural economies.

Underclass: The underclass refers to the most disadvantaged group in the class hierarchy, positioned below the working class.

Peasant: A peasant refers to a pre-industrial agricultural laborer or farmer during the Middle Ages in Europe. They typically had limited land ownership and paid rent, taxes, fees, or services to a landlord. Peasants can be classified into three categories: non-free slaves, semi-free serfs, and free tenants. They held land through various forms of land tenure such as socage, quit-rent, leasehold, or copyhold.

Discrimination: Discrimination refers to the unfair treatment of individuals based on their group membership or perceived characteristics, such as race, gender, age, religion, appearance, or sexual orientation. This prejudice often results in depriving one group of opportunities and privileges enjoyed by another group.

Class discrimination: Class discrimination, or classism, refers to prejudiced or discriminatory treatment based on social class. It encompasses biased attitudes, behaviors, and policies favoring the upper class while disadvantaging the lower class.

Genocide denial: Genocide denial is the act of downplaying or denying the extent and seriousness of a genocide. It involves efforts to hide evidence and spread propaganda during the genocide. Denial is considered a strong indicator of future genocidal acts, according to genocide researcher Gregory Stanton.

Homophobia: Homophobia is the term for negative attitudes and feelings towards homosexuality, including contempt, prejudice, aversion, hatred, and antipathy. It can stem from irrational fear and is sometimes influenced by religious beliefs.

Racism: Racism is discrimination and prejudice against people based on their race or ethnicity. It can be found in social actions, practices, or political systems that support discrimination. Racist ideology assumes distinct groups that can be ranked as superior or inferior. It can manifest in various aspects of social life, including nativism, xenophobia, segregation, and supremacism.

Sexism: Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on sex/gender, primarily affecting women/girls. It involves beliefs in superiority, fosters sexual violence, and leads to workplace inequality. It stems from societal customs/norms.

Sociology: Sociology is the scientific study of human society, focusing on social behavior, relationships, interaction, and culture. It is a part of social sciences and humanities, using empirical investigation and critical analysis to understand social order and change. It analyzes individual interactions and societal structures and can be applied to social policy and welfare. Moreover, sociological research examines social processes and uses phenomenological methods to gain a deep understanding.

Criminology: Criminology is the study of crime and deviant behavior, drawing on various disciplines such as sociology, psychology, law, and anthropology. It examines the administration of justice and the criminal justice system.

Demography: Demography is the study of human populations, focusing on their size, characteristics, and dynamics, including birth rates, death rates, and migration patterns.

Census: A census is a systematic procedure to gather population information about individuals in a given area. It is commonly used for national population and housing statistics but can also include other types such as agriculture, culture, business, supplies, and traffic censuses. The United Nations recommends that population censuses be conducted at least every ten years, with key features like individual enumeration, universality within a defined territory, simultaneity, and defined periodicity. UN guidelines also provide recommendations for census topics, official definitions, classifications, and international coordination.

Etiquette: Etiquette refers to the expected and accepted social behaviors in polite society. It encompasses a set of norms and an ethical code that aligns with the conventions and practices of a particular society, social class, or social group. The term "etiquette" originated from the French word "étiquette" in 1750.

Generation: A generation refers to people born and living at the same time. It represents a 20-30 year period when children grow up, become adults, and start having children. In kinship, it signifies the parent-child relationship and is related to biogenesis, reproduction, or procreation in biology.

Nature versus nurture: Nature versus nurture is a debate regarding the impact of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental conditions (nurture) on human development. The concept has a long history, dating back to medieval French. "Nature" refers to pre-wiring influenced by genetics, while "nurture" represents the influence of external factors such as exposure, experience, and learning after conception.

Peer pressure: Peer pressure is the influence peers have on each other in terms of beliefs, values, and behavior. It can be both positive and negative, as individuals may feel encouraged to conform to the attitudes and actions of their social group.

Power (social and political): Power, in social science and politics, refers to the ability to influence and control the capacities, actions, beliefs, or conduct of individuals. It goes beyond force and coercion and can be exerted through various means, including social structures and discursive elements.

Social change: Social change refers to the modification of a society's social order, encompassing alterations in institutions, behaviors, and relationships. When persistent on a larger scale, it can result in societal transformation.

Social control: Social control refers to the regulation of behavior in society through rules and standards. It involves the use of formalized mechanisms to keep individuals adhering to conventional norms. In sociology, the concept of social control contrasts with Foucault's disciplinary model but builds upon it.

Deviance (sociology): Deviance in sociology refers to actions that go against social norms, including both formal rules and informal behaviors. It encompasses negative and positive deviations from these norms. Even when a norm is violated, a behavior can still be considered positive or acceptable.

Social group: A social group is a collection of individuals who interact, share similarities, and feel a sense of unity. They come in various sizes and types, with societies being considered large social groups. The interactions and psychological processes within or between social groups are known as group dynamics.

Identity (social science): Identity refers to the distinguishing qualities, beliefs, traits, appearance, and expressions that define an individual or a collective. It encompasses various aspects that shape and characterize a person or a group.

Social reality: Social reality is a level of reality shaped by social interaction rather than biological or individual cognition. It transcends individual motives and actions and is formed through human dialogue. It consists of accepted social norms and stable laws within a community. Social reality is seen as the outcome of shared perspectives among observers.

Social research: Social research is systematic research conducted by social scientists. It can be classified into quantitative and qualitative methodologies. Quantitative designs rely on statistical analysis of many cases to create general claims, while qualitative designs focus on understanding social phenomena through direct observation, communication, and analysis of texts, emphasizing subjective accuracy.

Social theory: Social theory refers to analytical frameworks used by social scientists to study social phenomena. These theories help interpret historical debates and determine the reliability of different methodologies. They also examine the balance between structure and agency and the relationship between contingency and necessity. Informal social theory may be referred to as social criticism or commentary, often associated with cultural and literary scholarship, as well as journalistic forms of writing.

Socialization: Socialization, a sociological concept, involves internalizing societal norms and beliefs. It encompasses learning and teaching, serving as a means for cultural and social continuity attainment.

Sociological theory: Sociological theory is an approach that studies and interprets social phenomena by examining connections between various concepts. It aims to organize and substantiate sociological knowledge through complex theoretical frameworks and methodology.

Structure and agency: The term 'Structure and agency' refers to the ongoing debate in social sciences about the extent to which individuals are influenced by their social environment (structure) or have the ability to make independent choices (agency). Structure refers to the recurring patterns that impact choices, while agency represents the capacity of individuals to act freely. This debate revolves around determining whether individuals behave as autonomous agents or are primarily shaped by socialization.

Subculture: A subculture is a distinct group within a society that separates itself from mainstream values, embracing its own norms and values especially regarding culture, politics, and sexuality. Examples of subcultures include BDSM, hippies, goths, and punk. The concept of subcultures originated in sociology and cultural studies, and they are distinct from countercultures.

Money: Money is a widely accepted means of payment and debt repayment. It serves as a medium of exchange, unit of account, store of value, and occasionally as a standard for delayed payments.

Currency: Currency is a standardized form of money used as a medium of exchange, such as banknotes and coins. It is a system of money used within a specific environment over time. Examples include British Pound sterling (£), euros (€), Japanese yen (¥), and U.S. dollars (US$). Currencies can be traded between nations in foreign exchange markets and act as stores of value. They are chosen by users or decreed by governments, often with limited boundaries of acceptance. Legal tender laws may require specific units of account for payments to government agencies.

Banknote: A banknote, also known as a bill or paper money, is a type of negotiable promissory note issued by a bank or licensed authority. It is payable to the bearer upon demand. Originally, commercial banks issued banknotes, which were redeemable for legal tender. However, national banknotes issued by central banks have replaced commercial banknotes in most cases.

Coin: A coin is a small round object used as a medium of exchange. It is standardized in weight and produced in large quantities at a mint by a government. Coins often have images, numerals, or text on them. The front side is known as the obverse, commonly depicting a prominent person's head, while the back side is called the reverse or tails.

Exchange rate: An exchange rate is the rate at which currencies are exchanged. It determines the value of one currency in terms of another. This can be national currencies like the euro or sub-national currencies like Hong Kong dollar.

Euro: The euro, the official currency of the eurozone, is used in 20 European Union member states. With approximately 344 million citizens, it is divided into 100 euro cents.

Japanese yen: The Japanese yen is Japan's official currency and is third-most traded in the forex market, following the US dollar and the euro. It is also widely used as a third reserve currency.

Pound sterling: Pound sterling is the currency of the United Kingdom and its territories, with "pound" commonly used to refer to the British currency. It is also known as the British pound or the pound sterling internationally.

Renminbi: The renminbi (RMB) is China's official currency and the world's 5th most traded currency as of April 2022.

United States dollar: The US dollar is the official currency of the United States and other countries. It was established in 1792 and divided into 100 cents. US banknotes, known as greenbacks due to their green color, are issued as Federal Reserve Notes.

Bank: A bank is a financial institution that accepts public deposits, creates demand deposits, and grants loans directly or indirectly through capital markets.

Cheque: A cheque is a document that instructs a bank to pay a specified amount of money from the issuer's account to the named recipient. The issuer, known as the drawer, writes the amount, date, payee's name, and signs the cheque. The bank, called the drawee, is obligated to pay the stated amount to the payee.

Debit card: A debit card is a payment card that can be used instead of cash for purchases. It typically includes the bank's name, card number, cardholder's name, and expiration date. The card can be used by inserting it and entering a PIN or by contactless payment. Unlike a credit card, the purchase amount is immediately deducted from the cardholder's bank account.

Finance: Finance is the discipline that studies money, currency, and capital assets. It is distinct from economics but connected through financial economics. The field encompasses personal, corporate, and public finance within financial systems.

Interest: Interest is a payment made by a borrower to a lender that exceeds the amount borrowed, calculated at a set rate. It is different from fees and dividends, as it is predetermined and not based on profits or reserves.

Investment: Investment is the commitment of resources to obtain future benefits. It can specifically involve money being committed to generate more money later. Investments are made to optimize the flow of resources and expenses. Cash flow refers to the net monetary receipt within a specific time period, while a series of time periods with received money is called a cash flow stream.

Accounting: Accounting, or accountancy, involves processing information about businesses and corporations. It measures economic activities and communicates results to investors, creditors, management, and regulators. Accountants are the practitioners, and accounting and financial reporting are sometimes used interchangeably.

Insurance: Insurance is a financial safeguard where one party compensates another party for specific losses, damages, or injuries in exchange for a fee. It is a risk management tool that provides protection against uncertain or contingent losses.

Debt: Debt refers to the obligation of one party, the debtor, to repay money borrowed from another party, the creditor. It can be owed by nations, governments, companies, or individuals. Commercial debt follows specific repayment terms, and various financial instruments such as loans, bonds, notes, and mortgages represent different types of debt. In finance, debt is a distinct financial transaction when contrasted with equity.

Credit card: A credit card is a payment card that allows users to make purchases, withdraw cash, and accumulate debt, which must be repaid later. It is widely used globally and typically issued by banks.

Loan: A loan is the lending of money from one party to another, typically with interest, creating a debt that must be repaid.

Mortgage: A mortgage is a loan secured by real property, used by buyers to purchase real estate or by existing property owners to raise funds for any purpose. It involves the lender putting a lien on the property, allowing them to sell it if the borrower defaults on the loan. The term "mortgage" comes from an old British term meaning "death pledge," referring to the pledge ending when the obligation is fulfilled or the property is foreclosed. Essentially, it is a collateral given by the borrower to receive a loan.

Derivative (finance): A financial derivative is a contract tied to the performance of an underlying asset, index, or interest rate. Its main purposes include hedging against price movements, speculating on price changes, and gaining access to difficult-to-trade assets or markets.

Stock: Stocks represent ownership shares in a corporation, dividing ownership among shareholders. Owning a single share gives a fraction of ownership and entitlements to earnings, assets' liquidation, or voting power, based on the amount invested. Different classes of stock exist, varying in voting rights and priority to receive profits or liquidation proceeds.

Stock exchange: A stock exchange is a market where traders buy and sell securities such as stocks and bonds. It also facilitates the issuance and redemption of these financial instruments and organizes capital events like income and dividends. Stock exchanges function as continuous auction markets, where transactions occur through open outcry or electronic trading platforms. Various securities, including stocks, unit trusts, derivatives, and bonds, are traded on these exchanges.

New York Stock Exchange: The New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) is the world's largest stock exchange located in Lower Manhattan, New York City.

Bankruptcy: Bankruptcy is a legal process allowing individuals or entities in debt to seek relief from some or all of their debts. It is typically initiated by the debtor through a court order.

Business: Business is the act of earning a living or generating profit through the production and sale of goods or services. It encompasses any profit-driven activity or venture.

Capital (economics): Capital (economics) refers to durable goods used as inputs for further production. This includes machinery in factories and other assets such as buildings, equipment, software, and inventories. Capital is a key factor in economic growth and plays a crucial role in the production of goods and services.

E-commerce: E-commerce is the buying and selling of products online, utilizing technologies like mobile commerce, electronic funds transfer, and Internet marketing. It encompasses supply chain management, online transaction processing, and automated data collection systems. Being the largest sector of the electronics industry, it is strongly influenced by advancements in the semiconductor industry.

Logistics: Logistics is the management of the efficient flow of goods, services, and information from origin to consumption, meeting customer needs. It encompasses supply chain management, coordinating tangible goods like materials and equipment, as well as consumables.

Management: Management is the administration of organizations, including businesses, nonprofits, and government bodies. It involves overseeing resources and applying business, nonprofit, or public administration principles to ensure effective operations.

Monopoly: A monopoly is a market where only one person or enterprise supplies a specific thing. Unlike a monopsony, which is control of a market to buy goods, or an oligopoly/duopoly, which is dominated by a few sellers, a monopoly lacks economic competition and substitute goods. It can charge a high price and gain high profits, leading to a decrease in social surplus. Monopolies gain the ability to raise prices and exclude competitors. Size is not a characteristic of a monopoly; even small businesses can have the power to raise prices in a small industry.

Pension: A pension is a fund where individuals contribute regularly during their working career to support their retirement. There are two types: defined benefit plans, where periodic payments are made in retirement with additional contributions from the sponsor if needed, and defined contribution plans, where individuals make regular payments during their working life and receive retirement payments based on the fund's value.

Perfect competition: Perfect competition is a term used in economics to describe an ideal market where specific conditions are met for optimal competition. This includes equal supply and demand at the current price, resulting in an equilibrium known as a Pareto optimum.

Productivity: Productivity refers to the efficiency of producing goods or services, usually measured as a ratio of output to input over a specific period. One common example is labor productivity, such as GDP per worker. Various definitions exist depending on the purpose and available data. Differences in productivity measures usually stem from how outputs and inputs are aggregated.

Property: Property refers to a system of rights granting legal control over valuable things. Owners have the freedom to use, alter, share, rent, sell, or destroy their property, or to exclude others from doing so. These rights are granted by law and enable owners to properly utilize their property.

Real estate: Real estate refers to land, buildings, natural resources, and the ownership rights associated with them. It distinguishes from personal property and encompasses one's interest in land.

Trade: Trade is the exchange of goods and services between individuals or entities, commonly involving money. Economists define trade as a market system or network that facilitates this exchange.

International trade: International trade is the global exchange of capital, goods, and services due to demand or desire for products from different countries or regions.

Protectionism: Protectionism is an economic policy that limits imports using tactics like tariffs and quotas. Supporters believe it protects local industries and generates revenue for the government. Critics argue that it hinders trade, hurts consumers, and impacts export sectors in both the implementing and targeted countries.

Company: A company is a legal entity where individuals or organizations come together with a specific objective. Members of a company share a common purpose and work towards specific goals. Companies can take different forms like voluntary associations, business entities, financial entities, or educational institutions. The main aims of companies are generating sales, revenue, profit, or serving a non-profit cause.

Corporation: A corporation is a legal entity authorized by the state that acts as a single organization. It can be created through registration and is classified based on its ability to issue stock and make a profit. Corporations can have multiple owners or be owned by a single person.

Multinational corporation: A multinational corporation (MNC) is a company that produces goods or services in at least one country other than its home country. Control over production is a distinguishing aspect of MNCs. They are also known as multinational enterprises or transnational corporations. MNCs generate significant revenue from operations outside their home country.

Partnership: A partnership is a cooperative arrangement where individuals, businesses, or organizations join forces to pursue shared interests and goals. It can involve issuing equity or be solely governed by a contract. Partnerships are formed to enhance the likelihood of success and broaden their impact.

Agriculture: Agriculture comprises crop and livestock production, aquaculture, fisheries, and forestry for food and non-food products. It played a vital role in the development of settled human societies by creating food surpluses through farming domesticated species. Grain gathering began 105,000 years ago, while farming started around 11,500 years ago. Domestication of animals like sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle occurred 10,000 years ago. Cultivation of plants took place independently in at least 11 regions. Industrial agriculture with large-scale monocultures became dominant in the 20th century.

Construction: Construction is the process of creating objects, systems, or organizations. It involves building and the structure of something. The term comes from Latin and Old French, and refers to the art and science of forming.

Energy industry: The energy industry encompasses all activities related to energy production, distribution, and sales. It includes fuel extraction, manufacturing, refining, and distribution. This industry plays a vital role in maintaining and supporting modern societies worldwide, as it satisfies the substantial energy demands needed for their functionality.

Fishing industry: The fishing industry encompasses all activities related to fish harvesting, processing, and selling. This includes recreational, subsistence, and commercial fishing, as well as the associated sectors like processing and marketing. Over 500 million people in developing countries rely on fisheries and aquaculture for their livelihood.

Forestry: Forestry is the science of managing and preserving forests for human and environmental benefits. It includes creating, planting, conserving, and repairing forests as well as managing both plantations and natural stands. Forest management affects habitats and ecosystem services.

Fur trade: The fur trade is a global industry that involves the buying and selling of animal fur. It has been particularly focused on furs from boreal, polar, and cold temperate mammals. This trade played a crucial role in the exploration and colonization of Siberia, northern North America, and the South Shetland and South Sandwich Islands.

Hunting: Hunting is the practice of pursuing and capturing wildlife for various reasons. It is commonly done for obtaining food and useful animal products, as well as for recreational purposes like taxidermy. Hunting can also serve non-exploitative purposes such as eliminating dangerous predators, controlling pests that harm crops and spread diseases, and contributing to ecological conservation against overpopulation and invasive species.

Fishing: Fishing is the act of catching fish, either from natural habitats or stocked waters. It involves various techniques like hand-gathering, spearing, netting, angling, shooting, and trapping. While some methods are destructive and illegal, such as electrocution, blasting, and poisoning, fishing is generally a wildlife activity enjoyed in different environments.

Whaling: Whaling is the hunting of whales for their valuable products like meat and oil, which played a crucial role during the Industrial Revolution. It began as an organized industry around 875 AD and became the main trade in Basque coastal regions by the 16th century. As the industry expanded globally, certain whale-rich areas became targets for whaling ships, leading to immense profits and resources. However, the excessive hunting pushed some whale species to near extinction. As a result, whaling was banned in many countries by 1969 and eventually ceased internationally in the late 1980s.

Manufacturing: Manufacturing is the process of producing goods using equipment, machines, labor, and chemical or biological processes. It is a vital part of the secondary sector of the economy and involves the transformation of raw materials into finished goods on a large scale. These goods can be sold to other manufacturers or distributed to end users and consumers through the tertiary industry.

Aerospace manufacturer: An aerospace manufacturer is involved in designing, building, testing, selling, and maintaining aircraft, parts, missiles, rockets, or spacecraft. It is a high-tech industry.

Automotive industry: The automotive industry includes numerous companies involved in the complete lifecycle of motor vehicles - from design to manufacturing, marketing, sales, repair, and modification. It is a massive global industry known for generating substantial revenue.

Chemical industry: The chemical industry produces industrial, specialty, and other chemicals by converting raw materials. It plays a central role in the world economy by providing commodity chemicals for industrial and consumer products. This industry encompasses petrochemicals, inorganic chemicals, agricultural chemicals, and other categories such as industrial gases, specialty chemicals, and pharmaceuticals.

Clothing industry: The clothing industry encompasses various trade and industrial sectors involved in the production and distribution of clothing, including textiles, fashion, apparel retailers, second-hand clothing, and textile recycling. It relies on advanced clothing technology such as the loom, cotton gin, and sewing machine, leading to industrialization. It is also referred to as allied, fashion, garment, or soft goods industry.

Food industry: The food industry is a diverse global network of businesses that supplies most of the world's food. It ranges from small, traditional family-run activities to large, mechanized industrial processes. Local agriculture, animal farming, produce, and fishing are important for many food industries.

Textile manufacturing: Textile manufacturing involves transforming fibers into yarn, then yarn into fabric. The fabric is dyed or printed and then used for various purposes like clothing, household items, upholstery, and industrial products.

Mining: Mining is the process of extracting valuable materials from the Earth's surface, including metals, coal, gemstones, and more. It is necessary for obtaining materials that cannot be grown or created in other ways. Mining also includes extracting non-renewable resources like petroleum, natural gas, and water.

Employment: Employment is a paid labor relationship between two parties, the employer and the employee. It is often based on a contract and involves the employer compensating the employee for assigned work. The employee receives wages, which can be hourly, piecework-based, or annual salary, depending on the job, sector conditions, and negotiation power. Additional benefits like health insurance, housing, and disability insurance may be provided. Employment is regulated by employment laws, organizations, or legal contracts.

Domestic worker: A domestic worker is someone who works within a residence and provides various household services, including cleaning, cooking, care for children and the elderly, and other household errands. They are also referred to as domestic servants and are traditionally known as being "in service" in English contexts.

Layoff: A layoff is the suspension or termination of employment for business reasons, affecting one or more employees. Originally temporary, it now refers to permanent elimination of a position. It is distinct from wrongful termination. Downsizing is reducing the number of employees in a company to improve shareholder value. Layoffs are often used as cost-cutting measures. Research shows that layoff announcements can increase a company's stock prices, providing motivation for regular layoffs among publicly-traded corporations.

Retirement: Retirement refers to the act of leaving one's job or reducing work hours to conclude an active professional life.

Unemployment: Unemployment refers to individuals of a specific age who are not employed or self-employed, but are actively seeking work during a particular period, as defined by the OECD.

Wage: A wage is payment from an employer to an employee for work done in a specific time period. It includes minimum wage, prevailing wage, bonuses, prizes, and tips. Wages are an expense for businesses and an employee's right, irrespective of company profitability.

Work (human activity): Work or labor is intentional human activity that supports the needs and wants of individuals, others, or the community. It is a key economic factor contributing to the production of goods and services within an economy.

Marketing: Marketing is the core business activity that involves finding customers and providing them with desired goods and services. It encompasses creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging products to satisfy and keep customers.

Advertising: Advertising is the strategic practice of gaining attention for a product or service. Its main purpose is to highlight and attract consumer interest, usually through commercial advertisements. While primarily used for promoting specific goods or services, advertising has a wide range of applications.

Brand: A brand is a distinctive name, design, symbol, or feature that separates one seller's product or service from others. It plays a vital role in business, marketing, and advertising, fostering recognition and creating value known as brand equity. This benefits the brand's customers, owners, and shareholders. Additionally, brand names are often differentiated from generic or store brands.

Retail: Retail refers to the sale of goods and services directly to consumers, as opposed to selling to businesses or institutions. Retailers obtain products in bulk from manufacturers or wholesalers and sell them in smaller quantities to make a profit. They are the last step in the supply chain, connecting producers to consumers.

Shopping mall: A shopping mall is a large indoor shopping center, primarily anchored by department stores. Originally, the term "mall" referred to a pedestrian promenade with shops, but in the late 1960s, it became a common phrase for enclosed shopping centers. In the UK, these complexes are called shopping centres, whereas the term "shopping center" in North America covers a wider range. Usage varies in different countries. In Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, "mall" may be informally used, but the complex's name will typically include "shopping centre" or simply "centre."

