Philosophy: Philosophy is a rational and critical study of fundamental questions about topics like existence, reason, knowledge, value, mind, and language. It examines its own methods and assumptions.

Analytic philosophy: Analytic philosophy, popular in the Western world, is a branch of philosophy that emerged in the early 20th century. It emphasizes analysis and is mainly practiced in the Anglosphere. This approach is distinct from continental philosophy, which encompasses other methods prominent in Europe.

Philosophy of science: The philosophy of science explores the foundations, methods, and implications of scientific knowledge. It examines what qualifies as science, the reliability of theories, and the purpose of scientific inquiry. It also delves into the relationship between science and truth, overlapping with metaphysics, ontology, and epistemology. This field considers metaphysical, epistemic, and semantic aspects of science, while ethical issues like bioethics and scientific misconduct are often studied separately.

Philosophy of mathematics: The philosophy of mathematics studies the nature, foundations, and implications of mathematics, aiming to understand its methods and place in people's lives. It is a broad and unique branch of philosophy due to the logical and structural nature of mathematics.

Philosophy of mind: The philosophy of mind is a branch of philosophy that examines the nature of the mind and how it relates to the body. Key topics explored include the mind-body problem, consciousness, mental events and functions, cognition, and the relationship between the mind and the body.

Philosophy of language: The philosophy of language in analytic philosophy explores the nature of language, its connection to the world, and language users. Key areas of inquiry are meaning, intentionality, reference, sentence structure, concepts, learning, and thought.

Philosophy of religion: Philosophy of religion examines religious traditions and their core themes and concepts. Discussions on this topic originated in ancient times and are found in early philosophical texts. It is connected to various branches of philosophy such as metaphysics, epistemology, logic, and ethics.

Political philosophy: Political philosophy is the philosophical study of government, examining its nature, scope, legitimacy, and the relationships among public agents and institutions. It explores topics such as politics, liberty, justice, property, rights, law, and the enforcement of laws by authority. This field aims to determine what constitutes a legitimate government, the rights and freedoms it should protect, the ideal form of governance, the nature of the law, the duties owed by citizens, and the circumstances under which a government may be rightfully overthrown.

Critical thinking: Critical thinking involves the impartial evaluation of available information and evidence to form a rational judgment. It requires self-directed, disciplined, and reflective thinking, with an aim to overcome personal biases and societal influences. Critical thinkers possess intellectual skills and personality traits that contribute to effective problem-solving and communication. They adhere to high standards of excellence while actively resisting egocentric and sociocentric tendencies.

Western philosophy: Western philosophy encompasses the philosophical ideas and contributions originating from the Western world. It traces its roots back to ancient Greek thinkers, known as the pre-Socratics, and is characterized by its pursuit of wisdom, as reflected in the Greek term "philosophía" meaning "the love of wisdom."

Ancient philosophy: Ancient philosophy encompasses the philosophical thought from early post-classical history. It includes a variety of philosophical traditions and concepts. For more detailed information, please refer to the Wikipedia page on ancient philosophy.

Ancient Greek philosophy: Ancient Greek philosophy, emerging in the 6th century BC, sought to understand the world through reason. It explored diverse subjects like astronomy, mathematics, ethics, politics, and more. Greek philosophy persisted during the Hellenistic and Roman periods, leaving a lasting impact.

Medieval philosophy: Medieval philosophy refers to the philosophical thought that emerged during the Middle Ages, from the 5th to the 14th centuries. It began in Baghdad and France in the 8th century and aimed to rediscover ancient Greek and Roman culture while addressing theological issues and integrating religious and secular knowledge. The study of God was central to the philosophers of this time, regardless of religious background.

Renaissance philosophy: Renaissance philosophy refers to the intellectual movement in Europe from 1400 to 1600. It overlaps with late medieval philosophy, influenced by Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas, William of Ockham, and Marsilius of Padua. It also bridges early modern philosophy starting with René Descartes and his Discourse on Method in 1637.

Modern philosophy: Modern philosophy refers to the philosophical ideas and thinking that emerged during the modern era, characterized by modernity. It does not adhere to a singular doctrine or school of thought, but shares common assumptions that set it apart from earlier philosophy.

Contemporary philosophy: Contemporary philosophy is the current era of Western philosophy, which emerged in the early 20th century with the growth of professionalization and the prominence of analytic and continental philosophies.

Eastern philosophy: Eastern philosophy encompasses a range of philosophies originating in East and South Asia. It includes dominant traditions like Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese philosophies in East Asia, as well as Indian philosophy in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Tibet, and Mongolia.

Chinese philosophy: Chinese philosophy is a broad philosophical tradition that emerged during the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States period in ancient China. It flourished during the "Hundred Schools of Thought" era, marked by significant intellectual and cultural advancements. While its foundations were laid in the Warring States period, Chinese philosophy has deep historical roots, with elements traceable back thousands of years, including those found in the ancient divination text known as the I Ching.

Indian philosophy: Indian philosophy refers to the philosophical traditions in the Indian subcontinent, which can be classified into two categories: āstika and nāstika schools. The classification is based on criteria such as the acceptance of the Vedas as a valid source of knowledge, belief in Brahman and Atman, and the belief in afterlife and Devas.

Ethics: Ethics is the study of moral phenomena, examining questions about what is morally right and how people should behave. It consists of three branches: normative ethics, applied ethics, and metaethics.

Conscience: Conscience is a cognitive process that evokes emotion and rational associations based on an individual's moral philosophy. It contrasts with immediate sensory perceptions and reflexive responses. It is often described as generating feelings of remorse when actions conflict with personal moral values. The role of conscience in moral judgment before an action and its basis in reason have been debated throughout history, contrasting with romanticism and other reactionary movements post Middle Ages.

Free will: Free will is the ability to freely choose among various courses of action without hindrance or constraints.

Golden Rule: The Golden Rule is a moral principle that advises treating others as you would like to be treated. It is often referred to as an ethics of reciprocity and is a common belief in many religions and creeds throughout history.

Good and evil: "Good and evil" is a common concept in religion, ethics, philosophy, and psychology. In some cultures influenced by Manichaean and Abrahamic religions, evil is seen as the opposite of good, with good triumphing over evil. In Buddhist-influenced cultures, good and evil are considered part of an opposing duality that needs to be transcended through embracing emptiness and recognizing the illusory nature of their existence.

Is–ought problem: The is-ought problem, formulated by David Hume, questions the validity of making moral claims solely based on factual observations. Hume identified a distinction between descriptive and prescriptive statements, making it unclear how one can logically move from what "is" to what "ought to be." Hume's law, also known as Hume's guillotine, asserts that ethical conclusions cannot be derived from purely descriptive facts.

Morality: Morality is the distinction between right and wrong in intentions, decisions, and actions. It consists of standards derived from various philosophies, religions, cultures, or personal beliefs. Morality is often associated with goodness and universal principles of conduct.

Plagiarism: Plagiarism is when someone presents another person's ideas or words as their own. It is seen as a violation of academic and ethical standards, resulting in punishments like expulsion or legal actions.

Value (ethics and social sciences): Value in ethics and social sciences refers to the importance of something or an action, guiding the determination of what is best or the significance of different actions. It influences ethical behavior and intentional activities. Actions' value is dependent on the ethical values of affected objects. Objects with ethical value can be considered as ethical or philosophic goods.

Virtue: A virtue is an excellent trait that can be moral, social, or intellectual and is valued as an important aspect of life. It involves choosing actions based on high moral standards, even when unnecessary from a utilitarian perspective. Cultivating virtues leads to establishing them as habits, and those who possess virtues are considered virtuous. Vice is the opposite of virtue, where a person takes pleasure in habitual wrongdoing.

Wisdom: Wisdom is the capacity to think and behave effectively by utilizing knowledge, experience, understanding, common sense, and insight. It encompasses unbiased judgment, compassion, self-awareness, self-transcendence, and non-attachment. Wisdom is also linked to ethical behavior and benevolence.

Consequentialism: Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges the rightness or wrongness of an action based on its consequences. According to consequentialists, a morally right act is one that produces a positive outcome. Consequentialism falls under teleological ethics, which claims that the moral value of an act lies in its ability to produce intrinsic value. The key principle of consequentialism is that an act is right if it generates more good than harm compared to other available options. Various consequentialist theories define moral goods differently, such as pleasure, avoidance of pain, satisfying preferences, or the broader concept of the "general good."

Utilitarianism: Utilitarianism is an ethical philosophy that promotes actions aiming at maximizing overall happiness and well-being for the people involved. It emphasizes the importance of achieving the greatest good for the greatest number.