Supermarket: A supermarket is a self-service shop with a large selection of food, drinks, and household items. It is smaller than a hypermarket but offers more options than earlier grocery stores. In everyday U.S. usage, "grocery store" is often used interchangeably with "supermarket."

Sales: Sales refer to the process of selling goods or services within a specific timeframe. It encompasses the number of items sold and can also include the provision of services for a fee. Additionally, a "sale" can refer to a temporary period of reduced prices for goods.

Tax: Tax is a mandatory charge imposed by governments on taxpayers to collectively fund public spending, regulate negative externalities, and reduce them. Tax compliance ensures correct payment, allowances, and relief. Taxation dates back to Ancient Egypt. Taxes can be direct or indirect and can be paid in money or labor.

Income tax: Income tax is a tax imposed on individuals or entities based on their income or profits. It is calculated by multiplying a tax rate with taxable income. Rates may differ based on the taxpayer's characteristics and the type of income.

Property tax: Property tax is a tax on the value of a property. It is an ad valorem tax that applies to real estate.

Sales tax: Sales tax is a payment added to the price of goods and services, collected by the seller on behalf of the government at the time of purchase.

Value-added tax: A value-added tax (VAT) or goods and services tax (GST) is an incremental tax levied at each stage of production, distribution, or sale. It is imposed on the price of a product or service and can be reclaimed by businesses. VAT is similar to sales tax but is an indirect tax where the burden may be different from the person paying it.

Teacher: A teacher, also known as a schoolteacher or educator, guides students in gaining knowledge, skills, and values through the act of teaching.

Economics: Economics studies how goods and services are created, shared, and used in society.

Econometrics: Econometrics is the statistical analysis of economic data to establish empirical connections between economic relationships. It combines theory and observation to quantitatively analyze real economic phenomena using appropriate inference methods. Economists use econometrics to extract simple relationships from large amounts of data. Jan Tinbergen and Ragnar Frisch are founding fathers of econometrics, with Frisch being the one to coin the term as it is known today.

Economic growth: Economic growth refers to the rise in value of goods and services produced by an economy over a year. It is measured as the percentage increase in real and nominal GDP.

Goods: Goods are items that satisfy human desires and provide utility. They can be transferred from one person to another. This distinguishes them from services, which cannot be transferred.

Gross domestic product: Gross domestic product (GDP) is a monetary measure of a country's total market value of final goods and services produced within a specific time period. It is primarily used by governments to evaluate the economic health of a nation. However, due to its complex and subjective nature, GDP often requires revisions to become a reliable indicator.

Inflation: Inflation is an economic term referring to a general increase in prices of goods and services, measured by the consumer price index (CPI). It leads to reduced purchasing power of money. The opposite of inflation is deflation. The inflation rate is a common measure, indicating the annualized percentage change in a general price index. The consumer price index (CPI) is often used to track inflation as prices vary for households.

Deflation: Deflation is an economic phenomenon characterized by a decline in the overall price level of goods and services. It occurs when the inflation rate drops below 0% and is different from disinflation, which is a slowdown in the inflation rate. Contrary to inflation, deflation increases the value of currency, allowing for the purchase of more goods and services with the same amount of money.

Labour economics: Labour economics investigates the mechanisms of wage labour markets, analyzing the supply of labour by workers and its demand by firms. It encompasses the social, cultural, and political elements that shape labourers' participation in these markets.

Macroeconomics: Macroeconomics is an economic branch that studies the overall performance, structure, and decision-making of entire economies. It covers topics such as GDP, unemployment, inflation, consumption, investment, trade, and finance on regional, national, and global scales.

Market (economics): A market is a system where parties exchange goods and services. Prices are established and resources are distributed through markets. They allow for the evaluation and pricing of any tradeable item. Markets can emerge spontaneously or be intentionally created by human interaction. Customary rules and customs maintain markets, such as competitive pricing and sources for goods. They replace gift economies.

Black market: A black market refers to an illegal or underground economy that operates outside the boundaries of established rules and regulations. It involves transactions that are prohibited by law or non-compliant with institutional guidelines. Examples include illegal drug trade, prostitution, currency trafficking, and human trafficking. Engaging in the production or distribution of prohibited goods and services makes individuals part of this illegal economy. The evasion of income tax also falls under the black market, known as the unreported economy.

Market failure: Market failure refers to a situation where a free market's allocation of goods and services is not efficient, resulting in a loss of economic value. It occurs when individuals' pursuit of self-interest leads to outcomes that can be improved from a societal perspective. The term was first used by economists in 1958 but traces back to the philosopher Henry Sidgwick. Market failures are commonly linked to public goods, information disparities, non-competitive markets, principal-agent issues, or externalities.

Microeconomics: Microeconomics studies the decisions made by individuals and firms in allocating limited resources. It examines the interactions within markets, sectors, or industries, rather than the overall national economy, which is the focus of macroeconomics.

Service (economics): A service in economics refers to an act or use that individuals or organizations are willing to pay for. Examples include professions such as doctors, lawyers, mechanics, and banks. Public services are paid for by society as a whole. Service providers use resources, skill, and experience to provide value to customers through intangible acts or performances.

Subsidy: A subsidy is a government expenditure aimed at stabilizing the economy through support for individuals, households, and businesses. It ensures access to essential goods and services for individuals and helps businesses stay afloat and competitive. Subsidies also facilitate long-term economic stability and enable governments to respond to economic shocks, like the COVID-19 pandemic.

Supply and demand: Supply and demand is an economic model that explains how prices are determined in a market. It states that in a competitive market, the price of a good will adjust until the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied, leading to an equilibrium. This concept is the foundation of modern economics.

Economy: An economy encompasses the production, distribution, and trade of goods and services. It is a social domain involving the use and management of scarce resources. Factors such as culture, education, technology, history, and natural resources shape an economy. It is a network of human practices and transactions that cannot exist independently.

Economy of China: China has an upper middle income, mixed, socialist market economy with strategic five-year plans. It is the second largest economy globally by GDP and the largest by purchasing power parity since 2016. China's GDP fluctuates due to currency exchange rates. In 2022, it accounted for around 19% of the global economy. China historically had a strong economy for much of the past 2,000 years. Its economy includes public and state-owned enterprises, a large private sector, and welcomes foreign businesses. Economic growth is driven by private investment, exports, and domestic consumption.

Economy of the European Union: The European Union (EU) has the second largest economy in the world after the United States in terms of nominal GDP and the third largest in terms of purchasing power. The EU's GDP is estimated to be about $19.35 trillion in 2024, comprising about one sixth of the global economy. Among EU countries, Germany has the largest national GDP, followed by France and Italy.

Economy of the United States: The US has the world's largest and highly developed mixed economy. It leads in nominal GDP and is second in purchasing power parity (PPP). Its per capita GDP ranks seventh (nominal) and eighth (PPP). The US accounts for 25.4% of the global economy (nominal) and 15.6% (PPP). The US dollar is the most widely used international currency and is backed by a strong treasuries market, serving as the reserve currency. It is also adopted as official or de facto currency by several nations.

Alibaba Group: Alibaba Group is a Chinese multinational technology company that specializes in e-commerce and other internet-related services. It was founded in 1999 and offers consumer-to-consumer, business-to-consumer, and business-to-business sales services through its marketplaces. The company also provides logistics, cloud computing, and digital media services. Alibaba Group operates globally and owns a diverse range of companies across various industries.

Amazon (company): Amazon.com, Inc. is a prominent American multinational technology company known for its e-commerce, cloud computing, digital streaming, online advertising, and artificial intelligence initiatives. It holds a place among the top five big technology companies in the United States, together with Alphabet, Apple, Meta, and Microsoft.

Apple Inc.: Apple Inc. is a tech giant based in Silicon Valley that designs, develops, and sells a range of consumer electronics and software applications. Their iconic devices include the iPhone, iPad, Mac, Apple Watch, and Apple TV. They also provide popular software services like iTunes, iCloud, and Apple Music.

AT&T: AT&T is a major American telecom holding company headquartered in Dallas. It is the world's fourth-largest telecom firm by revenue and the biggest wireless provider in the US. As of 2023, AT&T ranked 13th on the Fortune 500 list, generating $120.7 billion in revenue.

IBM: IBM, or International Business Machines Corporation, is a renowned American multinational technology company based in New York. It operates in over 175 countries and specializes in computer hardware, software, and consulting services. With 19 research facilities worldwide, IBM holds the record for the most U.S. patents generated by a business for 29 consecutive years from 1993 to 2021.

Microsoft: Microsoft is a multinational technology corporation that is headquartered in Redmond, Washington. It is known for its Windows operating systems, Microsoft 365 suite, and Edge web browser. Additionally, Microsoft produces Xbox game consoles and the Microsoft Surface line of personal computers. With a high ranking in the Fortune 500, it is the world's leading software maker and a prominent member of the Big Five American technology companies.

Samsung: Samsung is a South Korean conglomerate known for manufacturing a wide range of products. It is the largest South Korean chaebol, with affiliated businesses operating under the Samsung brand. The company is headquartered in Samsung Digital City, Suwon. As of 2020, Samsung has the eighth-highest global brand value.

McDonald's: McDonald's is an American fast food chain founded in 1940 by Richard and Maurice McDonald. It started as a hamburger stand in San Bernardino, California, and later became a franchise. The iconic Golden Arches logo was introduced in 1953. In 1955, Ray Kroc joined the company and eventually bought it out. McDonald's is headquartered in Chicago since 2018. Apart from its food business, it operates as a real estate company, owning 70% of restaurant buildings and 45% of the land they stand on.

Nestlé: Nestlé is a Swiss multinational food and drink corporation, known for its impressive revenue and global presence. This conglomerate, headquartered in Vevey, Switzerland, has been the largest publicly held food company since 2014. It holds a prominent position on lists like Fortune Global 500 and Forbes Global 2000.

General Electric: General Electric (GE) is a prominent American conglomerate, founded in 1892 and based in Boston. With diverse divisions in aerospace, power, renewable energy, digital industry, additive manufacturing, and venture capital and finance, GE is an influential multinational company.

Nintendo: Nintendo is a leading Japanese video game company that creates and sells video games and game consoles from its headquarters in Kyoto.

The Walt Disney Company: The Walt Disney Company, commonly known as Disney, is a multinational entertainment conglomerate headquartered in California. Founded in 1923 by brothers Walt Disney and Roy Disney, it started as Disney Brothers Studio before changing its name in 1986. Disney became a leader in animation with the groundbreaking film Steamboat Willie in 1928, which introduced Mickey Mouse and established Disney's iconic status.

Standard Oil: Standard Oil was an American oil company that operated from 1870 to 1911. Founded by John D. Rockefeller, it became the world's largest petroleum company and made Rockefeller immensely wealthy. However, it was dismantled by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1911 for being an illegal monopoly.

Walmart: Walmart is a US-based multinational retail corporation, founded in 1962 by Sam and James "Bud" Walton. It runs hypermarkets, discount stores, and grocery stores, with headquarters in Bentonville, Arkansas. Walmart also owns Sam's Club warehouses.

Ford Motor Company: Ford Motor Company, an American multinational automaker founded by Henry Ford in 1903, is headquartered in Dearborn, Michigan. The company offers a range of automobiles and commercial vehicles under the Ford and Lincoln brands. It also holds a 32% stake in China's Jiangling Motors and has joint ventures in China, Taiwan, Thailand, and Turkey. Ford is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is primarily controlled by the Ford family, who possess the majority of the voting power.

General Motors: General Motors (GM) is an American automotive manufacturing company based in Detroit, Michigan. It owns and manufactures well-known brands such as Chevrolet, GMC, Cadillac, and Buick. GM held the title of the largest automaker worldwide for 77 years until 2008 when Toyota surpassed it. In 2022, GM continued to be the leading automaker in the United States based on sales.

Toyota: Toyota is a Japanese multinational automotive manufacturer that was founded in 1937. It is headquartered in Toyota City, Aichi, Japan. As the largest automobile manufacturer globally, Toyota produces approximately 10 million vehicles annually.

Volkswagen: Volkswagen, a German automobile manufacturer, was founded in 1937 by the Nazi Party. After World War II, it was revived by Ivan Hirst and became a global brand. Known for its iconic Beetle, Volkswagen is the flagship brand of the largest automotive manufacturer, the Volkswagen Group. Its name derives from the German terms for "people's car." Its biggest market is in China, accounting for 40% of its sales and profits.

Airline: An airline is a company that transports passengers and/or freight using aircraft. They often form partnerships with other airlines for codeshare agreements. Airlines need to obtain an air operating certificate or license from a governmental aviation body. They can operate scheduled or charter flights.

Law: Law is a set of enforceable rules created by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. It can be described as a science and an art of justice, its definition has been debated. Laws can be made by legislatures, executives, or established by judges through precedent. Individuals can create legally binding contracts and alternative dispute resolution methods. Laws are influenced by constitutions and shape politics, economics, history and society while mediating relations between people.

Impartiality: Impartiality is a principle of justice that requires decisions to be made based on objective criteria, rather than personal bias or prejudice, ensuring fairness and equality by treating everyone equally without improper favoritism or discrimination.

Jurisprudence: Jurisprudence is the study of law's philosophy and theory, exploring what the law is and should be. It examines legal terms regarding individuals and society, as well as the values within the law. Jurisprudence encompasses various disciplines like sociology, history, politics, and economics.

Statutory interpretation: Statutory interpretation is the process of how courts interpret and apply laws. It is necessary when a case involves a statute that may have ambiguity. Judges use various tools and methods, such as traditional canons, legislative history, and purpose, to find the meanings of statutes. This process applies to both legislation made by the legislature and delegated legislation by administrative agencies in common law jurisdictions.

Justice: Justice refers to treating individuals fairly and equitably. It encompasses the idea that everyone should receive fair treatment.

Witness: A witness, in law, is a person who provides testimonial evidence, either willingly or under force, about their knowledge or claims. This evidence can be given orally or in written form.

Capital punishment: Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is the state-sanctioned practice of killing a person as punishment for a crime. It involves following a regulated process to determine the person's guilt. The punishment is usually ordered through a death sentence, and the act of carrying it out is called an execution. Offenders awaiting execution are commonly referred to as being "on death row". The term capital comes from execution by beheading, but various methods like hanging, shooting, lethal injection, stoning, electrocution, and gassing are employed.

Alternative dispute resolution: Alternative dispute resolution (ADR) refers to various techniques and processes that disputing parties use to resolve conflicts with assistance from a neutral third party. It is an effective alternative to litigation when parties cannot agree. ADR is increasingly being utilized within the court system for settling disputes.

Constitution: A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or precedents that establish the legal foundation of a polity, organization, or entity. It outlines the governance structure and methods of the said entity.

Customary law: Customary law is the practice of behavior within a society that can be proven, and is used as a defense based on long-standing acceptance and conformity with the law.

Precedent: Precedent is an authoritative principle established in a legal case that guides future court decisions on similar legal issues or facts. The doctrine of stare decisis requires courts to adhere to precedent.

Rights: Rights are fundamental principles that grant freedom and entitlements. These principles dictate what individuals are allowed to do or are owed by a legal system, social convention, or ethical theory. Rights hold paramount importance in areas including law and ethics, particularly in theories of justice and deontology.

Civil and political rights: Civil and political rights protect individuals' freedom from infringement by governments, organizations, and individuals, guaranteeing their participation in society and the state.

Presumption of innocence: The presumption of innocence is a legal principle where individuals accused of a crime are considered innocent until proven guilty. The burden of proof lies with the prosecution, who must provide compelling evidence for conviction. If the charges are not proven, the accused is acquitted. In most cases, the prosecution must prove guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. The opposite system is a presumption of guilt.

Suffrage: Suffrage, also known as franchise, is the right to vote in public elections and referendums. It encompasses active suffrage (voting) and passive suffrage (running for office), and the combination of both is called full suffrage.

Women's suffrage: Women's suffrage is the fight for women's right to vote. It gained momentum in the 18th century with the aim to change voting laws and grant women this right. Liberal political parties recognized the potential of including women in their constituencies and granted them the right to vote. To coordinate efforts worldwide, organizations like the International Woman Suffrage Alliance formed.

Administrative law: Administrative law governs executive branch agencies, including rule making, adjudication, and law enforcement. It is a branch of public law.

Passport: A passport is an official travel document issued by a government, certifying the holder's identity and nationality for international travel. It contains personal information such as full name, photograph, place and date of birth, and signature. Passports make it easier for individuals to travel to and from foreign countries and provide access to consular assistance. While usually issued by national governments, some subnational governments can also issue passports to citizens residing within their borders.

Civil law (legal system): Civil law is a legal system based on Roman and French law that is used in many countries. It is codified into a referable system and serves as the primary source of law. It is different from common law, which is based on judge-made decisions.

Common law: Common law refers to the body of law established by judges and quasi-judicial tribunals through written opinions. It is a legal system where precedent and decisions are important for future cases.

Criminal law: "Criminal law pertains to legal systems of different areas, distinct from civil law, as it primarily focuses on punishment and rehabilitation rather than resolving disputes and compensating victims."

Equity (law): Equity is a body of law developed in the English Court of Chancery to address legal cases where common law is inadequate. It has its own distinct rules and principles and was administered by separate courts.

Injunction: An injunction is a special court order that forces a party to either do or stop doing certain acts. Failure to comply with an injunction can result in criminal or civil penalties, including fines and imprisonment. It is a powerful remedy that allows a court to control a party's behavior.

Evidence (law): The law of evidence governs the proof of facts in legal proceedings. It determines what evidence is considered by the judge or jury when making decisions. The rules depend on the type of court and jurisdiction, and involve the amount, quality, and type of proof needed to win a case.

Property law: Property law is a legal domain that regulates ownership of real (land) and personal property. It encompasses resources like land, personal belongings, and intellectual property. Ownership can be transferred through contracts, and legal action can be taken under tort law to safeguard property rights.

Inheritance: Inheritance refers to the receiving of property, titles, debts, privileges, rights, and obligations after someone's death. Rules for inheritance vary across societies and have evolved. A person can officially pass on their property and debts through a will or other legitimate methods.

Tort: A tort is a civil wrong that causes harm or loss and leads to legal responsibility for the person who commits the act. It differs from criminal law as it aims to compensate individuals rather than punish them. Tort law applies even without a contract, unlike contract law.

Negligence: Negligence refers to a lack of appropriate care in specific circumstances. It is a legal concept in tort law, involving harm caused by failure to act responsibly, often with extenuating factors. The key idea is that individuals should exercise reasonable care by considering potential harm to others or their property.

Damages: Damages are a monetary award given to compensate for loss or injury. To receive damages, the claimant must prove a breach of duty resulting in foreseeable loss. The loss must be related to property, mental or physical harm, as pure economic loss is typically not considered.

Contract: A contract is a legally enforceable agreement between two or more parties, involving the transfer of goods, services, money, or future promises. Breach of contract can lead to damages or equitable remedies. In international law, a binding agreement is called a treaty.

Intellectual property: Intellectual property (IP) refers to intangible creations of the human intellect, encompassing patents, copyrights, trademarks, and trade secrets. The concept originated in England in the 17th and 18th centuries, with the term "intellectual property" gaining popularity in the 19th century. It has now become a prevalent aspect of legal systems worldwide.

Copyright: Copyright is a form of intellectual property that grants the creator or owner exclusive rights to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform their original work. It protects creative works like literature, art, education, and music for a limited time. However, it doesn't protect ideas themselves. Certain limitations, such as fair use, are in place based on public interest considerations.

Patent: A patent is a form of intellectual property that grants its owner exclusive rights to an invention. These rights allow the owner to prevent others from making, using, or selling the invention for a specific period of time. In exchange for these rights, the owner must disclose details about the invention. Patent rights are enforced through private legal action by the owner against those who infringe upon them.

International law: International law is a collection of rules and standards recognized as binding between nations. It covers various areas such as war, diplomacy, economics, and human rights. Unlike domestic laws, it mainly applies to states rather than individuals and operates based on consent. While states can choose not to follow international law or breach treaties, such violations can face condemnation and even result in measures like sanctions or war.

Law of war: The law of war is a part of international law that sets rules for starting wars and how conflicts are carried out. It establishes guidelines for sovereignty, nations, territories, occupation, and other important legal terms.

Religious law: Religious law refers to the ethical and moral codes taught by religious traditions. It varies in importance across different religious systems, with some being antinomian and others legalistic. Religions like Judaism, Islam, and the Baháʼí Faith emphasize the need for revealed positive law in both state and society. Conversely, Christianity generally rejects the necessity of such laws and prioritizes eternal moral precepts over civil, ceremonial, or judicial aspects.

Statutory law: Statutory law is written legislation passed by a legislature, contrasting oral or customary law and regulatory law. It originates from national, state, or local governments.

Trust (law): A trust is a legal relationship where a person gives property to someone else, who must use it for the benefit of another person or group. In English law, the person giving the property is the "settlor," the recipient is the "trustee," the beneficiary is the person benefiting, and the property is the "corpus" or "trust property." Testamentary trusts are made through wills after the settlor's death, while inter vivos trusts are made during the settlor's lifetime with a trust document. Trusts can be revocable or irrevocable, with irrevocable trusts being able to be canceled through a court process or with consent from the settlor and beneficiaries.

Will and testament: A will is a legal document stating a person's preferences for the distribution of their property after death. It also designates an executor to manage the property until it is distributed. In cases where no will exists, inheritance laws and intestacy come into play to determine property distribution.

Court: A court is a government institution with the authority to resolve legal disputes and administer justice in civil, criminal, and administrative matters. It is the primary means of dispute resolution in legal systems and guarantees the right for individuals to bring their claims before it. Defendants also have the right to present their defense in court.

Judiciary: The judiciary is a court system that settles legal disputes and interprets, defends, and enforces the law in legal cases.

Rule of law: The rule of law means that all individuals and institutions, including lawmakers and leaders, are bound by the same laws. It emphasizes that no one is above the law. It is related to constitutionalism and refers to a political situation, rather than a specific legal rule. The rule of law ensures equality before the law, prevents arbitrary use of power, and supports a nonarbitrary form of government.

Jury: A jury is a group of sworn individuals who listen to evidence, make an impartial decision, and officially submit their verdict or judgment handed down by a court.

Police: The police are a state-sanctioned body that enforces laws, protects citizens and their belongings, prevents crime and disorder, and maintains safety and health. They possess the authority to make arrests and use force as allowed by the state. Police forces operate within defined legal boundaries and are distinct from the military. They are typically funded through taxes and provide public sector services.

Security: Security refers to protection and resilience against potential harm caused by others. It restrains others from acting freely and safeguards individuals, groups, and objects vulnerable to unwanted change.

Judge: A judge presides over court proceedings, either alone or with other judges. They listen to witnesses, evaluate evidence and arguments presented by lawyers, and make rulings based on their interpretation of the law. Judges are expected to be impartial and usually conduct trials in open court.

Lawyer: A lawyer is a legal professional who practices law, with various roles and functions in different legal systems. They can be advocates, attorneys, barristers, or legal executives, among others. Their work involves applying legal knowledge to solve specific problems and advancing the interests of the law and legal profession.

Crime: A crime is an unlawful act that can be punished by the government or other authority. There is no universal definition, but it is generally considered as an act that harms individuals, communities, societies, or the state, and is forbidden and punishable by law.

Organized crime: Organized crime refers to centralized enterprises engaging in illegal activities, often for profit. It includes various groups, such as terrorist organizations and rebel forces, driven by political motivations. These criminal organizations commonly rely on fear, adopt authoritarian tactics, and may cater to demand for illegal goods or banned services. Extortion and control tactics, like protection money, are used to force compliance. Street gangs can also be considered organized crime groups. Terms like mafia, mob, syndicate, or outfit are used to describe these criminal networks, known as the underworld or gangland. The Mafia's economic study influenced research on Russian mafia, Chinese triads, Hong Kong triads, and Japanese yakuza.

Gang: A gang is a group of people with leadership and organization that asserts control over a specific territory and engages in illegal and often violent activities. These activities are frequently considered organized crime.

Domestic violence: Domestic violence encompasses abuse within personal relationships and households. It can occur between partners, former spouses, parents, children, or the elderly. This abuse takes various forms, such as physical, verbal, emotional, economic, religious, reproductive, financial, and sexual. It ranges from subtle manipulation to severe acts like rape, acid attacks, and even murder. The use of technology for harassment or stalking is also part of this issue. The definition of domestic violence has been expanded to include coercive control.

Assault: Assault is the illegal act of causing physical harm or unwanted physical contact, or the threat to do so. It can lead to criminal prosecution, civil liability, or both. Assault can involve using a weapon or range from physical violence to threats of violence. It is commonly referred to as an attempt to commit battery. Depending on the severity, it carries penalties such as fines, imprisonment, or death.

Battery (crime): Battery is a criminal offense that involves unlawful physical contact, differentiating it from assault. Unlike assault, which creates fear or apprehension of physical contact, battery refers to the actual act of physically touching someone unlawfully.

Kidnapping: Kidnapping is the illegal act of forcefully abducting and detaining someone against their will. It may involve the use of force, fear, or simply enticing the victim.

Homicide: Homicide refers to an act causing the death of another person, which can include accidental, reckless, or negligent actions without intent to cause harm. It encompasses various legal categories like murder, manslaughter, justifiable homicide, assassination, killing in war, euthanasia, and capital punishment. Society treats these types differently - some are considered crimes, while others are permitted or ordered by the legal system.

Murder: Murder is the unlawful killing of a human with intent, without a valid reason, as determined by the law in a specific jurisdiction. It is differentiated from manslaughter, which is a killing without malice or with diminished capacity. Manslaughter can be voluntary, due to reasonable provocation, or involuntary, lacking significant intent and recklessness.

Robbery: Robbery is a crime that involves forcibly taking or attempting to take something of value through force or fear. It is a form of theft, distinguished by its violent nature. Robbery is a felony in jurisdictions that distinguish it from other types of theft. In English law, it can only be tried on indictment. The word "rob" derived from Late Latin words of Germanic origin meaning "theft".

Sexual assault: Sexual assault is non-consensual sexual contact or forcing someone to engage in a sexual act against their will. It encompasses various forms like child sexual abuse, groping, rape, drug facilitated assault, and sexually torturing someone.

Rape: Rape is a non-consensual sexual assault involving intercourse or penetration. It can occur through force, coercion, abuse of authority, or against vulnerable individuals. The term is often used interchangeably with sexual assault.

Fraud: Fraud is intentional deception aimed at gaining unfair or illegal advantages or depriving others of their legal rights. It can occur in civil or criminal contexts, even if no monetary loss is involved. The motive behind fraud can be financial gain or obtaining benefits like passports or mortgages through deceitful means.

Piracy: Piracy is the act of robbery or violence committed by attackers on ships or in coastal areas, with the aim of stealing valuable cargo. These attackers are called pirates and the ships they use are known as pirate ships. Piracy dates back to the 14th century BC, with the Sea Peoples being among the earliest documented pirates. Narrow shipping channels have historically provided opportunities for piracy, privateering, and commerce raiding.

Illegal drug trade: The illegal drug trade refers to the global black market that involves the production, distribution, and sale of prohibited drugs. Countries around the world have strict laws prohibiting this trade, but it continues to thrive. Estimates suggest that this illicit market was worth between US$426 and US$652 billion in 2014 alone, making up almost 1% of global trade. Despite efforts by local authorities, the consumption of illegal drugs remains widespread and challenging to curb.

Smuggling: Smuggling refers to the illegal transportation of objects, substances, information, or people, in violation of laws and regulations. This includes moving items out of buildings, into prisons, or across international borders. It involves purposefully crossing borders against legal frameworks.

Theft: Theft is the act of taking someone's property or services without permission to deprive the rightful owner. It encompasses crimes like larceny, robbery, embezzlement, and more, and is sometimes used interchangeably with larceny. A person who commits theft is known as a thief.

Driving under the influence: Driving under the influence (DUI) is the act of driving a vehicle while impaired by alcohol or drugs, making the driver unable to operate the vehicle safely. Various terms are used to describe this offense in different jurisdictions.

Human trafficking: Human trafficking is the illegal trade of humans, involving forced labor, sexual slavery, and commercial sexual exploitation.

Torture: Torture is the intentional causing of intense pain or suffering to individuals as a means of punishment, obtaining confessions, extracting information, or intimidating others. It is sometimes attributed only to state actions, but can also involve non-state entities.

Forensic science: Forensic science, or criminalistics, applies scientific principles and methods to assist legal decision-making in criminal and civil matters.

Appeal: An appeal is a legal process where cases are reviewed by a higher authority for a formal change in an official decision. It serves to correct errors and interpret laws. Although appellate courts have existed for centuries, common law countries established the right to appeal in the 19th century.

Trial: A trial is a formal process in law where parties in a dispute present information to a court or tribunal with the authority to resolve their conflict. The goal is to achieve a resolution by presenting evidence and arguments before a judge, jury, or other fact-finding entity.

Criminal procedure: Criminal procedure refers to the legal process of enforcing criminal laws. It varies across jurisdictions and involves charging, trial, and either convicting or acquitting the accused. It can be conducted in an inquisitorial or adversarial manner.

Lawsuit: A lawsuit is a legal proceeding in a civil court where one or more parties bring a complaint seeking a legal or equitable remedy. The defendant must respond to the complaint to avoid default judgment. If the plaintiff is successful, the judgment is in favor of the defendant. The court may issue various orders to enforce rights, award damages, or impose injunctions. Declaratory judgments may be issued to prevent future disputes.

Code of Hammurabi: The Code of Hammurabi is an ancient Babylonian legal text, written around 1755-1750 BC by Hammurabi, the sixth king of Babylon. It is the longest and most well-preserved legal document from the ancient Near East. The code is written in the Old Babylonian dialect of Akkadian and is inscribed on a 2.25 m tall basalt stele.

Corpus Juris Civilis: The Corpus Juris Civilis is a collection of essential legal works compiled under the rule of Byzantine Emperor Justinian I from 529 to 534. It is known as an influential body of law, including the Code of Justinian.

Napoleonic Code: The Napoleonic Code, also known as the Civil Code of France, was established in 1804 during the French Consulate period. It is still in force in France, though modified over time.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen: The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen is a human civil rights document from the French Revolution. It was set by France's National Constituent Assembly in 1789 and was influenced by Enlightenment philosophers. This declaration played a vital role in shaping popular conceptions of individual liberty and democracy globally.

Magna Carta: Magna Carta is a royal charter of rights agreed by King John of England at Runnymede in 1215. It promised protection for the barons, church rights, fair justice, and limits on feudal payments. The charter was nullified by Pope Innocent III, triggering the First Barons' War.

Statute of Westminster 1931: The Statute of Westminster 1931 is a UK parliamentary act that defines the relationship between the Crown and the Dominions.

Constitution of the United States: The United States Constitution is the highest law in the US. It replaced the Articles of Confederation in 1789. It consists of seven articles that establish the structure of the federal government, with three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. It also defines federalism and the rights and responsibilities of the states. The Constitution is the world's oldest and longest-standing written national constitution in effect.

Geneva Conventions: The Geneva Conventions are international laws that set standards for how people in war should be treated. They consist of four treaties and three additional protocols. The agreements of 1949 updated previous treaties, expanded protections for prisoners, civilians, and military personnel, and defined rights for the wounded, sick, and civilians in war-zones.

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is a treaty that requires countries to uphold the rights of individuals, such as the right to life, freedom of religion, speech, assembly, and fair trial. It was adopted by the UN in 1966 and came into effect in 1976. Currently, 173 countries are parties to the Covenant, with China and Cuba being notable signatories yet to ratify it. North Korea is the only country that has attempted to withdraw from the treaty.

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) is a UN treaty adopted in 1966 and effective since 1976. It commits parties to grant economic, social, and cultural rights to all individuals, including those in Non-Self-Governing and Trust Territories. These rights encompass labor, health, education, and an adequate standard of living. Currently, the Covenant has 171 parties, while four countries, including the US, have signed but not ratified it.

United States Declaration of Independence: The Declaration of Independence is the founding document of the United States. It was adopted on July 4, 1776, by 56 delegates at the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia. The declaration states that the Thirteen Colonies are independent sovereign states, no longer under British rule.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is an international document adopted by the United Nations General Assembly, guaranteeing the rights and freedoms of all people. It was drafted by a UN committee chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt and accepted as Resolution 217 on 10 December 1948. Out of 58 UN members, 48 voted in favor, none against, eight abstained, and two did not vote.

Nuremberg principles: The Nuremberg principles are guidelines created by the UN's International Law Commission to determine war crimes, codifying the legal principles of the Nuremberg Trials that prosecuted Nazi party members after WWII.

African Union: The African Union (AU) is a continental union of 55 member states in Africa. It was established on 26 May 2001 and launched on 9 July 2002 to replace the Organization of African Unity (OAU). The AU's main decision-making body is the Assembly, which consists of heads of state and government.

Arab League: The Arab League, also known as the League of Arab States, is a regional organization in the Arab world. It was established on 22 March 1945 in Cairo with Egypt, Iraq, Transjordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria as founding members. Yemen joined shortly after. The League currently consists of 22 members and operates in North Africa, West Asia, and part of East Africa.

ASEAN: ASEAN, short for Association of Southeast Asian Nations, is a union of 10 Southeast Asian states that promotes political and economic cooperation. With a combined population of over 600 million and a land area of 4.5 million km2, ASEAN wields significant influence. Its member states boast rapidly growing economies, collectively contributing about 6.5% to global GDP. The bloc is a key player in the region, fostering collaboration and growth among its members.

Commonwealth of Independent States: The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a regional organization in Eurasia created after the Soviet Union's dissolution in 1991. It spans an area of 20,368,759 km2 and is home to an estimated 239,796,010 people. The CIS aims to foster collaboration in economic, political, and military matters, and has authority over trade, finance, legislation, security, and combating transnational crime.

Commonwealth of Nations: The Commonwealth of Nations, also known as the Commonwealth, is an international association of 56 member states, mostly former British territories. It comprises the Commonwealth Secretariat and the Commonwealth Foundation, which focus on intergovernmental cooperation and non-governmental relations among member countries. Several other organizations are affiliated with and operate within the Commonwealth.

Council of Europe: The Council of Europe is an international organization established in 1949 to promote human rights, democracy, and the rule of law in Europe. It has 46 member states and a population of around 675 million. The organization operates on a budget of approximately 500 million euros annually.

European Union: The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 27 member states in Europe, covering an area of 4,233,255 km2 and with over 448 million people. It is considered a unique entity, blending federation and confederation characteristics.

G20: The G20 is an intergovernmental forum made up of 19 countries, the EU, and the AU. It aims to tackle significant global economic issues and promote international financial stability, as well as addressing concerns related to climate change mitigation and sustainable development.

Interpol: Interpol is the world's largest international police organization, headquartered in Lyon, France. It facilitates global police cooperation and crime control through seven regional bureaus worldwide and National Central Bureaus in all 196 member states.

League of Nations: The League of Nations, founded in 1920 after World War I, aimed to maintain global peace. It operated until 1946 when its functions were transferred to the United Nations. As a pioneering organization, it significantly influenced modern global governance.

NATO: NATO is an intergovernmental military alliance formed after WWII with 31 member states. Its purpose is collective security, with members committed to defending each other against third-party attacks. Initially created to counter the Soviet Union during the Cold War, it has continued to exist and engage in military operations worldwide. NATO operates under the North Atlantic Treaty and has played a significant role in conflicts in the Balkans, Middle East, South Asia, and Africa. Its motto is "animus in consulendo liber."

North American Free Trade Agreement: The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was a trilateral trade bloc created by Canada, Mexico, and the United States. It came into force on January 1, 1994, replacing the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement. NAFTA formed one of the world's biggest trade blocs based on gross domestic product.

OECD: The OECD is an intergovernmental organization established in 1961 to promote economic progress and global trade. With 38 member countries that value democracy and the market economy, it serves as a platform for sharing policy experiences, addressing common issues, exchanging best practices, and coordinating domestic and international policies among its members.

OPEC: OPEC, or the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, is a coalition of top oil-producing nations established in 1960 to collectively influence the global oil market and maximize profitability. Headquartered in Baghdad, it currently consists of 12 member countries, accounting for approximately 30 percent of global oil production.

Organization of American States: The Organization of American States (OAS) is an international organization created in 1948 to encourage collaboration among its member states throughout the Americas.

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe: The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is a regional intergovernmental organization focused on security. It includes member states from Europe, North America, and Asia. Its responsibilities span various areas, including arms control, human rights, freedom of the press, and fair elections. OSCE employs around 3,460 individuals across its field operations, secretariat in Vienna, and institutions. The organization holds observer status at the United Nations.

United Nations: The United Nations (UN) is the largest international organization, with the goal of maintaining global peace, promoting friendly relations among nations, fostering international cooperation, and providing a platform for harmonizing national actions. Its headquarters are in New York City, and it has offices in Geneva, Nairobi, Vienna, and The Hague. The International Court of Justice is based in The Hague.

International Atomic Energy Agency: The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an intergovernmental organization under the United Nations that promotes the peaceful use of nuclear energy and prevents its military exploitation. Established in 1957, the IAEA reports to both the General Assembly and the Security Council of the United Nations, with its headquarters in Vienna, Austria.

International Court of Justice: The International Court of Justice (ICJ), also known as the World Court, is a key organ of the UN. It resolves conflicts between nations based on international law and provides guidance on global legal matters. As the sole international court handling general disputes between countries, its decisions and opinions hold significant weight in shaping international law.

International Criminal Court: The International Criminal Court (ICC) is a permanent international tribunal located in The Hague, Netherlands. It is the only court with the authority to prosecute individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression. Unlike the International Court of Justice, which resolves disputes between states, the ICC is an independent organization focused on prosecuting serious international crimes.

International Monetary Fund: The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a global financial institution under the United Nations, funded by 190 member countries. It acts as a lender of last resort for governments and promotes exchange-rate stability. Established in 1945 with 29 member countries, its mission is to foster global monetary cooperation, ensure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote employment, sustainable growth, and reduce poverty. The IMF manages balance of payments difficulties and financial crises through a quota system, where countries contribute funds for others to borrow. As of 2016, the fund held SDR 477 billion.

UNESCO: UNESCO is a UN agency that promotes global peace and cooperation in education, arts, sciences, and culture. It has 194 member states and 12 associate members. Based in Paris, France, UNESCO has regional offices and national commissions worldwide.

UNICEF: UNICEF, previously known as the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, is now officially called the United Nations Children's Fund. It is a renowned agency under the United Nations that offers humanitarian aid and developmental assistance to children globally. Operating in 192 countries and territories, UNICEF is one of the most recognized social welfare organizations. Their initiatives encompass a range of activities, such as providing vaccinations, disease prevention, HIV treatment for children and mothers, improving nutrition for children and mothers, enhancing sanitation, promoting education, and delivering emergency relief during disasters.

World Bank Group: The World Bank Group (WBG) is the largest development bank globally, comprising five international organizations. It offers leveraged loans and assistance to developing countries, seeking to end extreme poverty and promote shared prosperity. With its headquarters in Washington, D.C., it provided around $98.83 billion in loans in the 2021 fiscal year. Its five organizations include the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the International Development Association (IDA), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), and the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID).

World Health Organization: The World Health Organization (WHO) is a United Nations agency headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. It is responsible for global public health and operates through six regional offices and 150 field offices around the world.

World Trade Organization: The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization that regulates and facilitates global trade. It was established in 1995, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO governs international trade rules and has 164 member states representing over 98% of global trade and GDP.

International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement: The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement is a global humanitarian organization with 16 million volunteers, members, and staff. Its purpose is to protect human life and health, promote respect for all individuals, and alleviate human suffering. It consists of three independent organizations unified by common basic principles, objectives, symbols, statutes, and governing bodies.

Nobel Prize: The Nobel Prize is a set of five awards given annually to individuals who have made significant contributions to humanity. Established by Alfred Nobel's will in 1895, the prizes were first awarded in 1901. Nobel, a Swedish chemist and engineer known for inventing dynamite, left his assets to create these prestigious awards.

Scouting: Scouting is a global youth movement that uses practical outdoor activities to provide informal education. It emphasizes camping, hiking, sports, and aquatics. The Scout uniform promotes equality by hiding social differences and includes distinctive insignia like the fleur-de-lis and merit badges.

Chinese Communist Party: The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) is the ruling party of the People's Republic of China (PRC) since its establishment in 1949. Led by Mao Zedong, the CCP emerged victorious in the Chinese Civil War against the Kuomintang. It governs China and controls the People's Liberation Army (PLA). The party's constitution outlines its ideology, known as socialism with Chinese characteristics. With over 98 million members, the CCP is the world's second largest political party.

Politics: Politics refers to the activities involved in decision-making and power dynamics within groups. It encompasses the distribution of resources and status among individuals. The study of politics and government is undertaken in the field of political science.

Political science: Political science is the study of politics, governance systems, power, and political activities, behavior, thought, and laws.

Diplomacy: Diplomacy is the art of influencing international events through spoken or written communication by representatives of states or organizations, with the aim of achieving desired outcomes in the global system.

Diplomatic mission: A diplomatic mission is a group representing a state or organization in another state. Usually, it refers to an embassy or high commission, based in the host state's capital. Consulates are smaller missions in major cities. Embassies can also act as nonresident missions to other countries.

International relations: International relations (IR) refers to the interactions between sovereign states, encompassing areas like war, trade, diplomacy, and foreign policy. It also includes relations with other international actors such as intergovernmental organizations, NGOs, legal bodies, and multinational corporations. The study of IR is an important field, categorized into schools of thought like realism, liberalism, and constructivism.

Imperialism: Imperialism is the act of exerting and expanding power over foreign nations through various means, including military force and cultural influence. It aims to establish dominance, often in the form of a formal empire, and differs from colonialism.

Colonialism: Colonialism refers to the dominance of one group over others, typically for imperial control and exploitation. It involves the establishment of colonies and the implementation of various practices and relationships to maintain this dominance. However, the definition of colonialism may vary depending on the context and how the term is used.

Globalization: Globalization refers to the worldwide interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments. It emerged in the 20th century and gained popularity in the 1990s, characterizing the unprecedented global connectivity after the Cold War. This process originated in the 18th and 19th centuries with advancements in transportation and communication technology. It has led to increased international trade, exchange of ideas, beliefs, and culture. Globalization primarily pertains to economic interaction but also encompasses social, cultural, and diplomatic aspects in its history.

Civics: Civics is the study of citizens' rights and responsibilities in society, derived from the Latin word civicus meaning "relating to a citizen." It encompasses the study of behavior that impacts fellow citizens, particularly within urban development.

Citizenship: Citizenship grants individuals civil and political rights within a particular political entity, alongside corresponding responsibilities that non-citizens do not have.

Civil liberties: Civil liberties are freedoms protected by governments through constitution, laws, and judicial interpretations. They include freedom of conscience, press, religion, expression, assembly, security, speech, privacy, equal treatment, due process, fair trial, and life. Other civil liberties include property ownership, self-defense, and bodily integrity. Positive rights (e.g., right to education) and negative rights (e.g., freedom from interference) are distinguished within civil liberties.

Freedom of speech: Freedom of speech is the principle that allows individuals and communities to freely express their opinions and ideas without fear of punishment or censorship. It is recognized as a human right by the United Nations and protected by constitutional laws in many countries. The term "freedom of speech" is often used interchangeably with "freedom of expression," which encompasses the sharing and receiving of information or ideas through any medium.

Freedom of religion: 'Freedom of religion' refers to the principle that allows individuals or communities to freely express their religious beliefs, practices, and teachings in public or private settings. It encompasses the freedom to worship, observe, and manifest one's religion. The concept also includes the right to choose not to follow any religion or belief system.

Freedom of thought: 'Freedom of thought' refers to an individual's right to independently form and retain thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives without being influenced by others. It encompasses the autonomy to hold personal views and consider facts, irrespective of differing opinions.

Election: An election is a formal process where a population selects individuals for public office through a group decision-making process.

Opinion poll: An opinion poll, also called a survey or poll, is a research method that gathers public opinion from a sample population. It uses a series of questions to represent the views of a larger population within certain confidence intervals. Pollsters are individuals who conduct these surveys.

Political campaign: A political campaign is an organized effort to influence decision-making in a specific group, commonly referring to electoral campaigns in democracies. They mainly focus on general elections and candidates for head of state or government, such as a president or prime minister.

Political party: A political party is an organization that coordinates candidates in elections. Members share similar political ideas and may promote specific goals or ideology.

Referendum: A referendum is a direct vote by the people on a proposal or issue, allowing them to adopt new policies or laws. It is different from a representative vote. It can also be advisory and is called plebiscite, votation, popular consultation, or ballot question in some countries.

Nation: A nation is a social organization with a collective identity formed by shared features like language, history, ethnicity, culture, territory, or society. It can be based on either ethnicity or political constitutions.

Revolution: A revolution is a deliberate and sudden effort in political science to bring about fundamental changes in political power and organization. It often entails an uprising against a government believed to be oppressive or politically ineffective.

Riot: A riot is a violent public disturbance where a group opposes authority, damages property, or harms people. It is a form of civil disorder marked by aggressive mob behavior.

Cult of personality: A cult of personality is the creation of an idealized and heroic image of a leader through techniques like mass media, propaganda, and government-organized demonstrations. It is established by modern social engineering, often in totalitarian or authoritarian governments, but can also be found in some monarchies, theocracies, and failed democracies.

Government: A government is a system or group that governs a community or state. It provides organization and leadership for society.

Dictatorship: A dictatorship is an autocratic government where a leader or a group holds unlimited power. Political control is maintained through an inner circle of elites, including advisers and high-ranking officials. The dictator suppresses opposition by appeasing the inner circle and repressing rival parties or armed resistance. Dictatorships can arise from military coups or when elected leaders solidify their rule. They are authoritarian or totalitarian and can take the form of military, one-party, personalist, or absolute monarchies.

Democracy: Democracy is a government system where the power lies with the people. It ensures human rights and freedoms are respected, allowing people to freely express their will.

Oligarchy: Oligarchy is a power structure where a small group of individuals, whether based on factors like wealth, education, or political control, hold most of the power.

Theocracy: Theocracy is a government where one or more gods are seen as the highest authority, guiding human intermediaries who run the daily affairs.

Monarchy: A monarchy is a governmental system where a monarch, the head of state, serves for life or until they step down. The authority of the monarch can range from symbolic to autocratic, and their power extends across all branches of government.

Absolute monarchy: An absolute monarchy is a type of monarchy where the ruler has unlimited power and is not restricted by any laws or governing bodies. The monarch has absolute control and often inherits the throne through hereditary succession.

Constitutional monarchy: A constitutional monarchy, also called a limited or parliamentary monarchy, is a type of government where the monarch's authority is defined by a constitution and they share decision-making power. Unlike absolute monarchies, constitutional monarchs have limits on their powers outlined in a legal framework.

Federalism: Federalism is a form of government where power is divided between a central government and regional governments. Johannes Althusius and Montesquieu are considered the modern fathers of this political philosophy. Althusius explained its principles in his book "Politica Methodice Digesta, Atque Exemplis Sacris et Profanis Illustrata" (1603), while Montesquieu identified examples of federalist republics in his work "The Spirit of Laws." Federalism originated in the unions of states during the Old Swiss Confederacy.

Republic: A republic is a state where political power is held by the public through their elected representatives, distinct from a monarchy.

Decentralization: Decentralization is the dispersion of an organization's planning and decision-making authority away from a central authority or group, to smaller factions within it.

Executive (government): The executive branch of government, also known as the executive, is responsible for implementing and enforcing the law.

Head of state: A head of state is the official representative of a sovereign state. They can be a figurehead or hold executive power, depending on the country's government structure.