Deontology: Deontology is a moral philosophy that evaluates the morality of an action based on its inherent rightness or wrongness, rather than considering its consequences. It emphasizes following rules and principles, and is often referred to as duty-based or rule-based ethics. Deontological ethics contrasts with consequentialism, utilitarianism, virtue ethics, and pragmatic ethics, prioritizing the importance of the action itself over its outcomes.

Humanism: Humanism is a belief system that emphasizes individuals' democratic right to shape their own lives and gives importance to ethical values.

Nihilism: Nihilism is a philosophical perspective that rejects commonly accepted aspects of human existence, like knowledge, morality, and meaning. It was popularized by Ivan Turgenev's character Bazarov in his novel Fathers and Sons.

Logic: Logic is the study of correct reasoning, encompassing both formal and informal aspects. Formal logic focuses on deductively valid inferences and logical truths, examining how conclusions are drawn from premises based solely on argument structure. Informal logic deals with informal fallacies, critical thinking, and argumentation theory, analyzing arguments expressed in natural language. "A logic" can refer to a formal system articulating a proof system. Logic plays a vital role in philosophy, mathematics, computer science, and linguistics.

Argument: An argument is a logical structure consisting of premises and a conclusion. Its purpose is to provide reasons through justification, explanation, or persuasion to support one's conclusion.

A priori and a posteriori: A priori and a posteriori are Latin phrases in philosophy that classify knowledge based on reliance on experience. A priori knowledge is independent of experience, such as mathematics and reasoning. A posteriori knowledge depends on empirical evidence, like scientific fields and personal knowledge.

Deductive reasoning: Deductive reasoning is the process of drawing logical inferences. If the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true.

Fallacy: A fallacy is faulty reasoning in an argument that seems logical if not noticed. The term originated from Aristotelian philosophy.

Inductive reasoning: Inductive reasoning is a method of deriving general principles or conclusions from observations. Unlike deductive reasoning, which provides certain conclusions, inductive arguments offer probable conclusions based on the evidence provided.

Inference: Inference is a process of reasoning that involves drawing logical consequences from premises. It is divided into deduction, which derives conclusions from known or assumed premises, and induction, which generalizes from specific evidence to a universal conclusion. A third type called abduction, distinguished by Charles Sanders Peirce, involves forming plausible explanations.

Dialectic: Dialectic is a method of reasoned argumentation involving dialogue between individuals with differing views to arrive at the truth. It excludes subjective elements such as emotion and rhetoric. Originating in ancient philosophy, it was further refined during the Middle Ages.

Socratic method: The Socratic method is a dialogue technique that involves questioning and answering to facilitate argumentation and discovery.

Paradox: A paradox is a statement that contradicts itself or defies expectations. Despite logical reasoning, it leads to a seemingly contradictory or unacceptable conclusion. It typically involves interrelated elements that coexist and persist over time, resulting in a lasting unity of opposites.

Epistemology: Epistemology is a branch of philosophy that examines knowledge. It investigates the nature, origin, and extent of knowledge, justification for beliefs, rationality of belief, and related issues. Key areas of debate include analysis of knowledge and its conditions, sources of knowledge and justified belief, structure of justified belief, and philosophical skepticism.

Belief: A belief is a subjective stance or opinion about the truth of a proposition or state of affairs. It can be true or false, and is a mental state separate from active introspection. Beliefs can be assumed without conscious thought, and can also be dispositional rather than occurring in the moment.

Common sense: Common sense refers to practical and rational thinking that is widely shared and used by individuals to perceive, understand, and make judgments about everyday matters. It involves a fundamental ability to assess situations and make logical decisions, commonly held by the majority of people.

Concept: A concept is an abstract idea that serves as a fundamental building block for principles, thoughts, and beliefs. Concepts play a vital role in cognition and are studied in disciplines like linguistics, psychology, and philosophy to understand their logical and psychological structure. This interdisciplinary study of concepts has led to the emergence of cognitive science.

Experience: Experience is a term that refers to conscious events, such as perceptions and practical knowledge. It involves a subject being presented with various objects and their properties. It can include unreal items like hallucinations and dreams. In a restricted sense, experience is identified with sensory consciousness, namely perception. It can also refer to the practical knowledge and familiarity gained through conscious events, particularly through direct perceptual contact with the external world. It is associated with recurrent past acquaintance and the abilities learned through those experiences.

Knowledge: Knowledge is the awareness and understanding of facts, individuals, situations, or practical skills. It includes justified true beliefs and distinguishes itself from opinions and guesses. Philosophical debates surround the concept of justification, its necessity, and alternative definitions, particularly sparked by thought experiments in the latter half of the 20th century.

Opinion: An opinion is a subjective judgment or viewpoint that is not considered factually conclusive. Unlike true statements which are factual, opinions are based on personal beliefs and perspectives.

Paradigm: A paradigm is a set of concepts, theories, research methods, and standards that define legitimate contributions to a field. It originates from the Greek word for "pattern" and is used to illustrate similar occurrences in science and philosophy.

Reason: Reason is the conscious use of logic to draw conclusions and seek the truth. It is a unique human ability involved in activities like philosophy, religion, science, language, mathematics, and art. Reason is often called rationality.

Superstition: Superstition, often deemed irrational or supernatural by non-practitioners, encompasses beliefs and practices related to luck, amulets, astrology, fortune telling, spirits, and other paranormal entities. It involves attributing events to fate or unknown forces, and the notion that unrelated prior events can predict the future.

Thought experiment: A thought experiment is a hypothetical situation used to explore the consequences of a hypothesis, theory, or principle. It helps us imagine what may happen in the future and understand the implications of different choices. Also known as Gedankenexperimente, it enables us to consider alternate courses of action.

Truth: Truth is the quality of aligning with reality. It is commonly attributed to beliefs, statements, and sentences that aim to represent or correspond to reality.

Worldview: A worldview is a person's or society's fundamental cognitive orientation, encompassing their knowledge, culture, and point of view. It includes natural philosophy, existential and normative postulates, themes, values, emotions, and ethics.

Empiricism: Empiricism is an epistemological view that asserts true knowledge comes from sensory experience. It contrasts with rationalism and skepticism, emphasizing the importance of empirical evidence over innate ideas or traditions. Empiricists argue that traditions are rooted in past sensory experiences.

Naturalism (philosophy): Naturalism in philosophy is the belief that the universe is governed only by natural laws and forces. It is also known as ontological naturalism, metaphysical naturalism, pure naturalism, philosophical naturalism, or antisupernaturalism. Naturalism is often considered synonymous with materialism, and it centers on the study of what exists (ontology).

Occam's razor: Occam's razor is a problem-solving principle in philosophy that recommends seeking explanations with the fewest elements possible. It is also known as the principle of parsimony and is attributed to William of Ockham, a 14th-century philosopher. The principle can be summarized as "Entities must not be multiplied beyond necessity" and is often mistakenly paraphrased as "The simplest explanation is usually the best one."

Rationalism: Rationalism is an epistemological view that considers reason as the primary source of knowledge and justification. It emphasizes intellectual and deductive methods over sensory experience, faith, or tradition as a means of acquiring truth.

Reductionism: Reductionism is a philosophical approach that explains complex phenomena by breaking them down into simpler or more fundamental components. It views a system as the sum total of its individual parts.

Metaphysics: Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy concerned with the fundamental principles that define reality. It explores topics such as existence, identity, change, space and time, cause and effect, necessity, actuality, and possibility.

Existence: Existence is the state of being real or actual in reality. It refers to the contrast between being and nonbeing. Another key distinction is between an entity's existence and its essence, which represents the entity's nature or essential qualities.

Ontology: Ontology is the study of being and the existence of entities. It categorizes entities and explores their relationships. Key concepts include categories like substances, properties, relations, states of affairs, and events. Ontologists examine fundamental concepts like particularity and universality, abstractness and concreteness, and possibility and necessity. The concept of ontological dependence is important in determining the fundamental existence of entities. Debates in ontology revolve around the existence and relationships of entities within categories.

Mental representation: A mental representation is a hypothetical internal symbol that represents external reality or its abstractions. It is studied in philosophy of mind, cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and cognitive science.

Reality: Reality refers to everything that is real or exists in the universe, distinguishing it from what is imaginary or non-existent. It also reflects the ontological status of things, indicating their existence. In a physical sense, reality encompasses both known and unknown elements within a system.