Legislature: A legislature is a governing body that has the power to make laws for a political entity. It is distinct from the executive and judicial branches of government.

Parliament: A parliament is a legislative body that represents the people, creates laws, and oversees the government through hearings. It is similar to a senate, synod, or congress and is used in countries with current or past monarchies. The term is commonly used in parliamentary systems, but can also describe the legislature in some presidential systems.

Public policy: Public policy refers to an established plan consisting of laws, regulations, guidelines, and actions to tackle real-world issues. It covers a broad range of areas, including education, healthcare, employment, finance, economics, and transportation. The implementation of public policy is known as public administration and encompasses both direct and indirect government activities.

Economic policy: Economic policy refers to the actions and decisions made by governments regarding taxation, budgets, money supply, interest rates, labor market, national ownership, and other areas of government intervention in the economy. It encompasses various systems and interventions that determine the economic conditions within a country.

Public administration: Public administration refers to the implementation of public policy and the management of government and non-profit entities. It is a sub-field of political science that trains civil servants for administrative roles in the public sector. Professionals with public administration knowledge can also work in the private sector, engaging in government relations, regulatory affairs, corporate social responsibilities, and other areas. Additionally, they may find employment in think tanks, non-profit organizations, consulting firms, and trade associations that benefit from their skillsets.

Civil service: The civil service refers to career civil servants employed in the public sector by government departments or agencies. Their tenure typically remains unchanged during transitions of political leadership. They work for central and state governments, serving the government rather than any specific political party.

Separation of powers: Separation of powers is the division of a state's government into branches, each with separate and independent powers to avoid conflicts. The three branches are the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary. It differs from systems with fused powers, such as monarchies or parliamentary systems, where branches may overlap in membership and functions.

State (polity): A state is a centralized political organization that imposes and enforces rules over a population within a territory. It is a polity that maintains a monopoly on the legitimate use of violence. The absence of a state does not eliminate the existence of a society. The level of governance determines whether a state has failed.

City-state: A city-state is an independent sovereign city that is the political, economic, and cultural hub of its surrounding territory. Examples include Rome, Athens, and Florence during different historical eras.

Nation state: A nation-state is a political unit where the state and the nation share the same boundaries, with the state being a centralized organization governing a population within a territory, and the nation being a community united by a common identity. Unlike a country, a nation-state typically has a predominant national or ethnic group.

Federation: A federation is a political entity where partially self-governing regions unite under a central government. The component states have constitutionally protected autonomy, and power is divided between the regions and the central authority, allowing each region to control its internal affairs.

Unitary state: A unitary state is a sovereign state with a central government as the ultimate authority. The central government can create or eliminate administrative divisions and chooses what powers to delegate. Unitary states originated in France after the Hundred Years' War, which led to the unification of the country. France then spread the concept through conquests in Europe and its extensive colonial empire.

Confederation: A confederation is a political union of sovereign states formed by a treaty to address important issues like defense, foreign relations, trade, or currency. The central government of a confederation must support all its members. Confederalism is a type of intergovernmentalism that emphasizes interactions between sovereign and independent states.

Empire: An empire is a political unit formed by conquering various regions and peoples. It consists of a dominant center that exercises political control over subordinate peripheries. Different populations within the empire have distinct rights and are governed differently. While an empire is typically governed by an emperor or empress, not all states with supreme authorities or large territories are considered empires. Acceptance as an empire by contemporaries and historians can vary.

Welfare state: A welfare state is a government system that safeguards and advances the economic and social well-being of its people through equal opportunities, fair wealth distribution, and public support for those unable to access basic necessities for a decent life.

Welfare: Welfare, also known as social welfare, is a form of government aid aimed at ensuring people in a society can fulfill basic human needs like food and shelter. It can encompass social security, which includes support for the elderly and children, medical treatment, leave for parents and the sick, unemployment and disability benefits, and assistance for those injured at work.

Sovereignty: Sovereignty is the supreme authority within a state, involving both internal hierarchy and external autonomy. It is assigned to the individual, group, or institution that holds ultimate power to establish or amend laws. In politics, it represents the highest legitimate authority over a community, while in international law, it refers to a state's exercise of power. De jure sovereignty is the legal right to do so, while de facto sovereignty relies on the factual ability. Issues arise when expected sovereignty is lacking, causing concern over the absence of legal and practical control within the same organization.

Ideology: Ideology is a set of beliefs or philosophies held for non-epistemic reasons, where practical elements are important. Initially used for economic, political, or religious theories, it now carries a condemnatory connotation.

Political spectrum: A political spectrum is a classification system that characterizes and categorizes various political positions in relation to each other. It represents these positions using geometric axes that portray independent political dimensions. It is also referred to as a political compass or political map, particularly when using popular two-dimensional models.

Anarchism: Anarchism is a political philosophy that questions authority and aims to eradicate coercive institutions, such as nation-states and capitalism. It advocates for stateless societies and voluntary associations. Anarchism is commonly associated with the far-left or libertarian socialist movement.

Totalitarianism: Totalitarianism is a highly controlling political system where all opposition is forbidden, including individual and group opposition. It involves extensive regulation of public and private life and is considered the extreme form of authoritarianism. Typically, autocrats like dictators hold political power and use state-controlled media to control citizens through propaganda campaigns.

Capitalism: Capitalism is an economic system where private individuals own and operate businesses to make a profit. Key characteristics include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price systems, private property, property rights recognition, voluntary exchange, and wage labor. Owners of wealth determine decision-making and investments, while competition in markets determines prices and distribution of goods and services.

Socialism: Socialism is a political philosophy advocating social ownership instead of private ownership of the means of production. It encompasses diverse economic, political, and social systems, with social ownership being the common element. Socialism is typically associated with the left-wing and can take various forms, such as public, community, collective, cooperative, or employee-owned. Different approaches exist regarding the role of markets, resource allocation, organizational management, and the need for government intervention.

Communism: Communism is a left-wing ideology aiming to establish a communist society where common ownership of means of production, distribution, and exchange exists. It seeks to eliminate private property, social classes, money, and the state.

Marxism: Marxism is a political philosophy using historical materialism to analyze class relations and social conflict. It was developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the 19th century. With no definitive theory, it has influenced left-wing movements worldwide.

Leninism: Leninism, developed by Vladimir Lenin, is a political ideology aiming to establish communism through a dictatorship of the proletariat led by a revolutionary vanguard party. Lenin's contributions focus on theories related to the party, imperialism, the state, and revolution. The Leninist vanguard party guides the working classes towards political consciousness and revolutionary leadership to overthrow capitalism.

Fascism: Fascism is an extreme, right-wing ideology led by a dictator, emphasizing militant nationalism, rigid hierarchy, and the suppression of opposition through force. It champions the nation or race above individual interests, tightly controlling society and the economy.

Nazism: Nazism, also known as National Socialism, was a far-right ideology in Nazi Germany led by Adolf Hitler. It was rooted in extreme nationalism and aimed to create a racially pure society based on the superiority of the Aryan race. Nazism incorporated elements of fascism, scientific racism, and anti-Semitism, and rejected liberal democracy. It sought to expand German territory and suppress "inferior" races. Neo-Nazism emerged after World War II, referring to similar far-right groups.

Liberalism: Liberalism is a political philosophy centered on individual rights, liberty, equality before the law, and consent of the governed. It supports private property, market economies, liberal democracy, and the rule of law. Liberals value freedom of speech, press, assembly, and religion. With roots in modern history, liberalism is often considered a dominant ideology.

Libertarianism: Libertarianism is a political philosophy that values individual freedom and autonomy. It emphasizes civil rights, equality before the law, and freedom of association, speech, thought, and choice. Libertarians are often critical of authority, state power, warfare, militarism, and nationalism. However, they diverge on their views of existing economic and political systems and the role of state and private power. Various categorizations distinguish libertarianism based on differing views on property and capital. Liberal ideas have influenced the development of libertarian thought.

Conservatism: Conservatism is a philosophy focused on preserving traditional institutions, customs, and values. It varies based on culture and seeks to promote institutions like the nuclear family, organized religion, the military, the nation-state, property rights, rule of law, aristocracy, and monarchy. Conservatives prioritize social order and historical continuity.

Nationalism: Nationalism is a movement that aims to align the nation with the state, advocating for self-governance and sovereignty. It emphasizes a nation's right to govern itself and rejects external interference. Nationalism seeks to establish a unified national identity based on shared characteristics and history, fostering national unity. It can be classified into ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism.

Patriotism: Patriotism is a deep affection, loyalty, and sense of belonging towards one's country. It includes love for the language, culture, history, and political aspects of the homeland. It often aligns with civic nationalism, while occasionally incorporating cultural nationalism.

Christian democracy: Christian democracy is an ideology rooted in Christian values that addresses the modern challenges of society and politics. It draws upon Christian social teaching to guide its approach.

Social democracy: Social democracy is a social, political, and economic philosophy that advocates for democratic principles in both politics and the economy. It takes the form of a managed welfare capitalist system, with public ownership, interventionist economic policies, and a focus on promoting social equality.

Green politics: Green politics is a political ideology focused on building an environmentally sustainable society. It emphasizes nonviolence, social justice, and grassroots democracy. Originating in the 1970s, green parties have emerged worldwide and have achieved electoral success in several countries.

Multiculturalism: Multiculturalism refers to the coexistence of different ethnic and cultural groups in a society. It can describe a diverse community with various traditions or a country with multiple cultural backgrounds. It is often used interchangeably with ethnic and cultural pluralism. Indigenous and settler-descended groups frequently receive attention in multicultural contexts.

Islamism: Islamism is a religio-political ideology aiming to implement a strict interpretation of Islam in society or state. Islamists are affiliated with Islamic institutions and social movements and emphasize the imposition of sharia, pan-Islamic unity, establishment of Islamic states, and rejection of non-Muslim influences, particularly from the West.

Populism: Populism refers to political stances emphasizing "the people" versus "the elite." It is often associated with anti-establishment and anti-political sentiment. The term emerged in the late 19th century and has been used to describe different politicians, parties, and movements. However, some scholars argue against its usage altogether due to conflicting definitions within political science and other social sciences.

War: War is a violent conflict between nations, governments, societies, or groups, involving intense fighting and death. It can involve regular or irregular forces and leads to widespread destruction. Warfare encompasses the activities and characteristics of different types of wars. Total war causes significant harm to civilians and non-combatants, going beyond legitimate military targets, resulting in extensive suffering and casualties.

Casualty (person): A military casualty refers to a person in military service who becomes unable to continue their duties due to various circumstances, like death, injury, illness, capture, or desertion.

Conscription: Conscription is the mandatory enlistment of people in a national service, typically military. It has been practiced since ancient times and persists in some countries today. It was popularized during the French Revolution in the 1790s, leading to the establishment of large military forces. Many European nations later adopted similar systems, where men would serve a set period on active duty before transitioning to the reserve force.

Desertion: Desertion in the military refers to unauthorized abandonment of duty or post, done with the intention of not returning. It is distinct from temporary absences such as unauthorized absence or absence without leave.

Duel: A duel is a pre-arranged combat between two individuals who fight with matching weapons.

Militarism: Militarism refers to the belief or desire of a government or people to have a strong military and use it aggressively to further national interests. It can involve glorifying the military and the ideals of a professional military class, with the armed forces dominating state administration and policies.

Prisoner of war: A prisoner of war (POW) is someone held captive by a belligerent power during or after armed conflict. The term dates back to 1610.

Refugee: A refugee is someone who has lost protection from their home country and cannot or won't return due to fear of persecution. They can be referred to as an asylum seeker until granted refugee status by a contracting state or the UNHCR, after making an asylum claim.

War crime: A war crime refers to a violation of laws during warfare, leading to criminal responsibility for combatants. It includes acts like killing civilians and prisoners, torture, destroying civilian property, sexual violence, pillaging, and intentionally committing mass killings such as genocide. War crimes also involve ignoring surrender, conscripting children, and disregarding proportionality and military necessity.

Genocide: Genocide is deliberate and systematic extermination of a people, targeting their entire population or a significant part.

Civil war: A civil war is a conflict between organized groups within one state, with goals ranging from obtaining control of the country or a region, to gaining independence or altering government policies. The term originates from the Latin phrase "bellum civile," which referred to the Roman Republic's civil wars in the 1st century BC.

Counterinsurgency: Counterinsurgency refers to actions taken by a state against non-state irregular forces such as guerrillas or revolutionaries. It involves both military and political measures aimed at defeating these forces. Counterinsurgency campaigns have been fought throughout history, but modern strategies were developed during decolonization.

Ethnic conflict: An ethnic conflict is a clash between multiple ethnic groups, arising from political, social, economic, or religious reasons. The distinguishing characteristic of ethnic conflicts is that the involved parties specifically strive for their ethnic group's status within society, setting it apart from other forms of contention.

Insurgency: Insurgency is a type of violent rebellion involving small, lightly armed groups using guerrilla tactics from rural areas against a larger authority. Its main characteristic is asymmetry, where irregular forces face a well-equipped military. Insurgents avoid large battles and instead integrate with civilians to gradually gain control and expand their forces. The collaboration with local populations is often crucial in these conflicts.

Invasion: An invasion is a large-scale military offensive where combatants from one entity enter territory controlled by another, with objectives such as conquest, liberation, or altering government. It can cause or end a war and is usually strategically planned and executed.

Religious war: A religious war or holy war is primarily caused by differences in religion and beliefs. It often sparks debates on whether religion is the main factor or if other aspects like economic or ethnic issues play a larger role. The extent to which a war is considered religious depends on the definitions used and the applicability of religion to war. Answers to these questions influence conclusions on the prevalence of religious wars compared to other types of conflicts.

Terrorism: Terrorism is the deliberate use of violence and fear to accomplish political or ideological goals. It involves intentional violence against civilians during times of peace or in war. There are many definitions of terrorism, and a consensus on its exact meaning has not been reached.

Aerial warfare: Aerial warfare refers to the use of military aircraft and flying machines in warfare. It encompasses bombers targeting enemy facilities, troops, and strategic sites, fighter aircraft competing for control of the airspace, and attack aircraft providing close air support to ground targets. It also involves naval aviation targeting sea and nearby land objectives, using gliders, helicopters, and other aircraft to transport airborne forces like paratroopers. Aerial refueling tankers extend operational time and range, while military transport aircraft move cargo and personnel.

Anti-aircraft warfare: Anti-aircraft warfare, or AA, refers to the measures taken to neutralize hostile air action. It encompasses various weapon systems, sensors, and arrangements to protect naval, ground, and air forces. The main focus is typically on homeland defense, with NATO referring to counter-air for airborne defense and anti-aircraft warfare for naval defense. Missile defense and intercepting projectiles in flight are also considered part of air defense.

Armoured warfare: Armoured warfare refers to the use of armoured fighting vehicles in modern warfare. It plays a vital role in contemporary military tactics, emphasizing the ability of troops to break through enemy defensive lines by utilizing armoured units and strategic manoeuvres.

Espionage: Espionage is the act of obtaining secret information, usually done by spies or espionage agents. It can be carried out by individuals, spy rings, or groups working for a government, company, criminal organization, or independent operation. Espionage is often done clandestinely, but can be both legal and illegal depending on the circumstances.

Naval warfare: Naval warfare is combat at sea, including oceans, lakes, or rivers. It has been practiced for over 3,000 years.

Siege: A siege is a military blockade of a city or fortress aimed at conquering it through attrition or assault. It involves one party holding a strong, defensive position resulting in low-intensity conflict. Negotiation between combatants is common due to proximity and fluctuating advantage, fostering diplomacy.

Sniper: A sniper is a highly trained and stealthy marksman who engages targets from concealed positions or at long distances beyond the target's detection capabilities. They use high-precision rifles and optics, often serve as scouts, and provide tactical information to their units or command headquarters.

Trench warfare: Trench warfare is a form of land combat characterized by military trenches, providing protection from small arms fire and artillery. It became prevalent during World War I, particularly on the Western Front, starting in September 1914 during the Race to the Sea.

Military: A military, or armed forces, is a well-equipped and structured force primarily for warfare. It is authorized by a state, with members identifiable by a uniform. Militaries can have multiple branches like army, navy, air force, etc. Their main purpose is to defend the state and its interests against external threats.

Military education and training: Military education and training enhances the skills and abilities of military personnel. It involves both voluntary and compulsory training, starting with recruit training and advancing to specialized education. Additional training can be provided throughout a military career. The instructional staff at military training institutions are known as directing staff.

Military–industrial complex: The military-industrial complex refers to the connection between a country's military and defense industry, which influences public policy. Both sides benefit, with the military obtaining weapons and defense corporations being paid to supply them. This term is often used in relation to the United States, where close links exist between defense contractors, the Pentagon, and politicians. The concept gained popularity after U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower warned about its detrimental effects in his farewell address.

Military science: Military science is the study of military processes, institutions, and warfare. It focuses on theory, method, and practice of producing military capability in line with defense policy. It identifies elements necessary for military advantage and victory. Military scientists include theorists, researchers, designers, and military personnel.

Operational level of war: The operational level of war is the level of command in military theory that links tactical details to strategic goals.

Military strategy: Military strategy is the implementation of ideas by military organizations to achieve strategic goals. It involves planning and conducting campaigns, positioning forces, and deceiving the enemy. The term originated from the Greek word strategos and was initially viewed as the art of arranging troops.

Military tactics: Military tactics involve organizing and utilizing fighting forces near the battlefield. They utilize four functions: firepower, mobility, protection, and shock action. Tactics are distinct from command and control and logistics. They are the lowest level of warfighting, with strategic and operational levels above them. Over time, the dominance of tactical functions shifts based on military technology, often accompanied by the prominence of a specific fighting arm like infantry or tanks.

Army: An army is a land-based armed force that primarily fights on land. It is the land-based military branch of a nation and may include aviation assets. The term 'army' can also refer to a field army within a national military force.

Cavalry: Cavalry refers to mounted soldiers who fight on horseback and were historically the most mobile combat unit. They served as light cavalry for reconnaissance and screening, or as heavy cavalry for decisive shock attacks in different armies. Cavalry soldiers had various designations based on tactics and era. The term does not include other animal-mounted forces like camel or elephant riders. In the early 17th to early 18th century, infantry on horseback but fighting on foot were called dragoons, which later evolved into standard cavalry.

Infantry: Infantry refers to military personnel specialized in ground combat on foot. It encompasses various types such as light, heavy, mountain, motorized, mechanized, airborne, air assault, and naval infantry. Some types like line and mounted infantry were popular in the past but declined in use due to advancements in weaponry.

Militia: A militia is a non-professional fighting organization made up of part-time soldiers who are citizens or subjects of a country. They serve during times of need and support regular troops through skirmishes, fortifications, and irregular warfare. However, they are generally unable to hold ground against regular forces and are limited by local civilian laws to serve only in their home region and for a limited time. Militias can serve as a source of manpower for regular forces in emergencies.

Navy: A navy is a branch of a nation's armed forces specialized in naval warfare, including combat operations on lakes, rivers, coasts, and oceans. It encompasses surface ships, submarines, amphibious ships, and seaborne aviation, along with support, training, and communication activities.

Air force: An air force is a branch of a nation's military that specializes in aerial warfare. It conducts strategic and tactical bombing missions, gains control of the air, and provides aerial reconnaissance and close air support to land and naval forces.

Soldier: A soldier is a member of an army and can be either a conscripted or volunteer enlisted person, non-commissioned officer, warrant officer, or officer.

Military reserve: A military reserve is a group of soldiers or units held back by commanders to address unforeseen situations or seize sudden opportunities during a battle. They can defend against enemy attacks, reinforce troops in battle, or relieve fatigued soldiers. Reserves depend on the level of uncertainty about the enemy's intentions and can be categorized as tactical, operational, or strategic reserves.

Battle: A battle is a defined military engagement between opposing military units, occurring within the context of a war. It involves combat and can vary in scale. Skirmishes are smaller engagements with limited commitment and inconclusive outcomes.

Blockade: A blockade is a military strategy that actively stops a country or region from sending or receiving food, supplies, weapons, communication, and occasionally people. It is not the same as an embargo or sanction, as it physically obstructs trade rather than imposing legal barriers. Unlike a siege, which targets specific fortresses or cities, a blockade applies to an entire area for various objectives, not necessarily aiming to conquer the region.

Military exercise: A military exercise, also known as a training exercise or war game, involves using military resources to simulate combat scenarios and test tactics and strategies. These exercises help explore the effects of warfare without actual combat and ensure the combat readiness of forces before deployment.

Peacekeeping: Peacekeeping refers to military actions aimed at establishing conditions that support long-lasting peace. It has been shown to decrease civilian and military casualties, along with minimizing the chances of renewed conflict.

Military organization: A military organization is the structure of a state's armed forces to provide necessary defense capabilities. Some countries include paramilitary forces, while others do not consider them as part of the military. Non-military armed forces, like insurgent groups, often imitate military structures. Formal military organizations typically follow hierarchical forms.

Staff (military): A military staff is a group of officers, enlisted personnel, and civilians who assist the commander of a large military unit in planning, analysis, and information gathering. They coordinate and supervise the execution of plans and orders, and facilitate communication between commanders and other stakeholders. The staff is organized into functional groups like administration, logistics, operations, and intelligence. A centralized staff provides tighter control but requires larger headquarters, while a decentralized staff enhances situational focus, personal initiative, and speed of action.

Military rank: Military ranks are a hierarchical system that determines authority and responsibility within armed forces and other military-like institutions. They establish dominance and define the chain of command, which is crucial for organized collective action.

Officer (armed forces): An officer is a high-ranking person in the armed forces or uniformed services, who holds a position of authority.

Communication: Communication is the transmission of information and its definition is debated. Unintentional or failed transmissions may or may not be included. Communication can both transmit and create meaning. Models simplify communication into main components such as a source, coding system, message, channel, and receiver. Communication studies is the main field of inquiry for understanding communication.

Nonverbal communication: Nonverbal communication (NVC) is the transmission of messages through nonverbal cues such as eye contact, body language, touch, voice, physical environments, and use of objects. It started being studied in 1872 by Charles Darwin, who recognized that animals also communicate nonverbally. Today, scholars believe that nonverbal communication often conveys more meaning than verbal communication.

Body language: Body language is non-verbal communication using physical behaviors like facial expressions, body posture, gestures, eye movement, touch, and space. It applies to both humans and animals and is also known as kinesics. Despite being unconsciously done, body language plays a significant role in communication.

Propaganda: Propaganda is communication aimed at influencing an audience for a specific agenda, often by selectively presenting facts, using loaded language, or evoking emotional responses. It is found in diverse contexts.

Public relations: Public relations (PR) is the strategic management of information by an individual or organization to shape public perception. It differs from publicity as PR is internally controlled, while publicity is contributed by external parties. PR involves gaining exposure through topics of public interest without direct payment, primarily through media. It aims to obtain free coverage (earned media) rather than paid advertising. In the modern era, advertising has become part of PR activities.

Rhetoric: Rhetoric is the art of persuasion, studied within the humanities. It explores techniques used by speakers and writers to inform, persuade, and motivate audiences. Additionally, it provides strategies for understanding, discovering, and developing arguments in various situations.

Culture: Culture refers to the social behavior, institutions, and norms in society, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of individuals. It is often associated with specific regions or locations.

Body modification: Body modification refers to intentionally changing the appearance or anatomy of the human body. It encompasses activities like tattooing, accepted forms of body decoration, religious ceremonies, and the modern primitive movement.

Body piercing: Body piercing is a form of body modification where a part of the body is punctured or cut to create an opening for jewelry or implants. It can alter the body's appearance and has been practiced since ancient times worldwide. While it can be done on people of all ages, minors are usually limited to earlobe piercings.

Circumcision: Circumcision is a surgical procedure that removes the foreskin from the penis. It is commonly done as a preventive measure, for religious or cultural reasons, or to treat certain conditions like phimosis and chronic UTIs. Anesthesia is used to reduce pain. However, it is not recommended for individuals with genital abnormalities or poor overall health.