Abstraction: Abstraction is the process of deriving general rules from specific examples or methods. It involves obtaining concepts from literal signifiers or fundamental principles.

Determinism: Determinism is the belief that events are entirely caused by preceding factors. It concentrates on specific events and opposes the concept of chance. Indeterminism is the opposite viewpoint, suggesting events occur randomly. Determinism is often compared to free will, with some philosophers arguing their compatibility.

Idealism: Idealism is a metaphysical perspective that asserts that reality is primarily composed of mind or consciousness. It can also be understood as the belief that ideas hold the highest form of reality. This perspective is often credited to Plato and can be found in both Western and Eastern philosophies such as Vedanta and certain streams of Buddhism.

Materialism: Materialism is a philosophical belief that states matter is the basis of everything in the natural world, including thoughts and consciousness. It suggests that the mind and consciousness are a result of material interactions, and without these interactions, they cannot exist. This perspective contrasts with idealism, which posits that consciousness is the fundamental substance of nature.

Monism: Monism is a philosophical concept that attributes oneness or singleness to a particular concept, such as existence. There are different types of monism: 1. Priority monism claims that all existing things originate from a distinct source, like in Neoplatonism where everything comes from "The One." 2. Existence monism asserts that there is only one thing, the universe, which is artificially divided into many things. 3. Substance monism explains various existing things in terms of a single substance or reality, like matter or mind. 4. Dual-aspect monism views the mental and physical as different aspects or perspectives of the same substance. 5. Neutral monism believes that the fundamental nature of reality is neither mental nor physical, but rather "neutral."

Mind–body dualism: Mind–body dualism is a philosophical concept that believes in either the existence of non-physical mental phenomena or the separation of mind and body. It encompasses various perspectives on the connection between mind and matter and is contrasted with physicalism and enactivism in the mind–body problem.

Relativism: Relativism is a philosophical view that rejects objective claims in a particular domain and argues that valuations within that domain depend on the perspective of an observer or the context. It comes in various forms, including moral relativism which deals with differences in moral judgments, epistemic relativism which denies absolute principles of belief and justification, and alethic relativism which rejects absolute truths. Relativism can also be similar to skepticism. Descriptive relativism aims to describe cultural and individual differences without making evaluations, while normative relativism evaluates the truthfulness of views within a specific framework.

Aesthetics: Aesthetics is the philosophy that explores the nature of beauty and taste. It encompasses the philosophy of art and involves critical judgments of artistic value. Its function is to critically reflect on art, culture, and nature.

Beauty: Beauty is the pleasurable quality of objects, like landscapes, humans, and art, that is perceived by individuals. It is a key aspect of aesthetics, a branch of philosophy, and is associated with positive value and contrasted with ugliness.

Meaning (philosophy): Meaning in philosophy refers to the relationship between signs and what they intend or signify. It is studied in sub-fields such as semantics, semiotics, philosophy of language, metaphysics, and metasemantics.

Fact: A fact is a true piece of information about a situation. It can be verified through observation, measurement, or experiments. References are commonly used to verify facts.

Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon that can be tested using the scientific method. It is based on previous observations that cannot be explained by existing theories. It is distinct from a scientific theory. A working hypothesis is a provisionally accepted hypothesis used as a starting point for further research.

Natural philosophy: Natural philosophy, also known as philosophy of nature, is the study of physics and the physical universe. It was the predominant approach to understanding nature before modern science emerged.

Pseudoscience: Pseudoscience refers to ideas or practices that are presented as scientific and factual, but do not align with the scientific method. It is characterized by exaggerated, contradictory, or unfalsifiable claims and avoids rigorous refutation. Pseudoscience lacks openness to evaluation by experts, lacks systematic development of hypotheses, and persists even when disproven experimentally. It should not be confused with junk science.

Parapsychology: Parapsychology is the study of alleged psychic and paranormal phenomena, like near-death experiences and apparitional experiences. Despite being considered a pseudoscience by many mainstream scientists, parapsychologists continue to claim plausibility despite a lack of convincing evidence after over a century of research.

Theory: A theory is a rational concept that explains a phenomenon through contemplative and rational thinking. It can be scientific or non-scientific, providing generalized explanations of how nature works. The term originates from ancient Greek and has evolved to have various related meanings in modern usage.

Christian philosophy: Christian philosophy is the philosophy conducted by Christians or related to Christianity. It seeks to reconcile science and faith by using natural rational explanations alongside Christian revelation. While some thinkers find a harmonious relationship between science and faith, others see contradictions or try to differentiate them.

Islamic philosophy: Islamic philosophy is a branch of thought originating from the Islamic tradition. It encompasses two terms: falsafa, which includes philosophy, logic, mathematics, and physics, and Kalam, a rationalist form of Scholastic Islamic theology. Key schools within Kalam include Maturidiyah, Ashaira, and Mu'tazila.

Buddhist philosophy: 'Buddhist philosophy' refers to the ancient Indian philosophical system that emerged within Buddhism. It encompasses all the rational inquiries and philosophical investigations that originated in different Buddhist schools after Gautama Buddha's parinirvāṇa. It also includes the subsequent developments influenced by the spread of Buddhism throughout Asia.

Confucianism: Confucianism, also known as Ruism, is an ancient Chinese system of thought and behavior. It is considered a tradition, philosophy, religion, theory of government, and way of life. Confucianism developed from the teachings of the philosopher Confucius in the 5th century BCE, who drew from cultural values inherited from earlier Chinese dynasties. It was suppressed during the Qin dynasty but survived and became the official ideology during the Han dynasty, blending with other influential schools of thought.

Legalism (Chinese philosophy): Legalism, or Fajia, is a school of thought in Chinese philosophy that contributed to the formation of the bureaucratic Chinese empire. It is often compared to political realism and the model-building of Max Weber. The Fajia is associated with "men of methods" who played a role in its development. While lacking a recognized founder, Guan Zhong and Li Kui are considered early influences. The term Fajia refers to a combination of Shen Buhai and Shang Yang as its founding branches.

Phenomenology (philosophy): Phenomenology is a philosophical study that examines the lived and subjective experiences of reality and objectivity.

Theory of forms: The Theory of Forms, developed by Plato, suggests that physical reality is less real than non-physical and timeless "Forms". These Forms are the true essence of all things, while objects in the physical world are mere imitations. Controversial within Plato's dialogues, this theory is seen as a classical approach to understanding universals.

Sophist: Sophists were ancient Greek teachers from the 5th and 4th centuries BC who specialized in various subjects like philosophy, rhetoric, music, athletics, and mathematics. They instructed young statesmen and nobles on achieving excellence or virtue known as arete.

Positivism: Positivism is a philosophical school emphasizing that authentic knowledge is acquired through either factual definition or empirical observations. It dismisses intuition, introspection, and religious beliefs as unreliable sources of understanding.

Pragmatism: Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that sees language and thought as tools for action and problem solving, rather than reflecting reality. It emphasizes practical uses and successes when examining various philosophical topics like knowledge, language, concepts, meaning, belief, and science.

Skepticism: Skepticism is a questioning attitude towards knowledge claims, where doubts arise about their accuracy. Skeptics do not necessarily disbelieve, but rather suspend belief and maintain a neutral attitude. They are motivated by a lack of sufficient evidence to support a claim. Philosophy, specifically epistemology, extensively studies skepticism.

Stoicism: Stoicism is a philosophy that originated in Ancient Greece and Rome, emphasizing the importance of virtue in achieving a well-lived life (eudaimonia). The practice of four key virtues - wisdom, courage, moderation, and justice - and living in harmony with nature are central to Stoic teachings. Founded by Zeno of Citium around 300 BC in Athens.

Thomism: Thomism is a philosophical and theological school based on the teachings and ideas of Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas was a prominent Dominican philosopher, theologian, and Doctor of the Church.

Religion: Religion encompasses diverse systems with varying beliefs, practices, and organizations that connect humanity to the supernatural and spiritual. It may include elements like sacred texts, moral codes, prophecies, and faith in a divine entity, but there is no unanimous definition or agreement on its constituents and boundaries.

Comparative religion: Comparative religion is the study of the world's religions, focusing on comparing their doctrines, practices, themes, and impacts. It delves into fundamental concerns like ethics, metaphysics, and salvation, while also exploring origins and similarities between different religions. By studying these aspects, it helps gain a deeper understanding of human beliefs and practices related to the sacred and divine.

Folk religion: Folk religion, also known as popular religion or traditional religion, refers to various forms and expressions of religion that differ from organized religious practices. It encompasses ethnic or regional religious customs that exist outside official doctrines and practices.