Female genital mutilation: Female genital mutilation (FGM) refers to the ritual cutting or removal of some or all of the vulva. It is practiced in certain countries in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East, as well as among their diaspora populations. As of 2023, UNICEF estimates that at least 200 million girls in 31 countries, including Indonesia, Iraq, Yemen, and 27 African countries including Egypt, have undergone various forms of FGM.

Tattoo: A tattoo is a design made by inserting ink into the skin that dates back to ancient times. It is a form of body modification practiced worldwide with various techniques, including traditional and modern methods. Tattoos carry different meanings and significance depending on culture and location.

Cultural assimilation: Cultural assimilation is when a minority group adopts the values, behaviors, and beliefs of the dominant society to resemble it partially or fully.

Popular culture: Popular culture is the prevailing practices, beliefs, artistic expressions, and objects in a society. It influences the activities and emotions resulting from interaction with these dominant elements. Media, mass appeal, marketing, and capitalism drive popular culture, particularly in Western societies, and it is produced by the "culture industry" as coined by philosopher Theodor Adorno.

Tradition: Tradition is a set of beliefs or behaviors passed down within a group with symbolic meaning and origins in the past. It includes cultural expressions like holidays and unique clothing, and can also refer to social norms and greetings. Traditions can last for thousands of years, and the word itself means to transmit or hand over. Some traditions are intentionally invented for political or cultural reasons. The term is used differently in various academic disciplines.

Oral tradition: Oral tradition is a method of communication where knowledge, art, ideas, and cultural material are shared orally across generations. This includes folktales, ballads, chants, and more. It allows societies to transmit history, literature, law, and other knowledge without a writing system or alongside it. Religions like Buddhism, Hinduism, Catholicism, and Jainism have utilized oral tradition to pass down their scriptures, rituals, hymns, and myths.

Greeting: A greeting is a communication act where people intentionally acknowledge each other to indicate a social relationship. Greetings occur before conversations or when individuals pass each other. They vary across cultures depending on social status and relationship, being present universally. Greetings can be expressed verbally or physically and even in written communications like letters or emails.

Taboo: Taboo refers to a social group's ban or avoidance of something deemed repulsive, offensive, sacred, or restricted to specific individuals. It is prevalent in all societies and can be explicit through laws or religion, or implicit through cultural norms and conventions.

Human cannibalism: Human cannibalism refers to the act of humans consuming the flesh or organs of other humans. Those who engage in this practice are known as cannibals. The term has also been used in zoology to describe animals eating members of their own species as food.

Birthday: A birthday is the yearly celebration of a person's birth or achievements. It is commemorated in various cultures through gift-giving, cards, parties, and ceremonial events.

Festival: A festival is a special event celebrated by a community, focusing on their religion or culture. It is often a local or national holiday and can show the interconnection between high and low cultures. Festivals have diverse origins, including agriculture, and many are associated with harvest time. They blend religious commemoration and gratitude for good harvests, often taking place in autumn. Examples include Halloween in the northern hemisphere and Easter in the southern.

Carnival: Carnival is a Christian festival held before Lent, typically in February or March. It involves public celebrations with parades, street parties, and circus-like entertainment. Participants wear elaborate costumes and masks, fostering social unity and a sense of escapism. Excessive consumption of alcohol and indulgent foods is common before the upcoming period of fasting. This festival is a time of great indulgence, marked by overeating and various indulgent activities. It concludes with the consumption of pancakes, donuts, and desserts before Lent begins. Lent involves reduced consumption of dairy and animal products, along with personal sacrifices.

Diwali: Diwali is a Hindu festival symbolizing the triumph of light over darkness, good over evil, and knowledge over ignorance. Celebrated from mid-September to mid-November, it lasts for about five or six days and is observed by various Indian religions.

Harvest festival: A harvest festival is a yearly celebration held during the main harvest of a particular region. It takes place at different times and locations worldwide due to climate and crops variations. These festivals commonly involve family and public feasting with food sourced from the harvested crops.

Holi: Holi is a major Hindu festival known as the Festival of Colours, Love, and Spring. It commemorates the love between the deities Radha and Krishna and symbolizes the triumph of good over evil. Originating in the Indian subcontinent, Holi has spread to other parts of Asia and the Western world through the Indian diaspora.

World's fair: A world's fair, also called a universal exhibition or expo, is a large global showcase of a nation's achievements. Held in various locations worldwide for a period of 3-6 months, it highlights different cultures and technologies.

Holiday: A holiday is a day or time dedicated to festivals or recreation. Public holidays are set by authorities and vary by region. Religious holidays are observed by specific religious groups and often become public holidays. Some religious holidays, like Christmas, have become secularized. Many holidays have also become commercialized due to industrial growth.

Sabbath: The Sabbath, also known as Shabbat, is a day of rest and worship in Abrahamic religions. It is observed on the seventh day according to the Book of Exodus, following the commandment to keep it holy. This practice traces back to God's rest after creation.

Halloween: Halloween, also known as Hallowe'en, is celebrated on October 31 and marks the eve of All Hallows' Day. It is part of the Allhallowtide observance, dedicated to remembering the dead, including saints and martyrs. Additionally, Halloween has become a popular cultural celebration of horror and the supernatural.

New Year: The New Year marks the beginning of a new calendar year and is celebrated in various cultures. It occurs on January 1 in the Gregorian, Julian, and Roman calendars.

New Year's Day: New Year's Day, on 1 January, marks the start of the calendar year in the Gregorian calendar. Solar calendars typically coincide with the winter solstice, whereas lunisolar or lunar calendars celebrate their Lunar New Year at varying points in relation to the solar year.

Nowruz: Nowruz is a globally celebrated spring festival that originated in Zoroastrianism. It occurs around 21 March, following the Iranian Solar Hijri calendar and marks the beginning of spring. Various ethnic groups partake in this tradition.

Christmas: Christmas is an annual festival celebrating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed on December 25 by billions worldwide. It is a religious and cultural event, including a feast central to Christianity's liturgical year. Christmas Day is a public holiday, celebrated by Christians and non-Christians alike, and marks the beginning of a twelve-day period called Christmastide.

Easter: Easter, also known as Pascha or Resurrection Sunday, is a Christian festival celebrating the resurrection of Jesus, which occurred three days after his crucifixion. It concludes the Passion of Jesus Christ, following a 40-day period of fasting and penance called Lent.

Pentecost: Pentecost is a Christian holiday occurring 50 days after Easter. It marks the descent of the Holy Spirit on Mary, the Apostles, during their celebration of the Feast of Weeks in Jerusalem, according to the Acts of the Apostles.

Chinese New Year: Chinese New Year, also known as the Spring Festival, is a traditional lunisolar festival that celebrates the start of a new year on the Chinese calendar. It marks the end of winter and the beginning of spring, and is observed from New Year's Eve to the Lantern Festival. The festival begins on the new moon between January 21 and February 20.

Ramadan: Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar and is observed by Muslims worldwide. It is a month of fasting, prayer, reflection, and community. It commemorates Muhammad's first revelation and is considered one of the Five Pillars of Islam. Ramadan lasts for twenty-nine to thirty days, starting with the sighting of the crescent moon.

Eid al-Fitr: Eid al-Fitr is a major Islamic holiday that marks the end of Ramadan, a month of fasting. It is celebrated worldwide by Muslims and falls on the first day of Shawwal in the Islamic calendar. The date varies based on the sighting of the new moon. Also known as Lesser Eid, it is a time for feasting and is considered one of the two official holidays in Islam.

Passover: Passover, also known as Pesach, is a significant Jewish holiday commemorating the Israelites' liberation from slavery in Egypt. It is one of the three annual pilgrimage festivals and begins on the 15th day of the Hebrew month of Nisan. The holiday lasts for seven days in Israel and eight days in the Jewish diaspora. Passover involves the Passover Seder, a ritual meal, and the Feast of Unleavened Bread. Additionally, the Hebrew day starts and ends at sunset, so the holiday begins at sunset the day prior. The term "Pesach" can also refer to the paschal lamb offering or the biblical feast of unleavened bread.

Rosh Hashanah: Rosh Hashanah is the Jewish New Year, also known as Yom Teruah. It marks the start of the Jewish High Holy Days. It is a time of penitence and reflection, leading up to the important day of Yom Kippur. Rosh Hashanah kicks off a series of autumnal religious festivals including Sukkot, Shemini Atzeret, and Simchat Torah.

Yom Kippur: Yom Kippur is the holiest day in Judaism and Samaritanism, celebrated on the 10th of Tishrei, usually in late September or early October.

Education: Education is the transfer of knowledge, skills, and values, occurring in various forms. It encompasses formal education within institutions like schools, non-formal education outside schools, and informal learning through everyday experiences. Education is classified into levels such as early childhood, primary, secondary, and tertiary education. It can be teacher-centered or student-centered, and focused on specific subjects like science, language, or physical education. The term "education" can also refer to the traits and mental states of educated individuals, and the field that studies educational phenomena.

Early childhood education: Early childhood education (ECE), or nursery education, focuses on teaching children from birth to eight years old. It is a crucial period in their development and is traditionally defined up to the third grade.

Primary education: Primary education refers to the initial formal education that takes place after preschool/kindergarten and before secondary school. It is provided in primary schools, elementary schools, or first schools and middle schools depending on the location. In certain countries, including the UK, the term primary is used instead of elementary.

Secondary education: Secondary education refers to the second and final phase of basic education, following six years of primary education. It is typically compulsory until the age of 16 and can encompass both lower secondary (age 12) and upper secondary (before tertiary education) levels. While the aim of providing basic education is universal, each country has its unique systems and terminology. After secondary education, individuals can pursue higher education, vocational education, or enter the workforce.

College: A college is an educational institution that can be a standalone degree-awarding university or part of another institution. It can offer vocational and further education, or even function as a secondary school.

Curriculum: A curriculum is a broad term for all student experiences in education. It can refer to a planned sequence of instruction or the educator's goals. It includes the interaction between students and instructional content, as well as evaluating educational objectives. Curricula are divided into explicit, implicit, excluded, and extracurricular categories.

Learning: Learning is the acquisition of new understanding, knowledge, skills, and behaviors. Humans, animals, and some machines possess the ability to learn, while certain plants also show evidence of learning. It can be immediate or accumulate through repeated experiences. Learning often has long-lasting effects and differentiating between forgotten and unretrievable knowledge is difficult.

Skill: A skill is a learned ability to achieve specific outcomes effectively and efficiently. It can be divided into general and job-specific skills. General skills include time management, teamwork, leadership, and self-motivation, while job-specific skills are tailored to a particular job. Skills are assessed based on environmental stimuli and situations.

Library: A library is a collection of books and other materials accessible to members and allied institutions. It provides physical and digital resources, often including printed materials for borrowing and reference materials for in-house use. Libraries may also offer a variety of media formats, such as films, television programs, music recordings, etc. in DVDs, Blu-rays, CDs, cassettes, or microformats. Additionally, they provide access to information and content stored in bibliographic databases.

School: A school is an educational institution providing learning spaces for students under the guidance of teachers. It can be government or privately operated, with primary schools for young children and secondary schools for teenagers. Higher education is typically offered in university colleges or universities. Schooling is often compulsory in many countries.

Boarding school: A boarding school is a residential institution where students live and receive formal education. The term "boarding" refers to lodging and meals provided. Boarding schools have a long history and are found in various countries, with diverse rules, values, and practices. In these schools, students study and live together throughout the school year, and some institutions also admit day students who commute.

Exam: An exam is an assessment to measure a person's knowledge, skills, or aptitude in various subjects. It can be conducted verbally, on paper, on a computer, or in a specific area where the test taker must showcase their abilities.

University: A university is a research-based institution that grants academic degrees in multiple disciplines, including undergraduate and postgraduate programs.

Library of Alexandria: The Library of Alexandria, located in Alexandria, Egypt, was an ancient world's prominent and expansive research institution dedicated to the Muses. It might have been proposed by Demetrius of Phalerum to Ptolemy I Soter, but was likely built during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus. Known for its vast collection of papyrus scrolls, the library had an estimated 40,000 to 400,000 scrolls at its peak.

Library of Congress: The Library of Congress (LOC) is the research library and national library of the United States, serving as the library and research service for the U.S. Congress. Established in 1800, it is the oldest federal cultural institution in the country. The library is located in Washington, D.C., occupying three buildings on Capitol Hill, with a conservation center in Culpeper, Virginia. It is one of the largest libraries globally, housing around 173 million items and employing over 3,000 people. The library's collections are diverse, spanning various subjects, formats, and languages, encompassing research materials from across the world.

New York Public Library: The New York Public Library (NYPL) is the second-largest public library in the United States with 92 locations and nearly 53 million items. It operates as a private, nonprofit corporation with both private and public financing.

National Library of China: The National Library of China, located in Beijing, is one of the largest libraries globally. With over 41 million items, it holds the largest collection of Chinese literature and historical documents in the world. It spans 280,000 square meters and is a public institution sponsored by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism.

British Library: The British Library in London is the national library of the UK and one of the biggest libraries globally. It houses a vast collection of approximately 170-200 million items from various countries. Being a legal deposit library, it receives copies of all UK and Irish published books and a significant number of overseas titles distributed in the UK. The library is sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport and serves as a non-departmental public body.

Bibliothèque nationale de France: The Bibliothèque nationale de France is the national library of France, with two main sites in Paris: Richelieu and François-Mitterrand. It houses all publications and has a museum displaying valuable books, manuscripts, artworks, and objects.

Russian State Library: The Russian State Library, situated in Moscow, is the largest library in Russia, Europe, and among the biggest worldwide. With over 47 million units, it houses a vast collection. It operates under the Ministry of Culture's oversight and fiscal jurisdiction.

Vatican Library: The Vatican Library, also known as the Vatican Apostolic Library or the Vat, is the national library of the Holy See in Vatican City. Established in 1475, it is one of the oldest and most significant libraries globally. With over 75,000 historical codices and 1.1 million printed books, including 8,500 incunabula, it holds a remarkable collection of historical texts.

Al-Azhar University: Al-Azhar University in Cairo, Egypt, is a prestigious public university associated with Al-Azhar Al-Sharif. It is the oldest university in Egypt and renowned for Islamic learning. Besides higher education, it supervises a network of schools with around two million students. Additionally, it is affiliated with over 4,000 teaching institutes in Egypt (as of 1996).

University of Toronto: The University of Toronto is a prestigious public research university located in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It was established in 1827 as King's College and became a secular institution in 1850. With 11 autonomous colleges, it offers a diverse range of academic programs. The university maintains three campuses, including St. George in downtown Toronto, alongside satellite campuses in Scarborough and Mississauga.

National Autonomous University of Mexico: The National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) is a prestigious public research university known for its rigorous admissions and global recognition in education and research. It boasts a UNESCO World Heritage site campus designed by famous Mexican architects and painters. UNAM hosted major events during the 1968 Summer Olympic Games. All Mexican Nobel laureates are affiliated with UNAM. It was founded in 1910 as a secular alternative to the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico and was the birthplace of the student movement in 1968.

California Institute of Technology: Caltech, a renowned private research university in Pasadena, California, is dedicated to the advancement of pure and applied sciences. It has a remarkable history of innovation and is globally recognized as one of the most prestigious institutes of technology.

University of Chicago: The University of Chicago is a renowned private research university located in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago, Illinois, USA.

Johns Hopkins University: Johns Hopkins University, founded in 1876, is a prestigious private research university located in Baltimore, Maryland. It was the first U.S. university to adopt the European research institution model.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology: MIT, established in 1861, is a prestigious private land-grant research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. With a rich history, it has been instrumental in the advancement of various fields of technology and science.

Columbia University: Columbia University, a prestigious Ivy League research institution in NYC, was founded in 1754 as King's College. It is the oldest higher education institution in New York and the fifth-oldest in the US, located near Trinity Church.

Harvard University: Harvard University, founded in 1636, is a prestigious private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. It is the oldest higher learning institution in the US and was named after its first benefactor, John Harvard. Renowned for its influence, wealth, and rankings, Harvard is considered one of the most prestigious universities worldwide.

Princeton University: Princeton University is a prestigious Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey. Established in 1746 as the College of New Jersey, it is one of the oldest higher education institutions in the US. After relocating to Newark and then settling in its current campus, it gained university status in 1896 and adopted the name Princeton University.

Yale University: Yale University, founded in 1701, is a prestigious, private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut. It is the third-oldest higher education institution in the US and one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution.

University of California, Berkeley: The University of California, Berkeley is a prominent public research university in Berkeley, California. Founded in 1868, it is the first land-grant university in the state and the flagship campus of the University of California system. Noted for its top-ranked departments, Berkeley has produced numerous successful companies through its undergraduate alumni. Additionally, it holds the fourth highest number of Nobel Prize affiliations among academic and research institutions.

Stanford University: Stanford University is a prestigious private research institution located in Stanford, California. Its sprawling campus spans over 8,180 acres, making it one of the largest in the US. With over 17,000 students, Stanford University offers a top-notch educational experience.

Peking University: Peking University, located in Beijing, China, is a prestigious public university. It receives funding from the Ministry of Education and is affiliated with Project 211 and Project 985, as well as the Double First-Class Construction program.

Tsinghua University: Tsinghua University is a prestigious public university in Beijing, China. It is backed by the Ministry of Education and recognized under various influential initiatives including Project 211, Project 985, and Double First-Class Construction.

Indian Institutes of Technology: IITs are renowned engineering and technology institutions in India since 1950. They are under the ownership of the Ministry of Education and declared Institutes of National Importance. There are currently 23 IITs operating autonomously, linked through the IIT Council. The Minister of Education is its chairperson.

Kyoto University: Kyoto University, also known as KyotoU, is a prestigious national research university in Japan. It was established in 1897 and is one of the former Imperial Universities. As the second oldest university in Japan, KyotoU is renowned for its academic excellence and contribution to research.

University of Tokyo: The University of Tokyo, founded in 1877, is Japan's oldest modern public research university, located in Bunkyō, Tokyo. It emerged from the merger of various pre-westernisation era institutions and remains a prestigious educational institution in the country.

University of Copenhagen: The University of Copenhagen is a Danish public research university, founded in 1479. It is the second-oldest university in Scandinavia after Uppsala University.

University of Vienna: The University of Vienna is a historic public research university in Vienna, Austria, founded in 1365 by Duke Rudolph IV. It holds the title of the oldest university in the German-speaking world and is one of Europe's largest higher learning institutions. Renowned for its academic excellence, the university has been associated with 16 Nobel Prize laureates and has played host to numerous influential scholars throughout history.

University of Paris: The University of Paris, also called the Sorbonne, was the prominent university in Paris, France from 1150 to 1970. It emerged in 1150, making it the second-oldest university in Europe.

Humboldt University of Berlin: Humboldt University of Berlin is a research university in Berlin, Germany, known for its public status and central location in the Mitte borough.

University of Göttingen: The University of Göttingen, founded in 1734, is a public research university in Göttingen, Germany. It was established to promote Enlightenment ideals and is the oldest university in Lower Saxony. With approximately 31,600 students, it is also the largest university in the state.

Heidelberg University: Heidelberg University, or Ruprecht Karl University, is a public research university in Heidelberg, Germany. It was founded in 1386, making it Germany's oldest university and one of the world's oldest surviving universities. It is also the third university established in the Holy Roman Empire. Since 1899, it has been coeducational.

Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich: The Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, established in 1472, is a public research university in Munich, Germany. It is the sixth-oldest university in Germany and has a proud history of continuous operation.

University of Bologna: The University of Bologna, founded in 1088, is the oldest and one of the largest universities in Europe. It is a public research university located in Bologna, Italy. It was the first degree-awarding institution in the world and coined the term "universitas". With over 90,000 students, it has a rich history and is known for its motto "Alma Mater Studiorum".

Sapienza University of Rome: Sapienza University of Rome, established in 1303, is one of the world's oldest universities and the largest in Europe with 122,000 students. It is a renowned education and research center in Southern Europe, offering various campuses, libraries, and laboratories in Rome.

ETH Zurich: ETH Zurich, founded in 1854, is a renowned research university in Zürich, Switzerland. Its mission is to educate engineers and scientists. The university is known for its focus on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, with 16 departments covering various disciplines.

University of Cambridge: The University of Cambridge is a public research university in Cambridge, England, founded in 1209. It is the third-oldest university in continuous operation worldwide and is often referred to as Oxbridge along with the University of Oxford. In 1231, it received a royal charter from King Henry III.

University of Oxford: The University of Oxford, founded in 1096, is the oldest university in the English-speaking world and the second-oldest globally. It is located in Oxford, England and is a renowned collegiate research institution. It experienced rapid growth after English students were prohibited from attending the University of Paris in 1167. Following conflicts with the local townspeople, some academics migrated to Cambridge in 1209, establishing the University of Cambridge. These two prestigious universities, collectively called Oxbridge, share several similarities.

Moscow State University: Moscow State University, located in Moscow, Russia, is a prominent public research university.

Anthropology: Anthropology is the scientific study of humans, encompassing behavior, biology, cultures, societies, and languages, both present and past. It includes social anthropology, which examines behavioral patterns, cultural anthropology, which explores cultural meaning and values, and linguistic anthropology, which studies the influence of language on social life. Additionally, biological anthropology analyzes the development of humans.

Biological anthropology: Biological anthropology (or physical anthropology) is a scientific discipline that studies the biological and behavioral aspects of humans, their extinct ancestors, and non-human primates from an evolutionary standpoint. It focuses on human biology and behavior from a biological perspective.

Linguistic anthropology: Linguistic anthropology is the study of how language affects society. It is an interdisciplinary field that emerged from documenting endangered languages and has since expanded to cover various aspects of language structure and usage.

Farmer: A farmer is involved in agriculture, raising crops and animals for food or materials. They may own or work on the land. In developed economies, a farmer is typically a farm owner, while workers are known as farm workers. In older definitions, a farmer was someone who promoted plant growth or raised animals through labor and attention.

Hunter-gatherer: A hunter-gatherer is a person living a traditional lifestyle, obtaining food by gathering from local sources and hunting. They rely on edible plants, insects, fungi, eggs, and game as sources of sustenance. Hunter-gatherer societies differ from sedentary agricultural societies that cultivate crops and rear domesticated animals for food production.

Nomad: Nomads are mobile communities who lack permanent settlement and frequently relocate. They encompass diverse groups like hunter-gatherers, trader nomads, tinkers, and pastoral nomads. However, the population of nomadic pastoral tribes has gradually declined over time, with an estimated 30–40 million nomads worldwide as of 1995.

Diaspora: A diaspora refers to a scattered population residing outside its original geographic location. It pertains to people who identify with a specific location but currently live elsewhere.

Ethnology: Ethnology is an academic discipline comparing and analyzing the characteristics of diverse peoples and their interrelationships.

Ethnicity: Ethnicity refers to a group of people who share distinctive characteristics, such as nationality, ancestry, traditions, language, history, society, religion, or social treatment. It is often used interchangeably with the term nation, particularly in cases of ethnic nationalism.

Ethnocentrism: Ethnocentrism is the act of using one's own culture as a basis to judge other cultures. It often involves negative judgment and the belief that one's own culture is superior. This includes language, behavior, customs, and religion. Ethnocentrism can also refer to any culturally biased judgment and can be observed in portrayals of different regions, like the Global South and the Global North.

Ethnography: Ethnography is a branch of anthropology that systematically studies individual cultures. It explores cultural phenomena from the viewpoint of the subjects being studied. As a type of social research, ethnography focuses on understanding the behavior of participants in specific social situations and their own interpretations of such behavior.

Indigenous peoples: Indigenous peoples are culturally distinct groups with a special connection to their traditional lands. They have experienced subjugation and discrimination under the dominant cultural model and commonly self-identify as Indigenous.

Self-determination: Self-determination is a crucial concept in international law, recognized by the United Nations. It asserts that people should have the freedom to determine their own political status and sovereignty without external interference, based on principles of equal rights and fair opportunity.

Arabs: The Arabs are an ethnic group primarily living in the Arab world in Western Asia and Northern Africa. They also have a notable presence in different parts of the world.

Bedouin: Bedouin refer to Arab nomadic tribes historically residing in desert regions across the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia. Originating in the Syrian and Arabian Deserts, they spread throughout West Asia and North Africa after Islam's arrival. The term "bedouin" means "desert dweller" in Arabic and distinguishes them from sedentary people (ḥāḍir). Bedouin occupy territories from North African deserts to Middle Eastern rocky areas, traditionally organized in tribes. They share a common culture of herding camels and goats and most practice Islam, with a few Christian Bedouins in the Fertile Crescent.

Austronesian peoples: The Austronesian peoples are a diverse group of people spread across Taiwan, Southeast Asia, Micronesia, Melanesia, Polynesia, and Madagascar, who speak Austronesian languages. They also include ethnic minorities in Vietnam, Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand, Hainan, the Comoros, and the Torres Strait Islands. Collectively, their territories are known as Austronesia.

Jews: The Jews are an ethnoreligious group and nation descended from the Hebrews of the ancient Near East. They follow the religion of Judaism, which is intertwined with their ethnicity and community. Not all ethnic Jews practice Judaism, but those who formally convert are considered part of the community.

African Pygmies: African Pygmies are ethnic groups from Central Africa who live in the Congo Basin. They traditionally rely on a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. They are categorized into three main groups based on their geographic location: western Bambenga, eastern Bambuti, and central/southern Batwa. The Southern Twa are sometimes included under the term Pygmoid.

Bantu peoples: The Bantu peoples are a diverse group of around 400 African ethnic groups who speak Bantu languages. These languages are spoken across 24 countries in Central, Southeast, and Southern Africa. They encompass several hundred distinct languages, with an estimated 350 million speakers in the mid-2010s. The Democratic Republic of the Congo alone is home to about 60 million Bantu speakers, representing various ethnic and tribal groups.

Zulu people: The Zulu people, the largest ethnic group in South Africa, are native to Southern Africa. They belong to the Nguni ethnic group and are mainly concentrated in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, with an estimated population of 10-12 million.

Berbers: The Berbers, also known as Amazigh or Imazighen, are diverse indigenous ethnic groups in North Africa. They existed before the Arab migrations to the Maghreb and are connected through their use of Berber languages within the Afroasiatic language family. They live in scattered communities across Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Tunisia, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso, and Egypt's Siwa Oasis.

Maasai people: The Maasai people are a Nilotic ethnic group living in Kenya and Tanzania near the Great Lakes region. They speak the Maa language, and although most also speak Swahili and English, some elders in rural areas may not.

San people: The San people, also known as Bushmen, are indigenous hunter-gatherers in southern Africa. They have the oldest surviving cultures in the region, with ancestral territories across Botswana, Namibia, Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, and South Africa. Their languages belong to the Khoe, Tuu, and Kxʼa families. The San are distinguished from neighboring pastoralists and more recent immigrants like the Khoekhoe, Bantu, Europeans, and Asians.

Yoruba people: The Yoruba people are a West African ethnic group, mainly found in Nigeria, Benin, and Togo. They constitute over 48 million people in Africa, with a significant presence outside the continent and among the African diaspora. Yoruba is one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa, comprising 20.7% of Nigeria's population. They primarily reside in Yorubaland and speak the Yoruba language, which has the highest number of native speakers in the Niger-Congo language family.

Indigenous peoples of the Americas: The Indigenous peoples of the Americas are the original inhabitants of the region before European colonization. They include various ethnic groups who still identify with their ancient heritage.

Inuit: Inuit are culturally and historically similar Indigenous peoples living in the Arctic and subarctic regions of North America, Greenland, Labrador, Quebec, Nunavut, the Northwest Territories, Yukon, Alaska, and Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Russia. They speak Inuit languages, a part of the Eskimo-Aleut language family, and use Inuit Sign Language in Nunavut, which is critically endangered.

Maya peoples: The Maya are indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica, known for their ancient civilization. Today, they reside in southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Honduras. The term "Maya" is a modern collective name for these people, although they did not historically use it themselves. There was no shared identity or political unity among the different Maya groups, as they each had their own unique traditions, cultures, and histories.

Quechua people: The Quechua people are indigenous to South America and speak the Quechua languages, which originated in Peru. While most Quechua speakers are from Peru, there are also significant populations in Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, and Argentina.

Cherokee: The Cherokee are Indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands. They lived in towns along river valleys in parts of North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama.

Iroquois: The Iroquois, also known as the Five Nations or Six Nations, were a confederacy of Native Americans and First Nations in Northeast North America and Upstate New York. They spoke Iroquoian languages and formed a powerful alliance. Initially, French called them the "Iroquois League" and later the "Iroquois Confederacy," while the English referred to them as the "Five Nations." The Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca were the original five nations, and later the Tuscarora joined to make it the Six Nations.

Navajo: The Navajo are indigenous people from the US Southwest.

Sioux: The Sioux, also known as the Oceti Sakowin, are Native American tribes from the Great Plains. They consist of the Dakota and Lakota people and are collectively referred to as the Seven Council Fires. The term "Sioux" is derived from the Ojibwe term "Nadowessi". It can be used to describe any ethnic group within the Great Sioux Nation or any of their various language dialects.

Adivasi: The Adivasi are tribal groups in the Indian subcontinent, with a heterogeneous identity. The term was created in the 1930s to give tribal people an indigenous identity. It is also used for ethnic minorities in neighboring countries. In India, the Constitution refers to them as Scheduled Tribes and Janjati. However, the government does not officially recognize tribes as indigenous. India ratified the ILO Convention 107 but refused to sign the ILO Convention 169. Most Adivasi groups are included in the Scheduled Tribe category in India.

Hmong people: The Hmong are an indigenous group in East and Southeast Asia, mainly residing in Southwest China and countries in Southeast Asia. In China, they are considered a sub-group of the Miao people. There is also a significant diasporic community in the United States, with smaller communities in Australia and South America.

Kurds: The Kurds are an Iranic ethnic group native to the mountainous region of Kurdistan in Western Asia. They are spread across southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, northern Iraq, and northern Syria, with enclaves in Central Anatolia, Khorasan, and the Caucasus. Additionally, there are large Kurdish diaspora communities in western Turkey and Western Europe. The estimated Kurdish population is between 30 and 45 million.

Han Chinese: The Han Chinese are the largest ethnic group in the world, representing about 17.5% of the global population. Originating from China, they are an East Asian ethnic group.

Tibetan people: The Tibetan people are an East Asian ethnic group with a population of around 6.7 million. They primarily reside in Tibet Autonomous Region, China, but substantial Tibetan communities also exist in Chinese provinces of Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, and Yunnan. Additionally, Tibetans can be found in India, Nepal, and Bhutan.

Uyghurs: The Uyghurs are a Turkic ethnic group from Central and East Asia, recognized as the titular nationality of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in Northwest China. They are one of China's 55 officially recognized ethnic minorities and are considered the titular people of Xinjiang.

Basques: The Basques are an ethnic group in Southwestern Europe, with their own language, culture, and shared ancestry. They are indigenous to the Basque Country, which spans parts of Spain and France.

Romani people: The Romani, also known as Roma, are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group with a nomadic history starting from present-day Rajasthan, India. Linguistic and genetic evidence supports their Indian origin. They migrated westward around 1000 CE and arrived in Europe during the 13th to 14th century. While dispersed, their largest populations are found in Europe and western Asia, notably in central, eastern, and southern Europe.

Sámi peoples: The Sámi are indigenous people who speak Sámi languages and live in Sápmi, covering parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and the Kola Peninsula in Russia. Sápmi was previously known as Lapland, and the Sámi prefer their own language for the region's name. They are part of the Uralic language family.

Slavs: The Slavs are a group of related ethnic groups speaking various Slavic languages. They are distributed throughout Eurasia, primarily inhabiting Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. A significant Slavic diaspora has developed in the Americas and Western and Northern Europe through immigration.

Aboriginal Australians: Aboriginal Australians are Indigenous peoples of Australia and its islands, excluding Torres Strait Islanders. They are often collectively referred to as Indigenous Australians.

Māori people: The Māori people are indigenous to mainland New Zealand, originating from East Polynesia settlers who arrived between 1320 and 1350. They developed a unique culture over centuries of isolation, with distinct language, mythology, crafts, and performing arts. Some Māori migrated to the Chatham Islands, giving rise to another indigenous Polynesian group called the Moriori.

Language: Language is a structured system of communication with grammar and vocabulary. It allows humans to convey meaning through spoken, written, and sign forms. Most languages have writing systems. Language varies across cultures and time. It is productive and allows the creation of limitless sentences and referencing absent things. Language is acquired through learning and relies on social convention.

Origin of language: The origin of language is a topic of study that has been ongoing for centuries. Scholars rely on evidence from fossils, archaeology, language diversity, acquisition studies, and animal communication comparisons. Language's beginnings likely coincide with the emergence of modern human behavior, but no consensus exists on the details and implications of this connection.

Literacy: Literacy refers to specific methods of reading and writing within a particular context. It involves the ability to understand and convey thoughts or ideas through written communication. Literate societies have established practices and beliefs about reading and writing, which influence how literacy is taught and practiced.

Reading: Reading is the act of comprehending written information through visual or tactile means, involving the interpretation and understanding of letters and symbols.

Speech: Speech is the vocal communication of humans using language, which involves using phonetic combinations of vowel and consonant sounds to form words. Speakers perform intentional speech acts like informing, declaring, asking, persuading, and directing, using various vocal aspects to convey meaning. Additionally, unintentionally, speakers communicate their social position through aspects like sex, age, origin, physical and psychological states, education, and experience.

Translation: Translation is the transfer of meaning from a source language to a target language through written communication. It is distinct from interpretation and can only occur once writing exists within a language community.

Writing: Writing is a cognitive and social activity that uses writing systems to create lasting records of human language. It relies on semantic structures like lexicon and syntax, using symbols to represent phonology and morphology. Written language can have unique characteristics compared to spoken language.

Alphabet: An alphabet is a set of letters that represent spoken sounds in a language. It enables the distinction of words based on phonemes. Unlike other writing systems that use symbols for syllables or words, an alphabet uses letters for precise linguistic representation.

Letter (alphabet): A letter is a symbol in a writing system that represents a phonemic sound. Letters make up an alphabet, and generally match phonemes in spoken language, although not always consistently.

Orthography: Orthography refers to the rules and conventions for writing a language. It includes norms for spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, word boundaries, emphasis, and punctuation.

Transliteration: Transliteration refers to converting text from one script to another by swapping letters in predictable ways (e.g., Greek ⟨α⟩ becoming ⟨a⟩). This process involves replacing characters, such as Cyrillic ⟨д⟩ becoming ⟨d⟩ and Armenian ⟨ն⟩ becoming ⟨n⟩. Transliteration also includes transforming characters into digraphs, for example, Greek ⟨χ⟩ turning into the digraph ⟨ch⟩. Even Latin characters can be transliterated, as seen with ⟨æ⟩ being converted into ⟨ae⟩.

Writing system: A writing system is a visual method of representing spoken language. It involves a script and rules called orthography that regulate its use.

Grammar: Grammar refers to the rules that govern how speakers or writers use and create clauses, phrases, and words in a natural language. It involves the study of phonology, morphology, syntax, phonetics, semantics, and pragmatics. There are two main approaches to studying grammar: traditional and theoretical.

Syntax: Syntax is the study of language structure, including how words and morphemes come together to create phrases and sentences. It explores word order, grammatical relations, sentence structure, agreement, crosslinguistic variation, and the connection between form and meaning. Various approaches exist, each with different assumptions and objectives.

Sentence (linguistics): A sentence in linguistics is a linguistic expression that expresses a complete thought or consists of a subject and predicate. It can also be a maximal unit of syntactic structure or a delimited unit of written texts. A sentence can convey statements, questions, exclamations, requests, commands, or suggestions.

Clause: A clause in language is made up of a subject and a predicate. The predicate usually includes a verb along with other modifiers. In some cases, the subject can be omitted if it can be understood from the context.

Phrase: In grammar, a phrase is a group of words acting as a grammatical unit. It can be a single word or a complete sentence. In linguistics, phrases are analyzed as units of syntactic structure. However, in common usage, a phrase often has idiomatic or special meaning. These are known as phrasemes in linguistics.

Proverb: A proverb is a traditional saying that expresses wisdom or truth based on common sense or experience. It is often metaphorical and uses formulaic language. Proverbs are fixed expressions, while proverbial phrases allow alterations to fit the context. They form a genre of folklore transmitted orally.

Grammatical tense: Grammatical tense refers to the category of time reference in grammar. It is expressed through verb forms, specifically conjugation patterns.

Speech act: A speech act is an utterance that conveys both information and performs an action. It is a way of expressing desires or making requests while presenting specific intentions to others. For instance, saying "I would like the kimchi; could you please pass it to me?" not only expresses the desire for kimchi but also requests someone to pass it.

Linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language, encompassing theoretical and descriptive analysis. It is connected to applied language studies and learning specific languages. While historically linked to literary study, linguistics now employs scientific methods.

Linguistic typology: Linguistic typology is a field of linguistics that categorizes and compares languages based on their structural characteristics. It aims to understand and explain the diversity and commonalities of languages worldwide. It includes subdisciplines like phonological, syntactic, lexical, and theoretical typology.

Comparative linguistics: Comparative linguistics is a branch of historical linguistics that studies the historical connections between languages through language comparison.

Historical linguistics: Historical linguistics studies language change over time. It describes and explains changes in languages, reconstructs their pre-history and relationships, and develops theories of language change. Additionally, it explores the history of speech communities and words, while considering the impact of cultural and social factors on language evolution.

Etymology: Etymology is the study of a word's origin and how its meaning has evolved over time. It looks at the building blocks of words and their sounds. It is a subfield of linguistics that draws upon various disciplines to create a chronological record of a word's various meanings.

Phonetics: Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies how humans produce and perceive sounds in speech and sign languages. Phoneticians specialize in studying the physical properties of speech. The field of phonetics can be divided into three sub-disciplines, focusing on how speech is produced, how it affects sound properties, and how sound waves are converted into linguistic information. Phonetics examines the minimal linguistic unit called a phone, which is a speech sound that differs from the abstract unit called a phoneme, which determines meaning in a language.

Consonant: A consonant is a speech sound articulated with closure or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples include sounds like [b], [d], and [g] made with the lips, front or back of the tongue. Other consonants are pronounced throughout the vocal tract or with air forced through a narrow channel. Nasals are consonants with air flowing through the nose. Consonants contrast with vowels in speech.

International Phonetic Alphabet: The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a standardized alphabetic system created by the International Phonetic Association. It represents speech sounds in written form and is used by various professionals, including linguists, teachers, and translators.

Prosody (linguistics): Prosody in linguistics refers to the study of suprasegmental features in speech, which include intonation, stress, and rhythm. It examines elements beyond individual phonetic segments, focusing on syllables and larger units of speech.

Vowel: A vowel is a speech sound produced without restrictions in the vocal tract. It is one of the two main types of speech sounds, along with consonants. Vowels differ in quality, loudness, and length. They are typically voiced and play a significant role in tonal, intonational, and stress-related variations.

Sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of how society, culture, and context influence language use. It examines the impact of language on society and overlaps with sociology of language, pragmatics, and linguistic anthropology.

Accent (sociolinguistics): In sociolinguistics, an accent is a distinct way of pronouncing a language, influenced by factors such as geography, social class, ethnicity, and first language. It can be associated with a specific region or social group.

Dialect: A dialect refers to two separate linguistic relationships.

Diglossia: Diglossia is a linguistic situation where a community uses two dialects or languages. One is used in everyday conversations, while the other is used in formal settings like education or literature. In triglossia, three dialects are employed. Digraphia refers to the coexistence of two writing systems for a single language.

Endangered language: An endangered language is one that is at risk of disappearing as its speakers either die out or shift to other languages. When a language has no native speakers left, it becomes a dead language. If no one can speak it at all, it becomes extinct. However, even dead languages can be studied through recordings or writings. The accelerated rate of language extinction today is attributed to globalization, mass migration, cultural replacement, imperialism, neocolonialism, and linguicide.

Language death: Language death is the extinction of a language when its last native speaker passes away. It is also known as language extinction, when the language is no longer known by anyone, including second-language speakers. Linguicide refers to the death of a language due to natural or political causes, while glottophagy is the absorption of a minor language by a major one.

Multilingualism: Multilingualism refers to the use of multiple languages by individuals or groups. It is prevalent worldwide, with multilingual speakers outnumbering monolingual ones. Over half of Europeans speak at least one language in addition to their native tongue. Multilingualism offers advantages in trade, globalization, and cultural exchange. The Internet has made it easier for people to be exposed to multiple languages. Those who speak multiple languages are known as polyglots.

Slang: Slang is informal vocabulary used in speech, not formal writing. It can also be exclusive language used by certain groups to identify themselves and exclude others. The term originated in the 18th century and has had various definitions over time.

Morphology (linguistics): Morphology in linguistics studies the formation and relationships of words within a language. It analyzes word structure, including stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes. It also examines parts of speech, intonation, stress, and how context affects word pronunciation and meaning. Morphology is distinct from morphological typology, which classifies languages based on word usage, and lexicology, which studies a language's vocabulary composition.

Morpheme: A morpheme is the smallest meaningful part of a word. It is studied in morphology, a field of linguistics.

Phonology: Phonology is a linguistic branch that studies how languages organize sounds or signs. It can refer to the system of sounds in a specific language, and it encompasses any linguistic analysis.

Phoneme: A phoneme is a group of sounds that differentiate words in a language.

Syllable: A syllable is a unit of speech made up of a nucleus and optional margins. Syllables are the building blocks of words, influencing a language's rhythm, prosody, metre, and stress patterns. Speech can be divided into a whole number of syllables, such as the word "ignite" having two syllables: "ig" and "nite."

Semantics: Semantics is the study of reference, meaning, and truth in various disciplines like philosophy, linguistics, and computer science.

Euphemism: A euphemism is a mild or indirect word or expression used instead of one that is considered offensive or unpleasant. It can be used to downplay or soften certain concepts, or to avoid talking directly about sensitive or taboo subjects like disability, sex, excretion, or death. Euphemisms are often employed to mask profanity and maintain politeness.

Profanity: Profanity, also known as cursing or swearing, involves the use of offensive words for various purposes, such as demonstrating disrespect or expressing strong emotions. It can also serve as an intensifier, show informality, or relieve pain. However, it is considered rude in formal or polite settings and is considered a sin in some religions. Profanity encompasses slurs but can also include insults that do not involve swear words.

Semiotics: Semiotics is the study of sign processes and communication of meaning. It defines sign as anything that conveys intentional or unintentional meaning or feelings to interpreters.

Pragmatics: Pragmatics is the study of how context shapes meaning in language. It examines language use in social interactions and the relationship between interpreter and speaker. Pragmaticians are linguists specialized in this field. The International Pragmatics Association (IPrA) represents pragmatics since 1986.

Symbol: Symbols are marks, signs, or words that represent ideas or objects. They link different concepts and allow communication beyond what is known or seen. Symbols can take the form of words, sounds, gestures, ideas, or images, and convey beliefs and ideas. Examples include the red octagon symbolizing "STOP," blue lines on maps representing rivers, and a red rose symbolizing love. Numerals, alphabet letters, and personal names are also symbols.

Word: A word is a fundamental part of language that carries meaning and can stand alone. Linguists have not agreed on a precise definition, leading to controversy. Various criteria based on phonology, grammar, and orthography have been proposed. Some argue that the concept of a word is merely a convention in everyday situations.

Noun: A noun is a word that names objects, including living creatures, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.

Name: A name is a term for identification used by an observer. It can identify a class or individual uniquely or within a context. The entity identified is called its referent. Personal names identify specific individuals. Specific entities have proper names, while other nouns are called common names. Names can be given to people, places, or things.

Personal name: A personal name refers to the set of names by which an individual is known. It can be the person's birth name or legal name. Linguistically, personal names are studied under the discipline of anthroponymy.

Surname: A surname is the hereditary part of a person's name that signifies their family. It is combined with a given name to form a person's full name.

Verb: A verb is a word that conveys an action, occurrence, or state of being. It can be inflected to encode tense, aspect, mood, and voice in different languages. Verbs can also agree with the person, gender, or number of their subject or object. They have tenses, including present, past, and future, which indicate the timing of an action.

Adjective: Adjective: a word that describes a noun or noun phrase, altering the information provided by the noun.

Adverb: An adverb is a word or expression that modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverbs. It answers questions about how, when, where, and to what extent. Adverbs can be single words or phrases and clauses, performing the adverbial function.

Conjunction (grammar): A conjunction is a part of speech that connects words, phrases, or clauses. It may have different meanings in different languages and can sometimes be a preposition. In English, a word can be a conjunction or a preposition depending on its usage in a sentence. Conjunctions are invariable grammatical particles that join items together.

Interjection: An interjection is a word or expression that stands alone to express a spontaneous feeling. It includes exclamations, curses, greetings, and hesitation markers. Interjections overlap with profanities, discourse markers, and fillers. The use of interjections can be traced historically through Greek and Latin Modistae.

Pronoun: A pronoun is a word or group of words that can replace a noun. It is used in linguistics and grammar to avoid repetitive use of nouns.

Preposition and postposition: Prepositions and postpositions, known as adpositions, are words that indicate spatial or temporal relationships and mark semantic roles. They express how things are positioned or located in relation to each other.

Language family: A language family consists of languages that share a common ancestor called the proto-language. Linguists compare languages to a biological family tree or an evolutionary taxonomy. Daughter languages within a family are genetically related. The proto-language evolves into distinct languages due to geographical separation and different language changes.

Afroasiatic languages: The Afroasiatic languages are a family of about 400 languages spoken in West Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara and Sahel. They are the fourth-largest language family, with over 500 million native speakers. The family is divided into six branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Semitic, and Omotic. Most Afroasiatic languages are indigenous to Africa, excluding the Semitic branch.

Semitic languages: Semitic languages, a branch of Afroasiatic language family, include Arabic, Amharic, Hebrew, and others. Spoken by over 330 million people in West Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, Malta, and immigrant communities worldwide. Term was coined in 1780s based on Shem, one of Noah's sons in the Book of Genesis.

Algic languages: Algic languages are a group of indigenous languages in North America, primarily belonging to the Algonquian subfamily. They are spoken across a wide region from the Rocky Mountains to Atlantic Canada. In addition to the Algonquian languages, the Yurok and Wiyot languages in northwestern California are also considered part of the Algic family. These languages all originated from a common ancestral language called Proto-Algic, estimated to have been spoken about 7,000 years ago. Proto-Algic was reconstructed using Proto-Algonquian, Wiyot, and Yurok languages.

Austroasiatic languages: The Austroasiatic languages are spoken in Southeast Asia, South Asia, and East Asia, with Vietnamese and Khmer being the most widely spoken. Approximately 117 million people speak an Austroasiatic language, with Vietnamese accounting for the majority. Other languages like Mon, Wa, and Santali also have significant presence. Vietnamese and Khmer are national languages in Vietnam and Cambodia respectively, while Mon is recognized in Myanmar and Thailand. The remaining languages are spoken by minority groups and lack official status.

Austronesian languages: Austronesian languages is a widely spoken language family found in Maritime Southeast Asia, parts of Mainland Southeast Asia, Madagascar, the islands of the Pacific Ocean, and Taiwan, with approximately 386 million speakers. It is the fifth-largest language family in terms of speakers and includes major languages like Malay, Javanese, Sundanese, Tagalog, Malagasy, and Cebuano. This language family comprises 1,257 languages, making it the second-largest language family.