Mysticism: Mysticism encompasses experiences of unity with the divine or ultimate reality, often through altered states of consciousness or ecstasy. It involves seeking insight into hidden truths and undergoing personal transformation through spiritual practices and experiences.

Theology: Theology is the systematic study of religious belief, taught in universities and seminaries. It analyzes the supernatural, explores religious epistemology, and seeks to answer questions about revelation - the acceptance of divine interaction with the natural world and humankind.

Deity: A deity, also known as a god or goddess, is a sacred and supernatural being that is worshiped. They possess greater powers than humans and interact with them, leading to heightened consciousness and transcending ordinary life.

God: God is the supreme being and object of faith in monotheistic belief systems. In polytheistic beliefs, a god is a spirit or being that created or controls part of the universe. Theism refers to the belief in at least one god.

Goddess: A goddess is a female deity associated with various roles and attributes, such as pregnancy, feminine behavior, beauty, love, motherhood, creativity, and fertility. They are often linked with magic, war, wisdom, earth, sky, power, justice, and more. Some goddesses are also associated with negative aspects like discord or disease. There are countless goddesses with diverse characteristics, just like male or neuter gods.

Fasting: Fasting is the act of refraining from eating and drinking. Physiologically, it can refer to the body's metabolic state after not eating overnight or after complete digestion and absorption of a meal. Metabolic changes occur during fasting.

Celibacy: Celibacy refers to the voluntary choice of being unmarried and abstaining from sexual activity, often for religious reasons. It is typically associated with religious officials or devotees who have taken a sacred vow or renounced worldly desires. However, more broadly, celibacy is commonly understood as simply abstaining from sexual activity.

Heresy: Heresy refers to beliefs conflicting with established religious customs or laws. A heretic is someone who advocates heresy.

Icon: An icon is a religious painting in Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Catholic churches. Icons are sacred images used for religious devotion, typically depicting Christ, Mary, saints, and angels. They encompass various artistic media and subjects, including portrait-style images, narrative scenes from the Bible or lives of saints, and are regarded as more than mere artworks.

Iconoclasm: Iconoclasm is the belief in destroying icons and images, often for religious or political reasons. Those who engage in or support this belief are called iconoclasts. The term has also been used to describe individuals who challenge cherished beliefs or venerated institutions as erroneous or harmful.

Idolatry: Idolatry refers to the worship of a cult image or idol as if it were a god, particularly in Abrahamic religions. It involves worshiping something other than the Abrahamic God as if it were God and is considered the worship of false gods. This practice is forbidden by religious texts such as the Ten Commandments. Similar rules exist in other monotheistic religions.

Liturgy: Liturgy refers to the customary public rituals of worship performed by religious groups, particularly in the context of Christians. It is a communal response to the sacred, involving activities like praise, thanksgiving, remembrance, supplication, and repentance. Through liturgy, believers establish a relationship with God.

Meditation: Meditation is a mindfulness practice that trains attention and awareness through focusing the mind on an object, thought, or activity. Its goal is to achieve a clear and stable state of mental clarity and emotional calmness.

Pilgrimage: A pilgrimage is a journey to an unfamiliar place, taken by individuals seeking personal growth and enlightenment. It involves exploring oneself, others, nature, or a higher purpose in order to achieve personal transformation. Afterward, the pilgrim returns to their normal life.

Prayer: Prayer is a deliberate communication that seeks to establish a connection with a deity or ancestor through supplication, intercession, thanksgiving, or praise. It is closely associated with meditation and charms/spells in comparative religion.

Prophecy: A prophecy is a message from a supernatural entity to a person, containing divine will or preternatural knowledge. It is found in many cultures and beliefs and can be revealed through visions, divination, or direct interaction with divine beings. Prophetic stories gain attention and can survive for centuries through oral tradition or as religious texts.

Relic: A relic is a religious object from the past, typically the physical remains or personal belongings of a revered individual, which are preserved for veneration. They hold significance in various religions, including Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, and shamanism. The term comes from Latin, meaning "remains" or "abandon", and relics are often housed in shrines called reliquaries.

Religious conversion: Religious conversion is the act of adopting a new set of beliefs associated with a specific religious denomination, while abandoning previous affiliations. This can involve switching from one denomination to another within the same religion, or even transitioning between different religions. It often involves significant rituals and signifies a transformation of religious identity.

Ritual: A ritual is a series of actions or gestures involving revered objects that may be prescribed by a community, including religious groups. It is characterized by formalism, traditionalism, rule-governance, and sacral symbolism. Rituals often involve repetitive performances.

Sacrifice: Sacrifice is the act of offering material possessions, animals, or even human lives to a deity as a form of worship or appeasement. It has been practiced since ancient times and is observed in different religions worldwide. Ritual animal sacrifice has been documented among the Hebrews, Greeks, and other civilizations. Similarly, evidence of ritual human sacrifice has been found in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican and European civilizations. Presently, various religions continue to perform different forms of non-human sacrifices.

Saint: A saint is a person recognized as holy or close to God in Christian belief. The term's usage depends on the context and denomination. In Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican, Oriental Orthodox, and Lutheran beliefs, all faithful deceased in Heaven are considered saints. Some saints are honored or revered more than others. The Catholic Church canonizes saints, while the Eastern Orthodox Church glorifies them after approval.

Veneration of the dead: Veneration of the dead is the act of showing love and respect to deceased individuals, often including one's ancestors. It is rooted in the belief that the departed continue to exist and can influence the well-being of the living. Some cultures venerate their direct relatives, while others venerate saints as mediators between humans and God. The Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Catholic Church also pray for the souls in Purgatory. However, some religious groups view the veneration of the dead as idolatrous and sinful.

Worship: Worship is the act of showing great respect and devotion, commonly associated with religious practices. It can involve reverence towards a divine being or supernatural power, or even admiration for a hero. Worship can include various activities like veneration, adoration, praise, supplication, or submission. It can be as simple as a prayer or as elaborate as a ceremony, performed individually or in a group, led by a designated leader. Ultimately, the main purpose of worship is to honor the subject in some way.

Animism: Animism is the belief that everything, including objects, places, and creatures, has a spiritual essence. It perceives all things as animated and alive, including animals, plants, rocks, and even words. This belief system is practiced by many Indigenous peoples and predates organized religions. Animism focuses on the concept of the immaterial soul in the supernatural universe.

Apologetics: Apologetics is the defense of religious doctrines through logical arguments and discussions. Christian apologists in early times defended their beliefs against critics and invited non-believers to embrace their faith, while in modern times, apologetics is often associated with debates on religion and theology.

Apostasy: Apostasy refers to the formal disaffiliation, abandonment, or renunciation of a religion by an individual. It can involve embracing an opinion contrary to one's previous religious beliefs. Sociologists use the term to describe the renunciation and criticism of a person's former religion, without any negative implications. Individuals who undertake apostasy are known as apostates, and the process is called apostatizing.

Astrology: Astrology is a divinatory practice that claims to gather information about human affairs by studying celestial positions. It originated in ancient calendrical systems and has been used by various cultures throughout history. Western astrology, dating back to Mesopotamia, has spread widely and is associated with personality explanations and event predictions based on celestial objects.

Creation myth: A creation myth is a symbolic narrative explaining the origins of the world and the first humans. It may be considered true by the culture that tells it, conveying profound truths metaphorically, symbolically, historically, or literally. Creation myths often describe the organization of the cosmos from a chaotic state.

Curse: A curse is a wish for misfortune to befall someone, a place, or an object. It can be made effective by supernatural powers or by magic. Curses are often believed to have a causative force and can be reversed through rituals or prayers.

Divination: Divination is the practice of seeking insight through rituals or practices. Diviners interpret signs, events, or omens to guide individuals in making decisions. They claim to connect with supernatural forces like spirits or gods to provide guidance.

Eschatology: Eschatology is the study of beliefs and expectations about the end of the world or human history. It is a topic found in various religions, which predict a climax of negative world events. The belief in an imminent end of the world is known as apocalypticism and is held by mainstream religions and doomsday cults. Eschatology also refers metaphorically to the end of ordinary reality and reunion with the divine in mysticism. While some religions have ideas of renewal or transformation after significant events, the explicit description of a new earth is mostly found in Christian teachings, particularly in the book of Revelation, Chapter 21.

Faith: Faith is a term that encompasses confidence or trust in someone, something, or an idea. It often pertains to belief in God or religious teachings. Merriam-Webster's Dictionary defines faith as a strong conviction in something believed, complete trust, loyalty to God, and a firm belief in something without proof.

Witchcraft: Witchcraft is the use of supernatural powers to perform magic, often for causing harm. It has been a widely accepted concept across various cultures throughout history. The term "witchcraft" is mainly associated with the belief in using magic to inflict misfortune upon others. However, it is largely a product of people's imagination rather than an objective reality. The term has been universalized by anthropologists to include similar beliefs in occult practices in various cultures.

Origin myth: An origin myth is a type of myth that explains the beginnings of a natural or social aspect of the world. It can be a creation myth detailing the formation of the universe or stories that explain the origins of natural phenomena or human institutions. In Greek and Roman scholarship, the terms etiological myth and aition are sometimes used to describe myths that clarify origins of objects or customs.

Religious experience: A religious experience is a subjective, interpreted experience within a religious context. It emerged in the 19th century as a response to increasing rationalism, popularized by William James. It can lead to unverified personal gnosis in certain religions.

Sacredness: Sacredness refers to the quality of being dedicated to a deity, worthy of spiritual respect, or inspiring awe among believers. It is often attributed to objects or places.

Spirituality: Spirituality is a term that has evolved over time and encompasses various meanings. Initially, it referred to religious re-formation to achieve the ideal state of humanity as outlined by different religions. Early Christianity associated it with living in accordance with the Holy Spirit, and later it encompassed mental aspects of life during the Late Middle Ages.

Supernatural: 'Supernatural' refers to phenomena or entities that defy natural laws. The term originated in the Middle Ages and was not used in ancient times.

Totem: A totem is a symbol or sacred object representing a group of people, like a family or tribe, often seen in the Anishinaabe clan system. It can also be a spirit being associated with particular qualities or characteristics.

Burial: Burial, or interment, is the act of burying a body in the ground. The deceased and sometimes objects are placed in a pit or trench, which is then covered. This method of final disposition is often accompanied by a funeral ceremony. Burial is an ancient practice used by humans to show respect for the dead, prevent decay odor, provide closure for family members, and assist the deceased in their journey to the afterlife or the cycle of life.

Cemetery: A cemetery is a designated burial ground where dead people are laid to rest. It can also be referred to as a burial ground, gravesite, graveyard, or memorial park. Originally, the term cemetery came from the Roman catacombs. The term graveyard is often used interchangeably, but it specifically refers to a burial ground within a churchyard.

Cremation: Cremation is the process of disposing of a dead body by using intense heat to reduce it to ashes.

Funeral: A funeral is a ceremony for disposing of a corpse, usually through burial or cremation, accompanied by observances. Funerary customs differ amongst cultures and religions, involving interment, monuments, prayers, and rituals to honor the deceased. Funerals offer support and sympathy to the grieving, while also commemorating and celebrating the life of the departed. They can have religious aspects to aid the departed soul's journey to the afterlife or resurrection.

Mummy: A mummy is a preserved dead human or animal that has been protected from decay by exposure to chemicals or extreme environmental conditions. The term can include both intentional embalming and accidental preservation, dating back to the 17th century.

Afterlife: The afterlife refers to the belief that a person's consciousness or identity continues to exist after their death. Different belief systems attribute varying degrees of importance to the surviving aspect, which can range from partial elements to the entire soul or spirit, carrying one's personal identity. This belief contradicts the idea of complete oblivion after death.

Heaven: Heaven is a supernatural realm where deities, angels, souls, saints, and ancestors originate, reside, or are enthroned. It is believed that earthly beings can ascend there after death, while heavenly beings can sometimes descend to Earth or incarnate.

Hell: Hell is a place or state in the afterlife where souls endure punishment, often through torture. Christianity and Islam view it as an eternal destination, while Dharmic religions see it as a transitional phase between lives. It is depicted as being located either in another realm or beneath the Earth's surface. Other afterlife realms include heaven, paradise, purgatory, limbo, and the underworld.

Reincarnation: Reincarnation, also called rebirth or transmigration, is the idea that the non-physical essence of a living being starts a new life in a different physical form after death. It is believed that the soul does not disperse but instead continues its immortality by being born as a newborn baby or an animal. Transmigration refers to the soul passing from one body to another after death.

Resurrection: Resurrection, or anastasis, refers to the idea of returning to life after death. It is found in several religions, where gods can die and be resurrected. Reincarnation is a related belief where the same person or deity is reborn in a different body. Some religions also believe in the disappearance of the body after death.

Soul: The soul is the spiritual essence of a person, encompassing their identity, personality, and memories. It is believed to be immaterial and able to survive physical death. While primarily associated with humans, the concept of the soul can also be extended to other living or non-living entities.

Altar: An altar is a table or platform used for religious rituals and offerings. It is found in various places of worship including shrines, temples, and churches. Altars are used in several religions such as paganism, Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Judaism, and certain Islamic communities. They also played a significant role in historical-medieval faiths like Roman, Greek, and Norse religions.

Anti-clericalism: Anti-clericalism is the opposition to religious authority, particularly Roman Catholic influence. It relates to secularism, aiming to separate the church from public and political affairs.

Creed: A creed is a statement summarizing the core beliefs of a community and is often referred to as a confession of faith or symbol. It serves as a structured form highlighting the key tenets held by that community.

Cult: A 'cult' is typically a small group led by a charismatic leader who tightly controls its members. They require unwavering devotion to deviant beliefs and practices. The term also encompasses new religious movements or social groups with unusual beliefs, rituals, or common interests. However, the definition is weakly defined and controversial among scholars in various fields of study.

Monastery: A monastery is a building or complex of buildings where monks or nuns live and work. It includes a place for prayer, such as a chapel or church, and often has additional facilities like a dormitory, library, and refectory. Monasteries can range from small communities to vast complexes with various buildings for self-sufficiency and community service, such as schools, agricultural areas, and manufacturing facilities.

Priest: A priest is a religious leader authorized to perform sacred rituals and act as a mediator between humans and deities. They administer religious rites, including sacrifices, and form the "priesthood". Priests may also hear confessions, provide counseling, offer spiritual guidance, teach catechism, and visit the sick.

Schism: A schism is a division between people or organizations, often religious in nature. It can refer to splits within religious bodies, like the Great East–West Schism, as well as divisions in non-religious groups or personal relationships.

Sect: A sect is a subgroup that emerges from a larger religious, political, or philosophical belief system, following distinct rules and principles. Originally used to classify religious separated groups, the term now encompasses any organization that breaks away due to perceived heresy from the larger group.

State religion: A state religion is a religion officially supported by a sovereign state. It does not necessarily make the state a theocracy, as the clergy may not control the government, and the government may not control the religion.

Temple: A temple is a sacred building used for spiritual rituals and activities like prayer and sacrifice. Various religions, including Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Judaism, and others, have their own temples. Ancient religions like Ancient Egyptian and Ancient Greek also had temples.

Theism: Theism refers to believing in the existence of one or more deities. It usually refers to the idea of a traditional God in monotheistic religions or multiple gods in polytheistic religions. Theism differs from deism by accepting revelation instead of rejecting it.

Deism: Deism is a rationalistic theology that rejects revelation as a source of divine knowledge. It asserts that the existence of God can be determined solely through empirical reason and observation of the natural world. Deists believe in God based on rational thought alone, without relying on revealed religions or religious authority. They emphasize that God's existence is revealed through nature.

Fundamentalism: Fundamentalism refers to the strict interpretation of religious texts, dogmas, or ideologies. It involves prioritizing the distinction between one's own group and others, emphasizing purity, and seeking to restore an idealized past. The term is commonly used to describe unwavering adherence to a set of unchanging beliefs.

Monotheism: Monotheism is the belief that there is only one God who exists separately from the world and intervenes through supernatural means. It can be exclusive, recognizing a single God, or inclusive/pluriform, acknowledging multiple godly forms as extensions of the same God.

Orthodoxy: Orthodoxy refers to the strict adherence to correct beliefs or accepted doctrines, particularly within religious contexts. It entails conforming to established creeds and doctrines, emphasizing the importance of upholding accepted principles.

Paganism: Paganism refers to polytheistic and non-Jewish religious practices in the Roman Empire during the fourth century. It was often associated with rural or non-Christian populations. Terms such as "hellene," "gentile," and "heathen" were used in Christian texts to describe pagans. Ritual sacrifice played a significant role in Graeco-Roman religion and determined one's affiliation as pagan or Christian. Paganism was commonly seen as the religion of the rural peasantry.