Creole language: A creole language is a stable natural language that forms from the mixing and simplification of different languages. It develops into a complete language with its own grammar and vocabulary in a relatively short time. Creoles stand out for their systematic grammar and large vocabulary, and they are acquired by children as their first language. This distinguishes them from pidgins. Creolistics is the study of creole languages in linguistics. A person who engages in this study is called a creolist.

Dravidian languages: Dravidian languages are spoken by 250 million people in southern India, north-east Sri Lanka, and south-west Pakistan. They were first attested in the 2nd century BCE through inscriptions in Tamil-Brahmi script in Tamil Nadu.

Eskaleut languages: Eskaleut languages, also known as Eskimo–Aleut or Inuit–Yupik–Unangan languages, are native to northern North America and a small part of northeastern Asia. They are spoken in Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and the Russian Far East. The family includes Inuit, Yupik, and Unangan languages.

Indo-European languages: The Indo-European languages are spoken across Europe, the Iranian plateau, and the northern Indian subcontinent. They include popular languages like English, French, Portuguese, Russian, Dutch, and Spanish that have spread globally through colonialism. The family is divided into branches, with eight still alive today, such as Albanian, Armenian, Balto-Slavic, Celtic, Germanic, Hellenic, Indo-Iranian, and Italic/Romance. There are also nine extinct subdivisions within this language family.

Indo-Aryan languages: The Indo-Aryan languages are a branch of Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family. They have over 800 million speakers, mainly in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Maldives. Additionally, Indo-Aryan communities are found in Europe, Asia, America, the Caribbean, Africa, Polynesia, and Australia. There are more than 200 documented Indo-Aryan languages.

Romance languages: Romance languages, derived from Vulgar Latin, are the sole surviving subgroup of the Italic branch in the Indo-European language family.

Germanic languages: Germanic languages: A branch of Indo-European languages spoken mainly in Europe, North America, Oceania, and Southern Africa by around 515 million people. English, the most spoken Germanic language, is the world's most widely spoken language with an estimated 2 billion speakers. All Germanic languages trace their origins to Proto-Germanic, spoken in Iron Age Scandinavia and Germany.

Iranian languages: The Iranian languages, also known as Iranic languages, are a subgroup of the Indo-Iranian languages within the Indo-European language family. They are spoken mainly by Iranian peoples on the Iranian Plateau.

Slavic languages: The Slavic languages, also known as the Slavonic languages, are Indo-European languages spoken mainly by Slavic peoples. They are believed to come from a proto-language called Proto-Slavic, originating from Proto-Balto-Slavic. This places the Slavic languages in a Balto-Slavic group within the broader Indo-European family.

Kartvelian languages: Kartvelian languages are indigenous to South Caucasus, primarily spoken in Georgia, with over 5.2 million speakers globally. They have no known relation to any other language family, establishing themselves as one of the world's primary language families.

Khoisan languages: Khoisan languages are African languages with click consonants that do not belong to other language families. Originally thought to be related, they are now classified into three language families and two isolates.

Kra–Dai languages: The Kra–Dai languages are a language family in Southeast Asia, China, and India. They are tonal and include Thai and Lao, the national languages of Thailand and Laos. Around 93 million people speak Kra–Dai languages, with Thai being the most widely spoken. The family encompasses 95 languages, with the Tai branch consisting of 62 languages.

Niger–Congo languages: Niger-Congo languages are a hypothetical language family spoken across most of sub-Saharan Africa, including the Mande and Atlantic-Congo languages. It could potentially be the world's largest language family, with the most distinct languages and the third-largest number of speakers. Its geographical area coverage in Africa is also the largest. However, the classification of certain smaller language groups poses challenges, and there is debate about what qualifies as a distinct language. Ethnologue lists 1,540 named Niger-Congo languages.

Bantu languages: The Bantu languages are a family of around 600 different languages spoken by the Bantu peoples in Central, Southern, Eastern, and Southeast Africa. These languages make up the largest portion of the Southern Bantoid language group.

Nilo-Saharan languages: The Nilo-Saharan languages are African languages spoken by around 70 million people in the upper regions of the Chari and Nile rivers, including historic Nubia. They are found in 17 countries across northern Africa, from Algeria to Tanzania.

North Caucasian languages: The North Caucasian languages, or Caucasic, are two well-established language families spoken predominantly in the north Caucasus region. They include the Northwest Caucasian family and the Northeast Caucasian family, comprising around 34 to 38 distinct languages.

Quechuan languages: Quechuan languages, also known as Quechua or Runasimi, are an indigenous language family originated in Peru and later spread to other Andean countries. Derived from a common ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken pre-Columbian language family in the Americas, with an estimated 7-10 million speakers. In Peru, approximately 13.9% of the population speaks a Quechua language.

Sign language: Sign language is a visual-manual language using gestures instead of speech. It has its own grammar and vocabulary and is not universal or mutually intelligible, but does share similarities across different sign languages.

Sino-Tibetan languages: Sino-Tibetan languages, also referred to as Trans-Himalayan, is a language family with over 400 languages spoken by more than 1.4 billion people. It is the second most spoken language family after Indo-European. The majority of speakers are native speakers of Sinitic languages, totaling around 1.3 billion. Other widely spoken Sino-Tibetan languages include Burmese and Tibetic languages. The family's languages are found in the Himalayas, the Southeast Asian Massif, and the eastern Tibetan Plateau, with many having small and remote speech communities, resulting in limited documentation.

Trans–New Guinea languages: Trans-New Guinea (TNG) languages are a group of Papuan languages spoken in Papua New Guinea and parts of Indonesia. This language family is extensive and also includes neighboring islands.

Turkic languages: The Turkic languages are a family of over 35 documented languages spoken by Turkic peoples across Eurasia. They originated in East Asia and expanded to Central Asia and beyond. These languages form a dialect continuum.

Uralic languages: The Uralic languages are a family of 38 languages spoken by around 25 million people in Europe and Northern Asia. Hungarian, Finnish, and Estonian have the most native speakers. Some other significant languages include Erzya, Moksha, Mari, Udmurt, Northern Sámi, Komi, Karelian, and the Samoyedic languages. These languages are mainly spoken in northern Scandinavia and parts of Russia.

Uto-Aztecan languages: Uto-Aztecan languages are a family of over thirty indigenous languages in the Americas. They are mainly spoken in Western United States and Mexico. The name reflects the inclusion of Ute language from Utah and Nahuan languages from Mexico.

Braille: Braille is a tactile writing system for the visually impaired. It can be read on embossed paper or via refreshable braille displays on computers and smartphones. Braille can be written using various tools such as slate and stylus, braille writer, electronic braille notetaker, or a computer connected to a braille embosser.

Arabic script: Arabic script is a widely used writing system primarily for Arabic, Asian and African languages. It is the second-most used alphabetic writing system globally and the third-most used writing system by number of users and countries.

Brahmic scripts: Brahmic scripts, also called Indic scripts, are a group of abugida writing systems. Originating from ancient India's Brahmi script, they are widely used across the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and parts of East Asia. These scripts are employed by various languages in South, East, and Southeast Asia, including Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman, Mongolic, Austroasiatic, Austronesian, and Tai language families. Additionally, Brahmic scripts played a crucial role in developing the dictionary order (gojūon) of Japanese kana.

Chinese characters: Chinese characters are logographs used for writing Chinese languages and other cultures influenced by Chinese. They have a documented history spanning over three millennia and are considered one of the four independent inventions of writing. Chinese characters are the only writing system continuously used since their invention. The function, style, and means of writing characters have evolved over time. Simplified characters are used in mainland China, Singapore, and Malaysia, while traditional characters are used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau.

Cuneiform: Cuneiform is an ancient writing system used in the Near East. It consists of wedge-shaped impressions that form its signs. This script was developed to write the Sumerian language and was used extensively from the early Bronze Age until the beginning of the Common Era.

Cyrillic script: The Cyrillic script, also known as the Slavic script, is a writing system used for multiple languages in Eurasia. It is the official script in countries across Southeastern Europe, Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and East Asia.

Devanagari: Devanagari, also known as Nāgari, is a popular left-to-right abugida script used in the northern Indian subcontinent. It is based on the ancient Brāhmi script and is one of the official scripts in India and Nepal. The script has been in use since the 7th century CE and attained its modern form by 1000 CE. With 48 characters including vowels and consonants, Devanagari is the fourth most widely adopted writing system, used in over 120 languages worldwide.

Egyptian hieroglyphs: Egyptian hieroglyphs were an ancient writing system used in Egypt. They combined logographic, syllabic, and alphabetic elements, featuring over 100 distinct characters. Cursive hieroglyphs were used for religious literature, while hieratic and demotic scripts evolved from hieroglyphs. The Proto-Sinaitic script and Phoenician alphabet derived from hieroglyphic writing. The Egyptian hieroglyphic script is the ancestor of many modern scripts, including Latin, Cyrillic, Arabic, and possibly Brahmic.

Greek alphabet: The Greek alphabet is a writing system that has been used since the 8th century BC. Derived from the Phoenician alphabet, it was the first alphabetic script to have separate letters for both vowels and consonants. Initially, it had various local variations, but by the 4th century BC, the standardized Euclidean alphabet with 24 letters from alpha to omega became the norm and is still used for Greek writing today.

Hangul: Hangul is the official writing system for the Korean language, used in South Korea (Hangul) and North Korea (Chosŏn'gŭl). It combines alphabetic and syllabic features and is known for its featural system. The shape of the letters reflects how they are pronounced, and modifications indicate phonetic features. Hangul is not strictly an abugida.

Japanese writing system: The Japanese writing system combines logographic kanji with syllabic kana. Kana includes hiragana for native words and katakana for foreign words. Written Japanese uses a combination of kanji and kana, making it one of the most complex writing systems.

Latin script: The Latin script, also known as the Roman script, is an alphabetic writing system based on the letters of the classical Latin alphabet. It originated from a modified version of the Greek alphabet used in Cumae, Italy. The Etruscans further altered the Greek alphabet, and then the Romans modified it again. There are multiple variations of the Latin script, with different letters, arrangement, and pronunciation compared to the classical Latin alphabet.

Maya script: Maya script, or Maya glyphs, was the writing system of the Maya civilization in Mesoamerica. It is the only Mesoamerican writing system to be largely deciphered. The earliest Maya inscriptions date back to the 3rd century BCE. This script was used until the Spanish conquest of the Maya in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Morse code: Morse code is a telecommunication encoding method using dots and dashes, named after Samuel Morse, an early developer of the electrical telegraph.

Phoenician alphabet: The Phoenician alphabet, used by the Phoenician civilization, is a historical writing system found in Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions across the Mediterranean region.

Rosetta Stone: The Rosetta Stone is an ancient stele with inscriptions in three languages: Ancient Egyptian, Ancient Greek, and Demotic. It was created during the Ptolemaic dynasty in 196 BC and contains a decree from King Ptolemy V Epiphanes. The stone played a crucial role in deciphering Egyptian scripts as it provided a means to compare and translate the languages.

Runes: Runes are letters in ancient Germanic alphabets used before the Latin alphabet. They represent sounds and concepts, known as Begriffsrunen. The Scandinavian version is called fuþark or futhark, and the Anglo-Saxon version is futhorc or fuþorc.

Japanese language: The Japanese language is the main language of the Japonic language family, spoken by the Japanese people. With approximately 128 million speakers, it is primarily spoken in Japan, the only country where it is the national language. It is also spoken by the Japanese diaspora across the globe.

Korean language: The Korean language is spoken by around 81.7 million people, primarily of Korean descent. It serves as the official language in South Korea and North Korea. These two countries have established standardized norms for Korean, which have minor differences. Political conflicts have emphasized these differences. According to Daily NK, North Korea reportedly criminalizes the use of South Korea's standard language, with penalties as severe as the death penalty. South Korean education and media often portray North Korea's language as unfamiliar and unsettling.

Akkadian language: Akkadian language, extinct in ancient Mesopotamia, gradually replaced by Old Aramaic among Assyrians and Babylonians in 8th century BC.

Amharic: Amharic is an Ethiopian Semitic language spoken primarily by the Amharas. It belongs to the Afroasiatic language family and serves as a common language for diverse populations residing in major Ethiopian cities and towns.

Arabic: Arabic is a Semitic language spoken in the Arab world, originating in the first millennium BC. It is named after the Arab people, initially used to describe those in the Arabian Peninsula, according to ancient Greek geographers.

Classical Arabic: Classical Arabic refers to the standardized literary form of Arabic used from the 7th century onwards. It was prominent in Umayyad and Abbasid literary texts, including poetry, prose, and oratory. Additionally, it serves as the liturgical language of Islam. Modern Standard Arabic is based on Classical Arabic.

Egyptian Arabic: Egyptian Arabic, also known as Colloquial Egyptian or Masri, is the primary spoken dialect in Egypt and is part of the Afro-Asiatic language family. It originated in the Nile Delta and is spoken by approximately 100 million Egyptians. The most dominant dialect is Cairene. Egyptian Arabic is widely understood in Arabic-speaking countries due to Egyptian cultural influence, particularly through cinema and music. It is not only the most spoken, but also the most extensively studied variety of Arabic.

Aramaic: Aramaic is an ancient Semitic language that originated in Syria and spread to various regions including Mesopotamia, Levant, Anatolia, Arabia, and Sinai. It has been written and spoken for over 3000 years. Aramaic served as a prominent language for government and religious purposes. Today, its modern varieties, known as Neo-Aramaic, are still spoken by Assyrians, Mandeans, Mizrahi Jews, and in certain Syrian towns. Aramaic is also used as a liturgical language by several West Asian churches.

Berber languages: The Berber languages, also known as Amazigh or Tamazight, are closely related spoken languages by indigenous Berber communities in North Africa. They are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically written in ancient scripts, today they are primarily spoken and can be written in Tifinagh, Berber Latin alphabet, or Arabic script.

Egyptian language: Ancient Egyptian is an extinct Afro-Asiatic language spoken in ancient Egypt. It is one of the earliest written languages, recorded in hieroglyphics around 4,000 years ago. Middle Egyptian was the classical form and remained the literary language until the Roman period. Demotic and later Coptic dialects evolved from the spoken language. Arabic eventually replaced it after the Muslim conquest, but Coptic remains in use by the Coptic Church.

Hebrew language: Hebrew is a Northwest Semitic language that was natively spoken by the Israelites. It remained in use until after 200 CE as their first language and as the liturgical language of Judaism and Samaritanism. Hebrew successfully revived as a spoken language in the 19th century, making it a notable example of linguistic revival. Today, Hebrew is still spoken and is the only Canaanite language and one of only two Northwest Semitic languages still in use, the other being Aramaic.

Hausa language: The Hausa language is a Chadic language spoken by the Hausa people in northern Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon, Benin, Togo, Niger, Chad, and Sudan. It also has significant minority speakers in Ivory Coast.

Oromo language: The Oromo language, also known as Galla, is an Afroasiatic language in the Cushitic branch. It is primarily spoken by the Oromo people and neighboring ethnic groups in the Horn of Africa. It is native to the Ethiopian state of Oromia and Northern Kenya. In the Oromia Region and northeastern Kenya, it serves as a lingua franca.

Somali language: The Somali language is an Afroasiatic language spoken by Somalis in Greater Somalia and the Somali diaspora. It is an official language in Somalia, Ethiopia, and Djibouti, and a national language in northeastern Kenya. It uses the Latin alphabet, but also has informal usage of Arabic alphabet and Somali scripts.

Cebuano language: Cebuano is an Austronesian language spoken in the southern Philippines. It is commonly known as Bisayâ or Binisayâ and sometimes referred to as Cebuan in English. It is spoken by Visayan ethnolinguistic groups in various regions such as Cebu, Bohol, and Negros. Cebuano has also spread to other areas like Davao and Cotabato, often replacing native languages.

Indonesian language: The Indonesian language is the official and national language of Indonesia. It is a standardized form of Malay and has been used as a common language in the diverse Indonesian archipelago for centuries. With over 279 million inhabitants, Indonesia is the fourth most populous nation, making Indonesian one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. The language's vocabulary has been influenced by various languages, including Javanese, Minangkabau, Buginese, Banjarese, Arabic, Dutch, and English. Many borrowed words have been adapted to fit Indonesian's phonetic and grammatical rules.

Javanese language: The Javanese language is spoken by the Javanese people in central and eastern parts of Java, Indonesia. It is also spoken by some on the northern coast of western Java. With over 98 million native speakers, it is a Malayo-Polynesian language.

Malagasy language: The Malagasy language, an Austronesian dialect, is spoken in Madagascar. Official Malagasy is the standard variety and one of the official languages of Madagascar, along with French. It originated in Madagascar in the 5th century AD when Austronesian people from the Sunda islands settled there. Malagasy is the furthest west Malayo-Polynesian language. It is closely related to the Ma'anyan language of Borneo. The language includes loanwords from Malay, reflecting early Austronesian settlement and trade. Over time, it also incorporated loanwords from Bantu and Arabic traders and settlers.

Malay language: Malay is an Austronesian language spoken by 290 million people in Southeast Asia. It is an official language in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore, and is also spoken in parts of Thailand and East Timor.

Sundanese language: The Sundanese language is spoken by the Sundanese people in the western part of Java, Indonesia. It belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian language family. With around 40 million native speakers, it accounts for about 15% of Indonesia's population.

Tagalog language: Tagalog is an Austronesian language spoken by the ethnic Tagalog people in the Philippines. It is the first language for a quarter of the population and a second language for the majority. Its standardized form, Filipino, is the national language and one of two official languages, along with English.

Khmer language: The Khmer language is spoken by the Khmer people and is the official language of Cambodia. It has been influenced by Sanskrit and Pali, particularly in religious and royal contexts, due to the prevalence of Hinduism and Buddhism. Khmer is the earliest written language of the Mon-Khmer family, predating Mon and Vietnamese, and was used in historical empires like Chenla, Angkor, and Funan.

Vietnamese language: The Vietnamese language is the national and official language of Vietnam, spoken by approximately 85 million people. It is an Austroasiatic language and the native tongue of the Vietnamese people. Additionally, other ethnic groups in Vietnam also speak Vietnamese as a first or second language. The language is divided into three main dialects: Northern (Hanoi), Central (Hue), and Southern.

Esperanto: Esperanto is a widely spoken constructed international auxiliary language created in 1887 by L.L. Zamenhof. It aims to be a universal second language for international communication. The name Esperanto translates to "one who hopes" in English.

Kannada: Kannada, also called Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken in southwestern India, primarily in Karnataka. It has approximately 44 million native speakers and is also spoken as a second or third language by around 15 million non-native speakers in the region.

Malayalam: Malayalam is a Dravidian language spoken primarily in Kerala, Lakshadweep, and Puducherry in India. It is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and was recognized as a "Classical Language" in 2013. With official language status in Kerala, Lakshadweep, and Puducherry, it is spoken by 34 million people. It is also spoken by linguistic minorities in neighboring states and by the Malayali Diaspora worldwide. Malayalam is closely related to Tamil.

Tamil language: Tamil is a Dravidian language spoken by the Tamil people in South Asia. It is an official language in Tamil Nadu, Sri Lanka, Singapore, and Puducherry. Tamil is also spoken by minorities in Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India. Additionally, it is spoken by the Tamil diaspora in Malaysia, Myanmar, South Africa, UK, US, Canada, Australia, and Mauritius. Recognized as a classical language of India, Tamil is one of the 22 scheduled languages in the Constitution of India.

Telugu language: Telugu is a Dravidian language spoken by about 96 million people in the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. It is the most widely spoken Dravidian language and one of the official languages of India. Telugu has official status in more than one Indian state and is classified as a classical language. It is also the 14th most spoken native language worldwide. The modern standard Telugu is based on the dialects of Coastal Andhra districts.

Armenian language: Armenian is the only language in its branch of Indo-European languages. It is the native language of Armenians and the official language of Armenia. Spoken widely among Armenians worldwide, Armenian has its own unique writing system introduced in 405 AD. There are an estimated 5-7 million Armenian speakers internationally.

Greek language: Greek language is an independent branch of Indo-European languages spoken in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, southern Albania, and other regions. It boasts the longest recorded history among Indo-European languages, with written records spanning over 3,400 years. Greek uses the Greek alphabet, which has been in use for around 2,800 years and has influenced various other writing systems.

Ancient Greek: Ancient Greek refers to the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from 1500 BC to 300 BC. It can be divided into Mycenaean Greek, Dark Ages, Archaic or Epic period, and Classical period.

Assamese language: Assamese language, known as Asamiya, is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the state of Assam, India. It serves as both an official language and a lingua franca in the region. With over 15 million speakers, it is the easternmost Indo-Iranian language.

Bengali language: Bengali, also known as Bangla, is a widely spoken Indo-Aryan language in South Asia. It is native to the Bengal region and has around 234 million native speakers and 39 million second language speakers. Bengali ranks sixth in terms of native speakers and seventh in total number of speakers worldwide. It is also the fifth most spoken Indo-European language.

Gujarati language: Gujarati, an Indo-Aryan language, is spoken by the Gujarati people in the Indian state of Gujarat. It has its roots in Old Gujarati and is officially recognized in Gujarat and the union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu. With 55.5 million native speakers, it ranks as the 6th most spoken language in India, accounting for about 4.5% of the population. Additionally, it is the 26th most widely spoken language in the world (2007).

Hindustani language: Hindustani language is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in Northern India, Pakistan, and the Deccan region. It serves as a lingua franca in both countries. Hindustani has two standard registers, Hindi and Urdu, making it a pluricentric language. It is commonly referred to as Hindi-Urdu. The language encompasses a range of speech styles, from informal to formal, falling between these two standards. Additionally, a hybrid variety called Hinglish, influenced by English, has emerged in modern times.

Hindi: Hindi is a standardized Indo-Aryan language spoken in North India. It serves as the lingua franca of the Hindi Belt region and is based on the Delhi dialect. Written in Devanagari script, Hindi is one of India's official languages and is spoken in nine states and three union territories. It is also one of the 22 scheduled languages of India.

Urdu: Urdu is an Indo-Aryan language primarily spoken in South Asia. It serves as the national language and lingua franca of Pakistan, while also maintaining official and cultural recognition in India. It holds regional dialect status in Nepal and is protected by the constitution in South Africa. Although not officially recognized, Urdu is spoken as a minority language in Afghanistan and Bangladesh.

Marathi language: Marathi is an Indo-Aryan language spoken mainly in the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the official language of Maharashtra and an additional official language in Goa. With 83 million speakers in 2011, it is one of India's 22 scheduled languages. Marathi holds the 13th position among languages with the most native speakers. It has a rich literary history and is known for its major dialects: Standard Marathi and Varhadi.

Nepali language: Nepali is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in Nepal and the Himalayas. It is also the official language of Nepal and is widely used as a lingua franca. Additionally, it has official status in Sikkim, India, and the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration of West Bengal. Nepali is spoken by a quarter of Bhutan's population and has a significant number of speakers in various states in India. It is also spoken by the Burmese Gurkhas in Myanmar and by the Nepali diaspora worldwide. Overall, there are around 16 million native speakers and 9 million second language speakers of Nepali.

Odia language: Odia is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in Odisha, India. It is the official language of the state, with 82% of the population being native speakers. It is also spoken in parts of West Bengal, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh. Odia is one of India's official languages and is also the second official language of Jharkhand.

Pali: Pali is an ancient liturgical language of the Indian subcontinent, known for its significance in Theravāda Buddhism. It is primarily recognized as the language of the Buddhist Pāli Canon and is extensively studied for its religious and scholarly value.

Sanskrit: Sanskrit is a classical Indo-Aryan language that originated in South Asia. It is the sacred language of Hinduism, and also used in Buddhism and Jainism. Sanskrit acted as a link language in ancient South Asia and played a major role in the transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia, East Asia, and Central Asia. Its influence can be seen in the formal and learned vocabularies of languages in these regions.

Sindhi language: Sindhi is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by around 30 million people in the Pakistani province of Sindh and 1.7 million people in India. It is officially recognized in Sindh but lacks official status in India. The main writing system used is the Perso-Arabic script, which is predominant in Sindhi literature and used exclusively in Pakistan. In India, both the Perso-Arabic script and Devanagari are utilized.