Panentheism: Panentheism is the belief that the divine exists in every part of the universe and extends beyond space and time. Coined in 1828 by Karl Krause, it distinguishes itself from pantheism by maintaining an ontological distinction between the divine and the non-divine. Unlike pantheism, which sees the divine and the universe as identical, panentheism emphasizes both the divine's presence in the universe and its significance separate from it.

Polytheism: Polytheism is the belief in and worship of multiple deities or spirits, organized into a pantheon. It is a type of theism that contrasts with monotheism. Polytheists may view their gods as representations of natural forces or ancestral principles. They may worship specific deities or prioritize one at certain times.

Syncretism: Syncretism is the blending of different beliefs and thoughts, often seen in religion, art, culture, and politics. It involves merging diverse traditions to emphasize unity and inclusivity. It allows for an inclusive approach to other faiths and is known as eclecticism in art and culture, and syncretic politics in politics.

Pantheism: Pantheism is a philosophical belief that equates reality, the universe, and nature with divinity. It sees the physical universe as an immanent deity that has been expanding and creating since the beginning of time. Pantheists view everything as a unity and see this unity as divine, comprising a manifested god or goddess. They perceive all astronomical objects as parts of this sole deity.

Atheism: Atheism refers to the lack of belief in the existence of deities. It can also encompass the rejection of belief in any deities or the specific position that no deities exist. Atheism contrasts with theism, which is the belief in the existence of at least one deity.

Agnosticism: Agnosticism is the belief that the existence of God or the supernatural cannot be known or proven. It acknowledges that human reason is insufficient to justify a belief in either the existence or non-existence of God.

Freethought: Freethought is an ideology that rejects forming beliefs based on authority, tradition, revelation, or dogma. Instead, it advocates using logic, reason, and empirical observation to reach conclusions.

Secularism: Secularism is the principle of conducting human affairs based solely on naturalistic considerations, without involvement of religion. It seeks to separate government and religion, emphasizing a non-religious approach to governance.

Judaism: Judaism is the oldest Abrahamic religion, originating in the Middle East during the Bronze Age. It is a monotheistic religion and an ethnic identity for the Jewish people. Derived from Yahwism, a religious movement of ancient Israel and Judah, it is considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions. It comprises spiritual, cultural, and legal traditions and is guided by the Mosaic covenant between God and the Israelites. Jewish doctrine includes a variety of texts, practices, theological beliefs, and forms of organization.

Christianity: Christianity is a global monotheistic religion centered on Jesus' teachings. With 2.4 billion followers, it's the world's largest religion, representing about 31.2% of the population. Christians, found in 157 countries, believe Jesus is the Son of God and the prophesied Messiah mentioned in both the Hebrew Bible and New Testament.

Islam: Islam is a monotheistic religion founded by Muhammad and centered on the Quran. Muslims, its followers, number around 1.9 billion globally, making it the second-largest religious group worldwide, after Christians.

Gnosticism: Gnosticism is a religious movement that emerged in the late 1st century AD among Jewish and early Christian sects. It emphasizes personal spiritual knowledge (gnosis) over the teachings and authority of religious institutions. Gnostics believe in a supreme hidden God and a malevolent lesser divinity who created the flawed material universe. Salvation lies in attaining direct knowledge of the hidden divinity through mystical or esoteric insight, rather than through repentance for sin. Gnostic texts explore the themes of illusion and enlightenment rather than sin and repentance.

Druze: The Druze are an Arab ethnic and religious group from Western Asia. They follow the Druze faith, which is a monotheistic religion that believes in the unity of God, reincarnation, and eternal souls. Their religious practices are secretive, and they do not allow outsiders to convert. Marriage outside the Druze faith is uncommon and discouraged.

Baháʼí Faith: The Baháʼí Faith, founded in the 19th century by Baháʼu'lláh, is a global religion that emphasizes the value of all religions and the unity of humanity. Initially originating in Iran and the Middle East, it has faced ongoing persecution. With an estimated 5 to 8 million followers, known as Baháʼís, it is present in numerous countries worldwide.

Rastafari: Rastafari is a Jamaican Abrahamic religion that emerged in the 1930s. It is considered a social movement and a new religious movement, lacking a central governing body. Followers, called Rastafari, Rastafarians, or Rastas, exhibit diverse practices and beliefs.

Bible: The Bible is a sacred collection of religious texts held important in various religions, including Christianity, Judaism, Islam, and others. It is an anthology of diverse texts written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Koine Greek, encompassing instructions, stories, poetry, prophecies, and more. The specific materials accepted as part of the Bible differ among religious traditions, forming a biblical canon. While believers consider it divinely inspired, interpretations of the text vary.

Holy Spirit: The Holy Spirit, also called the Holy Ghost, is a divine force in various religions. In Judaism, it represents God's influence over the universe and beings. In Nicene Christianity, it is the third person of the Trinity. In Islam, it acts as a divine agent of action and communication. In the Baha’i Faith, it serves as the intermediary between God and humanity, symbolizing God's grace and emanating rays from His Manifestation.

Messiah: The term 'Messiah' refers to a saviour or liberator in Abrahamic religions. It originated in Judaism and denotes a king or High Priest anointed with holy oil. This concept involves messianism and the anticipation of a Messianic Age.

Sin: Sin is an act that goes against divine or moral laws. Different cultures have varying interpretations of sin. It can include immoral thoughts, words, or actions that are harmful or selfish.

Salvation: Salvation is the act of being saved or protected from harm or dire circumstances. It holds religious significance, referring to the liberation of the soul from sin and its repercussions. The study of salvation is termed soteriology.

Predestination: Predestination is a theological doctrine that states all events are planned by God, including the ultimate destiny of each person's soul. It attempts to resolve the conflict between God's foreknowledge and human free will. It is often seen as a form of religious determinism or predeterminism.

Ten Commandments: The Ten Commandments, also known as the Decalogue, are a vital set of ethical and worship principles found in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. They are mentioned twice in the Bible, at Exodus 20:2–17 and Deuteronomy 5:6–21.

Old Testament: The Old Testament (OT) is the initial division of the Christian Bible, following the Tanakh, consisting of ancient Hebrew and Aramaic writings by the Israelites. The New Testament, written in Koine Greek, is the second division of Christian Bibles.

New Testament: The New Testament (NT) is the second part of the Christian Bible, focusing on the teachings and life of Jesus, along with events related to early Christianity. It is complemented by the Old Testament, based on the Hebrew Bible, and together they are considered sacred scripture by Christians.

Church (congregation): A church is a religious congregation meeting at a specific location. It is organized, consisting of clergy or lay leaders, and seeks non-profit corporate status in eligible countries.

Catholicity: Catholicity refers to beliefs and practices widely accepted by Christian denominations, particularly those describing themselves as catholic. "Catholic" comes from the Greek word meaning "universal," indicating the Church's proclamation of the complete Christian faith to all people without exclusion. This concept originated from the Nicene Creed and is characterized by its all-encompassing nature. The Vincentian Canon further defines catholicity as what has been believed by all, everywhere, and always.

Purgatory: Purgatory is an intermediate state after death where souls are purified, much like dross being removed from metal in a furnace.

Angel: An angel is a supernatural being in many theistic religions that serves God.

Second Coming: The Second Coming refers to the Christian belief in Jesus returning to Earth following his ascent to heaven. It is rooted in messianic prophecies and is a central aspect of Christian eschatology, while other religions may have different understandings of this event.

Grace in Christianity: Grace in Christianity is a gift from God, given without merit, as an expression of divine favor and love. In Western theology, it is seen as a spontaneous and undeserved help, while in the Eastern Orthodox Church, grace is the uncreated Energies of God. It is understood as the partaking of the Divine Nature and the working of God himself, rather than a material substance.

Trinity: The Trinity is a central Christian doctrine that describes one God existing in three coequal, coeternal, and consubstantial divine persons: God the Father, God the Son (Jesus Christ), and God the Holy Spirit. They share one essence and nature. The Father begets, the Son is begotten, and the Holy Spirit proceeds. This doctrine highlights the distinction and indissoluble unity between the three persons. It teaches that all of creation and grace is a shared action of the three divine persons, with each person manifesting their unique attributes. Everything comes from the Father, through the Son, and in the Holy Spirit.

Catholic Church: The Catholic Church, also called the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian denomination with 1.378 billion baptized members worldwide. It is an ancient and influential institution, shaping Western civilization. Comprising 24 churches, including the Latin Church and 23 Eastern Catholic Churches, it spans over 3,500 dioceses globally. The pope, based in Rome, leads the church as the bishop of Rome and heads the Holy See, the central governing authority. The Holy See's administrative body, the Roman Curia, operates from Vatican City, a small independent enclave within Rome.

Eastern Catholic Churches: Eastern Catholic Churches, also known as Eastern-Rite Catholic Churches, are 23 autonomous particular churches within the Catholic Church. They are distinct from the Latin Church but are in full communion with the Pope. These churches have their own theology, liturgy, and history while being united with each other and the Roman Catholic Church. Eastern Catholics constitute a minority within the Catholic Church, with approximately 18 million members out of the total 1.3 billion Catholics worldwide.

Pope: The pope is the head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City State. His authority is derived from being the successor of Saint Peter, chosen by Jesus to lead the Church. The current pope is Francis, elected in 2013.

Eastern Christianity: Eastern Christianity refers to Christian traditions and church families that emerged in various regions including Western Asia, Eastern Europe, Southeastern Europe, and parts of Africa and Asia. It encompasses diverse religious denominations that originated during classical and late antiquity. Not a single communion, Eastern Christianity developed in multiple areas and does not adhere to a specific religious denomination.

Eastern Orthodox Church: The Eastern Orthodox Church, also known as the Orthodox Church, is the second-largest Christian church, with about 220 million members. It is made up of independent churches led by bishops. It does not have a central authority like the Pope in the Catholic Church, but the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople is recognized as first among equals. The Eastern Orthodox Church has a rich history and strong cultural influence in Eastern and Southeastern Europe.

Greek Orthodox Church: The Greek Orthodox Church is a Christian denomination with three classifications that have historical ties to Greek Christianity or the Eastern Roman Empire.

Russian Orthodox Church: The Russian Orthodox Church, or Moscow Patriarchate, is an autocephalous Christian church with 194 dioceses in Russia. Its leader, the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus', holds a prominent position.

Oriental Orthodox Churches: The Oriental Orthodox Churches are ancient Christian churches with about 50 million followers globally. They follow the Nicene Christian tradition and adhere to Miaphysite Christology.

Coptic Orthodox Church: The Coptic Orthodox Church is an Oriental Orthodox Christian church based in Egypt, Africa, and the Middle East. The pope of Alexandria leads the church from Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in Cairo. It follows the Coptic Rite for liturgy, prayer, and devotional practices. With around 10 million members, Coptic Christians form Egypt's largest minority and the largest Christian population in the Middle East and North Africa.

Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church: The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is the largest of the Oriental Orthodox Churches, with 36-51 million followers in Ethiopia. It originated before European colonization and has been in existence since 330 AD when Christianity was accepted by the Kingdom of Aksum. It is a founding member of the World Council of Churches and has strong ties with other Oriental Orthodox churches.

Protestantism: Protestantism is a Christian branch that emerged from the 16th century Protestant Reformation. It aimed to reform perceived errors and abuses within the Catholic Church.

Anglicanism: Anglicanism is a large branch of Christianity that evolved from the Church of England after the English Reformation. It follows Western Christian practices and has around 110 million followers globally.

Arminianism: Arminianism is a Protestant movement founded in the 17th century by Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius and his followers, known as Remonstrants. It aimed to moderate Calvinism's doctrine on predestination as expressed in the Remonstrance, a theological statement submitted to the Dutch States General.

Baptists: Baptists are a significant group within evangelical Protestantism known for baptizing only professing Christians through complete immersion. They emphasize individual soul competency, faith in Christ alone, reliance on Scripture, and a democratic church structure. Baptists recognize baptism and communion as their main practices.

Calvinism: Calvinism, or Reformed Christianity, is a Protestant branch founded by John Calvin and other Reformation theologians. It emphasizes God's sovereignty and the authority of the Bible.

Evangelicalism: Evangelicalism is a global interdenominational movement in Protestant Christianity that highlights three key aspects: personal conversion known as "being born again," reverence for the Bible as God's revelation, and the dissemination of the Christian message. The term evangelical derives from the Greek word meaning "good news."

Lutheranism: Lutheranism is a prominent Protestant branch influenced by Martin Luther. It stems from his campaign to reform Catholic practices and beliefs, which triggered the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century.

Methodism: Methodism is a group of Protestant Christian denominations that trace their origins to John Wesley, with George Whitefield and Charles Wesley as early leaders. The name "Methodists" reflects their organized approach to practicing their faith. Methodism began as a revival movement within Anglicanism in the 18th century and later became a separate denomination. It spread globally through missionary efforts and today has approximately 80 million followers worldwide.

Pentecostalism: Pentecostalism is a Protestant Charismatic Christian movement centered on experiencing God through baptism with the Holy Spirit. It is named after the event of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit descended upon Jesus Christ's followers during the Feast of Weeks in Jerusalem.

Quakers: Quakers are members of the Religious Society of Friends, a Protestant Christian denomination. They believe in the presence of God in every individual and the possibility of divine revelation. Quakers encompass various interpretations of Christianity, including evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional beliefs. Some Quakers are Nontheists, practicing spirituality without belief in God. They reject creeds and hierarchies, emphasizing equality among believers. In 2017, there were approximately 377,557 Quakers worldwide, with a significant percentage located in Africa.

Seventh-day Adventist Church: The Seventh-day Adventist Church, a Protestant Christian denomination, distinguishes itself by observing Saturday as the Sabbath. It emphasizes the imminent return of Jesus Christ and holds an annihilationist belief. Formed in 1863 in the USA, it grew out of the Millerite movement. Co-founder Ellen G. White's influential writings still hold high regard within the church.

Nontrinitarianism: Nontrinitarianism refers to a branch of Christianity that does not accept the traditional doctrine of the Trinity. It rejects the belief in God as three distinct persons existing eternally and inseparably united in one being. Some religious groups that appeared during the Protestant Reformation are commonly referred to as antitrinitarian.

Jehovah's Witnesses: Jehovah's Witnesses is a Christian denomination with around 8.6 million members who actively evangelize and over 20.5 million attending the annual Memorial of Christ's death. Led by the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, they believe in the imminent destruction of the world system at Armageddon and the establishment of God's kingdom as the solution to all human problems. Originating from the Bible Student movement in the late 1870s, the group was founded by Charles Taze Russell and underwent changes under Joseph Franklin Rutherford, leading to the adoption of the name Jehovah's Witnesses in 1931.

Mormonism: Mormonism is a religious tradition and theology founded by Joseph Smith in the 1820s-1830s. It is part of the Latter Day Saint movement of Restorationist Christianity, with roots in Western New York. While the term "Mormonism" has been used to describe different aspects of the movement, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has recently distanced itself from the label. It encompasses various roles such as a sect, mystery cult, new religion, church, people, nation, and an American subculture, according to historian Sydney E. Ahlstrom.

Unitarianism: Unitarianism is a Nontrinitarian form of Christianity emphasizing a singular God who created the universe. Unitarian Christians believe that Jesus was inspired by God, but he is not equal to God himself. They view Jesus as the savior of humanity.

Church (building): A church is a building used for Christian worship and religious activities. The earliest known Christian church was a house church established between 233 and 256.

Ecumenism: Ecumenism is the belief that Christians from different denominations should collaborate to build closer relationships, promote unity, and encourage cooperation among churches. It encompasses non-denominational initiatives aimed at fostering greater union among Christian denominations.

Baptism: Baptism is a Christian sacrament involving water, symbolizing initiation and adoption into the faith. It can be performed by sprinkling, pouring, or immersion, typically three times. John the Baptist baptized Jesus, and it is considered a sacrament or ordinance in different churches. Trinitarian formula baptism promotes unity among Christians. Baptism is also known as christening, mainly for infants. It serves as a requirement for church membership in some denominations, including Catholic, Orthodox, and Lutheran churches, as well as Baptist denominations.

Eucharist: The Eucharist, also called Holy Communion, is a Christian sacrament believed to have been established by Jesus at the Last Supper. It involves the sharing of bread and wine, symbolizing Jesus' body and blood. This rite is seen as a memorial and is practiced in various forms across different Christian denominations.

Torah: The Torah is the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, including Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Christians refer to it as the Pentateuch or the Five Books of Moses. In Jewish tradition, it is called the Written Torah. The Torah can be found in the form of a Torah scroll for religious purposes and in bound book form called Chumash, often with rabbinic commentaries.