Sinhala language: Sinhala language, also known as Sinhalese, is an Indo-Aryan language primarily spoken by the Sinhalese people of Sri Lanka. It is also spoken by other ethnic groups on the island and has about 16 million speakers. Sinhala is written using a script closely related to the Grantha script of South India.

Punjabi language: Punjabi, an Indo-Aryan language primarily spoken in the Punjab region of Pakistan and India, has around 113 million native speakers, making it one of the most widely spoken languages globally.

French language: French is a Romance language derived from Vulgar Latin and evolved from Gallo-Romance in Northern Gaul. It supplanted other langues d'oïl spoken in northern France and southern Belgium. French was influenced by Celtic and Frankish languages. The French colonial empire led to the development of French-based creole languages, like Haitian Creole. Francophone refers to a French-speaking person or nation in both English and French.

Italian language: Italian is a Romance language that developed from Vulgar Latin. It is closely related to Sardinian and is spoken by around 68 million people. Besides Italy, it is also an official language in San Marino, Switzerland, and Vatican City. It holds minority status in parts of Croatia and Slovenian Istria.

Latin: Latin is a classical language that was spoken in Latium, the lower Tiber area around Rome. It became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and the Roman Empire through the expansion of the Roman Republic. It remained the common language of international communication, academia, and scholarship in Europe until the 18th century. Despite being extensively used, Latin lacked native speakers and is considered a dead language.

Portuguese language: The Portuguese language is a Western Romance language originating from the Iberian Peninsula. It is the official language of Portugal, Brazil, and several other countries. Portuguese-speaking individuals are referred to as "Lusophones." The language has spread globally due to historical colonial expansion. Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group influenced by Celtic phonology.

Romanian language: Romanian, the official language of Romania and Moldova, belongs to the Eastern Romance sub-branch of Romance languages. It evolved from Vulgar Latin dialects, separating from Western Romance in the 5th-8th centuries. Known as Daco-Romanian in comparison to other Eastern Romance languages, it has stable communities in neighboring countries and a significant diaspora. With roughly 28-29 million speakers, including 24 million native speakers, Romanian ranks 10th among 37 official languages in Europe.

Spanish language: Spanish, or Castilian, is a global Romance language with about 500 million native speakers in the Americas and Spain. It evolved from Vulgar Latin and is the official language of 20 countries. Spanish is the world's second-most spoken native language, fourth-most spoken overall, and most widely spoken Romance language. Mexico has the largest population of native speakers.

Danish language: Danish is a North Germanic language spoken by about six million people in Denmark, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and Southern Schleswig. There are also minor Danish-speaking communities in Norway, Sweden, the United States, Canada, Brazil, and Argentina.

Dutch language: Dutch is a West Germanic language spoken by 25 million native speakers and 5 million second language speakers. It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, following English and German. Afrikaans, a closely related language, evolved from Dutch and is spoken by 16 million people in South Africa and Namibia. The Dutch Language Union guides the dialects used in Belgium and Suriname.

English language: English language, a West Germanic language, originated in medieval England. It is named after the Angles, an ancient Germanic people who migrated to Great Britain. Today, English is the most spoken language globally and the second-most spoken native language. It is also widely learned as a second language, surpassing its native speakers.

Old English: Old English, or Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest recorded form of English. It developed in the early Middle Ages from languages brought by Anglo-Saxon settlers. Old English literary works emerged in the mid-7th century. After the Norman conquest, English was replaced by Anglo-Norman for some time, marking the end of the Old English era. Middle English and Early Scots then emerged in England and Scotland respectively.

Middle English: Middle English is the variant of English spoken from 1066 to the late 15th century. It emerged after the Norman Conquest and evolved during the High to Late Middle Ages. Oxford University Press designates its period from 1100 to 1500.

Modern English: Modern English is the current form of the English language spoken since the Great Vowel Shift in the late 14th to 17th century, distinguishing it from Middle and Old English.

German language: The German language is a widely spoken West Germanic language in Western and Central Europe. It is the most commonly spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and South Tyrol. It is also an official language in Luxembourg and Belgium and a recognized national language in Namibia. German is spoken by German communities in Alsace, Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia, and Sopron, Hungary.

Swedish language: Swedish is a North Germanic language primarily spoken in Sweden and parts of Finland. With over 10 million native speakers, it is the most widely spoken Germanic language in the Nordic countries and the fourth most spoken among all Germanic languages.

Yiddish: Yiddish is a West Germanic language historically spoken by Ashkenazi Jews. It originated in 9th century Central Europe, combining elements of High German, Hebrew, and Aramaic. It also includes influences from Slavic and Romance languages. Yiddish is traditionally written using the Hebrew alphabet, but there are alternative orthographies, like the standardized YIVO system using the Latin alphabet.

Kurdish languages: Kurdish refers to a group of languages spoken by Kurds in Kurdistan and around the world. These languages are part of the Western Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family and form a dialect continuum. The three main dialects are Northern Kurdish, Central Kurdish, and Southern Kurdish.

Pashto: Pashto is an Iranian language spoken in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and eastern Iran near the Afghan border. It is officially recognized in Afghanistan and the Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In Persian literature, it is referred to as Afghani.

Persian language: Persian, or Farsi, is a Western Iranian language spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. It has three standard varieties: Iranian Persian, Dari Persian, and Tajiki Persian. It is also spoken in Uzbekistan and regions with a Persianate history. Persian is written in the Persian alphabet in Iran and Afghanistan, and in the Tajik alphabet in Tajikistan.

Czech language: The Czech language, also known as Bohemian, is a West Slavic language spoken by over 10 million people. It is the official language of the Czech Republic and is closely related to Slovak and Polish. Czech is written in Latin script and is a fusional language with a rich system of morphology and flexible word order. Its vocabulary has been influenced by Latin and German.

Old Church Slavonic: Old Church Slavonic, the first Slavic literary language, was an ancient form of communication.

Polish language: Polish is a West Slavic language spoken in Poland and by the Polish diaspora. It uses the Latin script and has over 50 million speakers worldwide. It is the official language of Poland and ranks as the sixth most-spoken language in the European Union. Polish has regional dialects and maintains formalities in addressing individuals.

Russian language: Russian is an East Slavic language spoken in Russia. It is the native language of Russians and belongs to the Indo-European language family. Russian is one of four living East Slavic languages and part of the Balto-Slavic group. It was the official language of the former Soviet Union and remains official in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. It is widely used as a lingua franca in Ukraine, Moldova, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and to a lesser extent in the Baltic states and Israel. Russian is also an official language of the United Nations.

Serbo-Croatian: Serbo-Croatian is a South Slavic language spoken in Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia, and Montenegro. It has four standard varieties (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Montenegrin) that are mutually intelligible, along with their subdialects. The language is divided into three supradialects: Shtokavian, Kajkavian, and Chakavian.

Ukrainian language: Ukrainian is an East Slavic language spoken in Ukraine, belonging to the Indo-European language family. It is the native tongue of Ukrainians.

Thai language: The Thai language, also known as Central Thai, is the official language of Thailand. It belongs to the Tai language family and is spoken by the Central Thai people, as well as the Mon in Central Thailand and Thai Chinese communities across the country.

Sumerian language: Sumerian, an ancient language dating back to at least 2900 BC, was spoken in ancient Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq). It is considered one of the oldest known languages and is recognized as a local language isolate.

Fula language: The Fula language, also known as Fulani or Fulah, is spoken by about 36.8 million people in 18 countries across West and Central Africa. It is part of the Atlantic geographic group within Niger-Congo and belongs to the Senegambian branch. Notably, Fula does not use tones, distinguishing it from most other Niger-Congo languages.

Igbo language: The Igbo language is the main native language of the Igbo people, an ancient ethnic group from Southeastern Nigeria.

Swahili language: Swahili, or Kiswahili, is a Bantu language spoken primarily by the Swahili people in Tanzania, Kenya, and Mozambique. It is widely spoken by over 200 million people as either a first or second language.

Yoruba language: Yoruba is a language spoken primarily in Southwestern and Central Nigeria by the Yoruba people. It has around 44 million native speakers and an additional 2 million second-language speakers. It is a pluricentric language used in Nigeria, Benin, and Togo, with smaller communities in Côte d'Ivoire, Sierra Leone, and The Gambia.

Burmese language: Burmese is the official language of Myanmar spoken by the Bamar people. It is also spoken by indigenous tribes in parts of Bangladesh and India. Although officially referred to as the Myanmar language, it is commonly known as Burmese. With a population of 38.8 million speakers, it serves as a lingua franca and is spoken as a first language by 33 million people, with another 10 million using it as a second language.

Chinese language: Chinese language is spoken by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and minority ethnic groups in China. It is the first language for around 1.3 billion people, accounting for 16% of the global population.

Classical Chinese: Classical Chinese refers to the ancient language used in Chinese literary works from around the 5th century BCE. It is known as Literary Chinese, which was highly influential and widely used in formal writing in China until the early 20th century. Similar to Latin in post-Roman Europe, it evolved conservatively and did not incorporate changes seen in later Chinese varieties. The language has undergone significant linguistic evolution, making it unintelligible when spoken or read by those familiar with modern vernacular Chinese.

Hakka Chinese: The Hakka Chinese language is spoken by the Hakka people in Southern China, Taiwan, and diaspora communities worldwide. It is a distinct language group within Chinese, with variations found in East Asia, Southeast Asia, and overseas Chinese communities.

Mandarin Chinese: Mandarin Chinese is a group of Chinese dialects spoken in northern and southwestern China. It includes the Beijing dialect, which serves as the basis for Standard Chinese, the official language of China. While Mandarin originated in North China and is often referred to as Northern Chinese, its various dialects differ in mutual intelligibility. However, Mandarin is still frequently ranked first in terms of the number of native speakers.

Min Chinese: Min Chinese is a group of Sinitic languages, spoken by about 70 million native speakers. It is primarily spoken in Fujian province, along with other regions such as Taiwan, Hainan, and parts of Southeast Asia. The name Min is derived from the Min River in Fujian. Min varieties are distinct from each other and from other Chinese languages.

Wu Chinese: Wu Chinese is a group of Sinitic languages spoken primarily in Shanghai, Zhejiang Province, and southern Jiangsu Province. It forms the cultural region of Wu. Some Wu speakers identify their language as Shanghainese when communicating with foreigners. The prestige dialect of Wu was Suzhou in the 19th century, but Shanghainese gained more prominence by the 20th century. The languages in Northern Wu are mutually intelligible, while those in Southern Wu are not.

Yue Chinese: 'Yue Chinese' refers to a branch of Sinitic languages primarily spoken in Southern China. Its main regions of usage are Guangdong and Guangxi provinces.

Azerbaijani language: The Azerbaijani language, also known as Azeri or Azeri Turkic, is a Turkic language spoken by the Azerbaijani people. It has two main varieties: North Azerbaijani, which is official in Azerbaijan and Dagestan, and South Azerbaijani, which is spoken in the Azerbaijan region of Iran. While North Azerbaijani is more widely spoken, South Azerbaijani lacks official status in Iran. The language is also spoken in Azerbaijani communities in Georgia and Turkey, as well as by diaspora communities in Europe and North America.

Kazakh language: Kazakh, a Turkic language, is spoken in Central Asia by Kazakhs. It is related to Nogai, Kyrgyz, and Karakalpak. It is the official language of Kazakhstan and spoken by ethnic Kazakhs in China, Mongolia, former Soviet Union, Germany, and Turkey.

Turkish language: Turkish, the most spoken Turkic language, is the national language of Turkey and Northern Cyprus with 90 to 100 million speakers. It is also spoken in smaller groups worldwide, making it the 18th most spoken language globally.

Uzbek language: Uzbek language, a Turkic language spoken by Uzbeks, is the official language of Uzbekistan. It is the second most widely spoken Turkic language globally, with 32 million speakers. Uzbek has two major variants, Northern Uzbek and Southern Uzbek, each with multiple dialects. It belongs to the Karluk group of Turkic languages and is highly agglutinating, similar to Azeri.

Hungarian language: Hungarian is an official Uralic language spoken in Hungary and by Hungarian communities in neighboring countries. It is also one of the 24 official languages of the European Union.

English grammar: English grammar is the framework of rules governing the structure of the English language, encompassing words, phrases, clauses, sentences, and texts.

Journalism: Journalism involves producing and sharing reports on current events, facts, ideas, and individuals, aiming to inform society with a certain level of accuracy. It encompasses the occupation, information gathering methods, and various writing styles.

Photojournalism: Photojournalism is a form of journalism that uses still images or videos to convey news stories. It follows a strict ethical framework and aims to provide an honest and impartial representation of events. Photojournalists contribute to news media, helping communities connect and deliver news creatively in an informative and entertaining manner.

News: News is current event information conveyed through various media like word of mouth, print, broadcast, electronic communication, and eyewitness accounts. It is commonly described as "hard news" to distinguish it from softer media.

News media: The news media is a type of mass media that delivers news to the public. It includes news agencies, newspapers, magazines, and TV channels.

Mass media: Mass media refers to various forms of communication that target and connect with a wide audience through different media channels. It encompasses a broad range of media platforms used for mass communication purposes.

Cartoon: A cartoon is a visual art form that is often animated and drawn in an unrealistic or semi-realistic style. It can refer to images or illustrations intended for satire, caricature, or humor. Additionally, it can also refer to motion pictures that depend on a sequence of illustrations for animation. A person who creates cartoons is called a cartoonist, and in the context of animation, they are usually called an animator.

Censorship: Censorship involves suppressing speech and information that is seen as objectionable or inconvenient. It can be carried out by governments, private institutions, or controlling bodies.

Western (genre): The Western genre refers to a type of fiction set in the American frontier during the mid-19th to late 19th century. It often incorporates folk tales from the Western and Southwestern United States, as well as parts of Northern Mexico and Western Canada.

Publishing: Publishing involves making various forms of content available to the public, either for sale or for free. This encompasses printed works like books, newspapers, and magazines, as well as digital media such as ebooks, websites, and social media. The evolution of digital information systems has broadened the scope to include music and video game publishing.

Academic journal: An academic journal is a publication that focuses on scholarship within a specific academic discipline. It provides a platform for researchers to present, evaluate, and discuss their research. Peer review is commonly used to ensure the quality and credibility of the articles published.

Journal des sçavans: The Journal des sçavans is Europe's oldest academic journal, founded by Denis de Sallo. It is also considered the first scientific journal. Today, it primarily covers European history and premodern literature.

Nature(journal): Nature is a renowned scientific journal based in London, England. It publishes peer-reviewed research across various academic disciplines, with a primary focus on science and technology. With core editorial offices around the world, Nature is one of the most cited and esteemed academic journals globally. It boasts a substantial readership of approximately three million unique monthly readers online.

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society: The 'Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society' is the longest-running scientific journal in the world, established in 1665. Initially a private venture, it became an official publication in 1752. The term 'philosophical' in the title refers to what is now known as science.

Science(journal): Science, also known as Science Magazine, is a prestigious academic journal published by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). It has been in circulation since 1880 and is cherished as one of the top academic journals globally. With a weekly release, it boasts around 130,000 subscribers and reaches over 400,000 readers through institutional subscriptions and online access.

Magazine: A magazine is a periodic publication with diverse content, often financed by advertising, purchases, or subscriptions.

National Geographic: National Geographic is a renowned American magazine that started as a scholarly journal in 1888. Over time, it transformed into a popular magazine, known for incorporating pictures and later, color photos. During the Cold War, it aimed to provide an unbiased view of various nations' geography, including those behind the Iron Curtain. Today, National Geographic is recognized for its strong stance on environmental issues.

Playboy: Playboy is an iconic American men's magazine, established in 1953 by Hugh Hefner in Chicago. Originally print-based, it now operates online, embodying a men's lifestyle and entertainment theme. Hefner's mother provided a significant portion of funding through a $1,000 loan.

Scientific American: Scientific American, also known as SciAm or SA, is a renowned American popular science magazine. It has attracted contributions from notable scientists like Einstein and Tesla, and has featured over 150 Nobel Prize winners.

Time(magazine): Time is a renowned American news magazine that was published weekly for almost a century before transitioning to every other week in March 2020. Founded in New York City on March 3, 1923, it was led by its influential co-founder, Henry Luce, for many years.

Vogue(magazine): Vogue is a renowned American fashion and lifestyle monthly magazine, established in 1892 as a weekly newspaper. It covers a wide range of topics including haute couture fashion, beauty, culture, living, and runway. Located at One World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan, Vogue has featured countless celebrities and published its largest issue in September 2012, consisting of 900 pages featuring Lady Gaga on the cover.

Weekly Shōnen Jump: Weekly Shōnen Jump is a popular manga anthology published by Shueisha in Japan. It features action-packed manga series with elements of comedy. The magazine releases new chapters on a weekly basis, which are later compiled into tankōbon volumes every two to three months. Started in August 1968, it is one of the oldest and most enduring manga magazines.

Newspaper: A newspaper is a publication that provides written updates on current events, covering various topics such as politics, business, sports, art, and science. It often includes items like opinion columns, weather forecasts, local service reviews, birth announcements, obituaries, crosswords, editorial cartoons, comic strips, and advice columns.

The New York Times: The New York Times (NYT) is a national daily newspaper based in New York City. It is the second-largest newspaper by circulation in the US and one of the longest-running. Published by The New York Times Company, it has been chaired by the Ochs-Sulzberger family since 1896. The Times covers domestic, national, and international news and includes opinion pieces, investigative reports, and reviews.

The Wall Street Journal: The Wall Street Journal is a prominent American daily newspaper, established in 1889, and is widely recognized as a leading source of business and financial news. It is published by Dow Jones & Company and is available both in print and online. The newspaper is highly regarded and has received 39 Pulitzer Prizes, the most recent being in 2023.

The Washington Post: The Washington Post, known as the Post or WaPo, is an American newspaper published in Washington, D.C. It is highly circulated locally and has a national readership.

Le Monde: Le Monde is a prominent French daily afternoon newspaper, with an average circulation of 480,000 copies per issue in 2022. It has been accessible online since 1995 and is widely available in non-French-speaking countries. It is important to distinguish it from the monthly publication Le Monde diplomatique, of which Le Monde holds a 51% stake but maintains editorial independence.

The Times: The Times is a British daily newspaper founded in 1785. It is published in London and is considered to be centre-right politically. The newspaper and its sister publication, The Sunday Times, are owned by Times Media, a subsidiary of News UK, which is wholly owned by News Corp. The Times and The Sunday Times have had common ownership since 1966 but were founded independently.

The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy(radio series): The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (radio series) is a science fiction comedy written by Douglas Adams. It aired in the UK in 1978 and then in the US and Canada. It was the first radio comedy in stereo and received numerous awards for its use of music and sound effects.

Documentary film: A documentary film is a non-fictional motion picture that aims to capture reality for educational, instructional, or historical purposes. It is a filmmaking practice with no clear boundaries defined by Bill Nichols, encompassing a variety of subjects and styles.

Television show: A television show is any content produced for viewing on a television set through broadcast or streaming services. It includes content made by broadcasters and film production companies, but excludes news, ads, and trailers. Shows are scheduled in advance and appear on TV listings, but can be accessed anytime on streaming platforms. They are produced through live tapings or animation/film productions. Shows can be made by different production companies.

Television broadcaster: A television broadcaster is a network that distributes television content to multiple stations or providers. It was once dominated by a few terrestrial networks, but now includes various platforms such as cable and satellite providers. Some well-known networks evolved from earlier radio networks.

Reality television: Reality television is a genre of unscripted TV that showcases real-life situations, usually with ordinary people. It became popular in the 1990s and gained prominence in the early 2000s with global franchises like Survivor, Idols, and Big Brother. These shows often include "confessionals" where cast members provide insight or commentary. Competition-based reality shows involve eliminating participants through judging panels, viewer votes, or contestant choices.

Game show: A game show is a type of broadcast entertainment where contestants compete for rewards. A host directs the show, explaining the rules and providing commentary. Game shows have been around since the late 1930s and became popular in the United States in the 1950s, becoming a regular feature of daytime TV.

Soap opera: A soap opera, or soap for short, is a long-running radio or television drama known for its melodrama, large cast, and sentimental storylines. The term comes from these dramas being sponsored by soap manufacturers. It was preceded by the derogatory term "horse opera" used for low-budget Westerns.

Talk show: A talk show is a type of television, radio, or podcast genre centered around spontaneous conversation. It differs from other programs as it features one person discussing various topics presented by a talk show host. These discussions can be interviews or simple conversations covering significant social, political, or religious matters. The host's personality sets the show's tone and style. Talk shows commonly adhere to an unwritten rule of "fresh talk", which means the conversation is either spontaneous or appears to be.

Sitcom: A sitcom is a comedy genre centered around a consistent set of characters that appear in multiple episodes. Unlike sketch comedy, sitcoms maintain the same characters throughout. This distinguishes sitcoms from stand-up comedy, where comedians tell jokes to an audience. Originally originating in radio, sitcoms have become a dominant form of narrative on television.

Emmy Awards: The Emmy Awards, or Emmys, are prestigious prizes recognizing artistic and technical excellence in American and international television. Held throughout the year, they have different ceremonies for various genres like primetime, daytime, children's & family, sports, news & documentary, technology & engineering, regional, and international programs. The Primetime and Daytime Emmy Awards are the most recognized and receive extensive media coverage.

BBC: The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is a British public service broadcaster headquartered in London. It was originally established in 1922 as the British Broadcasting Company and adopted its current name in 1927. With over 21,000 employees, it is the oldest and largest local and global broadcaster. The BBC is known for its public-sector broadcasting.

Eurovision Song Contest: The Eurovision Song Contest (ESC) is an annual international song competition organized by the European Broadcasting Union. Participating countries submit original songs performed live and broadcasted through Eurovision and Euroradio networks. The competition involves countries voting for each other’s songs to determine a winner.

Doctor Who: Doctor Who is a long-running British sci-fi TV series that premiered in 1963. It follows the adventures of the Doctor, an extraterrestrial being from a humanoid species called Time Lords. Using a time-travelling spaceship named the TARDIS, disguised as a British police box, the Doctor explores the universe and different time periods. Along the way, the Doctor fights enemies and works to save lives and free oppressed peoples. The Doctor is frequently accompanied by companions.

Looney Tunes: Looney Tunes is an American animated franchise created by Warner Bros. It originated as a series of short films that aired from 1930 to 1969, along with its companion series Merrie Melodies. These cartoons introduced iconic characters like Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, and Porky Pig. The franchise was revived in the late 1970s, and new shorts were produced until 2014. In addition to the films, the term "Looney Tunes" now also encompasses the beloved characters themselves.

Star Trek: Star Trek is a celebrated American sci-fi franchise created by Gene Roddenberry in the 1960s. It has grown into a global pop-culture sensation, encompassing numerous films, TV shows, video games, novels, and comics. With its widespread success, it stands as one of the most iconic and lucrative media franchises ever.

Meet the Press: 'Meet the Press' is a weekly talk show on NBC, airing since 1947, making it the longest-running program in American television history. The show conducts interviews with prominent leaders and experts in politics, economics, foreign policy, and other public affairs. It also includes panel discussions offering opinions and analysis. The production recently shifted to NBC's Capitol Hill bureau in Washington, D.C.

Sesame Street: Sesame Street is a beloved American TV series for children, known for its mix of live-action, puppetry, and animation. Created by Joan Ganz Cooney and Lloyd Morrisett, it airs on PBS and has been running since 1969. The show uses Jim Henson's Muppets to convey messages through short films, cultural references, and humor. Despite some controversy, Sesame Street enjoys high viewership and is one of the longest-running shows globally.

The Simpsons: "The Simpsons" is a satirical animated sitcom, created by Matt Groening for the Fox Broadcasting Company. It portrays American life through the Simpson family, including Homer, Marge, Bart, Lisa, and Maggie, in the fictional town of Springfield. The show humorously exaggerates society, Western culture, television, and the complexities of being human.