Hebrew Bible: The Hebrew Bible, also known as the Tanakh or Miqra, is the collection of Hebrew scriptures that includes the Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketuvim. Different branches of Judaism and Samaritanism have different versions of the canon. Examples include the Septuagint, Syriac Peshitta, Samaritan Pentateuch, Dead Sea Scrolls, and the Masoretic Text. The Masoretic Text, compiled in the 10th century, is widely used in Rabbinic Judaism. It is important to note that the term "Hebrew Bible" is often confused with the Masoretic Text, which is a medieval version. This text is considered authoritative by different types of Judaism. The Masoretic Text is primarily in Biblical Hebrew, with a few passages in Biblical Aramaic.

Talmud: The Talmud is a key text in Rabbinic Judaism, serving as the main source for Jewish religious law and theology. It was central to Jewish cultural life and had a profound influence on Jewish thought and daily life in traditional Jewish communities.

Halakha: Halakha, also known as Jewish law, is a collection of religious laws derived from the Written and Oral Torah. It is based on biblical commandments, Talmudic and rabbinic laws, as well as customs and traditions. Halakha guides religious practices, beliefs, and various aspects of daily life.

Kashrut: Kashrut encompasses Jewish dietary laws, specifying which foods are permitted for consumption and how they should be prepared according to Jewish law. Kosher food is deemed acceptable, while non-kosher food is considered treif.

Orthodox Judaism: Orthodox Judaism refers to traditionalist branches of Judaism. It emphasizes belief in the divine origin of the Torah, both Written and Oral, revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai and passed down faithfully through generations.

Conservative Judaism: Conservative Judaism is a Jewish religious movement that emphasizes the authority of Jewish law derived from the consent of the people over divine revelation. It believes that Jewish law, or Halakha, is both binding and subject to historical development. The movement uses modern research methods and considers its approach as the authentic continuation of Halakhic discourse. It values both tradition and flexibility in interpreting Jewish practices. Conservative Judaism also embraces pluralism and lacks a consensus in matters of faith.

Reform Judaism: Reform Judaism, also known as Liberal or Progressive Judaism, is a major Jewish denomination emphasizing the evolving nature of Judaism and prioritizing ethical over ceremonial aspects. It believes in continuous revelation, not limited to the theophany at Mount Sinai, closely linked with human reason. Reform Judaism is highly liberal, placing little emphasis on ritual and personal observance, considering Jewish law non-binding, and valuing individual autonomy. It also embraces external influences and progressive values.

Synagogue: A synagogue is a Jewish house of worship, also known as a shul or temple. It serves as a place for religious services, weddings, and other ceremonies. Synagogues have rooms for study, social activities, administrative purposes, and classrooms for religious and Hebrew studies. They often display artwork and historical items significant to Judaism and the synagogue's history.

Rabbi: A rabbi is a spiritual leader and religious teacher in Judaism. They are ordained by another rabbi and study Jewish history and texts like the Talmud. The role of a rabbi developed during the Pharisaic and Talmudic eras. The term "rabbi" originated in the first century CE. In more recent centuries, the duties of rabbis were influenced by Protestant Christian ministers, leading to the title "pulpit rabbis". Rabbis have important responsibilities such as giving sermons, providing pastoral counseling, and representing the community externally.

Imam: Imam is a leadership position in Islam. Sunni Muslims commonly refer to an Imam as the prayer leader and community guide in a mosque. They lead Islamic prayers, offer religious guidance, and can be anyone who studies Islamic sciences.

Mosque: A mosque or masjid is a place of prayer for Muslims. It can be an indoor or outdoor location where salah (prayers) are performed, typically a covered building but also including open courtyards.

Quran: The Quran, also known as Qur'an or Koran, is Islam's central religious text, believed to be a divine revelation. It comprises 114 chapters with verses and holds immense religious and literary significance. Renowned for its influence on the Arabic language, it is considered one of the finest works in Arabic literature.

Hadith: Hadith, also known as Athar, is a compilation of narrations documenting the words, actions, and approval of Prophet Muhammad. These reports are believed by Muslims to be transmitted through a chain of narrators, providing insights into Muhammad's teachings and practices.

Islamic schools and branches: Islamic schools and branches vary in their interpretations of Islam, including sects, schools of jurisprudence, and theology. These groups differ in their beliefs and practices, sometimes resulting in conflicts or violence. Some groups are organized with a governing body, while others are informal movements. Some sects are ancient, while others are more recent. Non-denominational Muslims do not align with any specific school or branch.

Sunni Islam: Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam, followed by 85–90% of Muslims worldwide. Its name is derived from the tradition of Muhammad, known as Sunnah. The primary distinction between Sunni and Shia Muslims originated from a disagreement over Muhammad's succession. Sunnis believe that Abu Bakr was appointed as the next leader, while Shia Muslims maintain that Muhammad appointed Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor.

Shia Islam: Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam, believing that the Prophet Muhammad named ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor, which was disputed by other companions. This contrasts with Sunnī Islam, which believes that no successor was appointed and considers Abū Bakr as the first caliph after Muhammad. Shia Muslims are the followers of Shia Islam.

Sufism: Sufism, also called Tasawwuf, is a mystical aspect of Islam that emphasizes spiritual purification, ritualism, asceticism, and esotericism. It can be defined as Islamic mysticism or the inward dimension of Islam, representing the intense interiorization and manifestation of mystical practices within the faith.

Halal: Halal, an Arabic word meaning 'permissible', is in contrast with the term haram in the Quran. It encompasses "the five decisions" - mandatory, recommended, neutral, reprehensible, and forbidden - with varying interpretations among Islamic jurists. Contemporary emphasis is often placed on the simpler halal and haram distinction in Islamic movements and popular literature.

Haram: Haram, an Arabic term, means 'forbidden' and can refer to something sacred inaccessible to impure or uninformed individuals, or to an evil action deemed sinful. It is also associated with the idea of being 'set aside', similar to the Hebrew concept of חרם and the Roman sacer. In Islamic jurisprudence, haram denotes acts forbidden by Allah and is one of the five commandments defining human morality.

Sharia: Sharia is a religious law based on Islamic teachings found in the Quran and Hadith. It is seen as God's unchanging divine law, while fiqh refers to interpretations by Islamic scholars. Fiqh has been developed over time through legal opinions, and Sharia has always been used alongside customary law. It is applied in courts by ruler-appointed judges and integrated with other laws issued by Muslim rulers.

Fiqh: Fiqh refers to Islamic jurisprudence, encompassing human understanding and practices of Sharia (Islamic law) as derived from the Quran and the sunnah. It expands Sharia through interpretation by Islamic jurists and is implemented through their rulings. Fiqh covers rituals, morals, social legislation, economics, and politics in Islam. While Sharia is considered unchangeable, fiqh is considered fallible. Sunni and Shi'a branches have different schools of fiqh. A faqīh is a person trained in fiqh.

Allah: 'Allah' is the Arabic word for God, particularly in Islam. It is believed to be derived from 'al-ilāh', meaning "the god," and is linguistically connected to the Aramaic words Elah and Syriac ܐܲܠܵܗܵܐ (ʼAlāhā), as well as the Hebrew word for God, El (Elohim).

Five Pillars of Islam: The Five Pillars of Islam are fundamental practices considered mandatory for all Muslims. These include the Muslim creed, prayer, charity, fasting during Ramadan, and the pilgrimage to Mecca (for those able). They are universally followed, although the Shia have different names for them.

Hajj: The Hajj is a yearly Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. It is a mandatory duty for physically and financially capable adult Muslims to undertake at least once in their lifetime. They must support their family during their absence from home.

Hinduism: Hinduism, an ancient Indian religion, is both a religious and universal way of life. It is believed to be the oldest religion in the world, known as sanātana dharma, with origins beyond human history as revealed in Hindu texts. The term 'Hindu' is an exonym, while 'Vaidika dharma' is another endonym for Hinduism.

Buddhism: Buddhism is an Indian religion based on the teachings attributed to the Buddha. It began in the 5th century BCE and spread across Asia. With over 520 million followers, it is the fourth-largest religion worldwide, representing seven percent of the global population.

Jainism: Jainism, an Indian religion known as Jain Dharma, is guided by twenty-four tirthankaras, with the first being Rishabhadeva. It is considered eternal and is based on three main pillars: non-violence, non-absolutism, and asceticism. Jainism's history dates back millions of years, with significant figures like Parshvanatha in the 9th century BCE and Mahavira around 600 BCE.

Sikhism: Sikhism, also called Sikhi, is a religion and philosophy from Punjab, India, founded in the late 15th century CE. It is one of the newest and largest religions globally, with 25-30 million followers.

Taoism: Taoism, an indigenous Chinese tradition, is both a philosophy and a religion that emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao, an enigmatic process underlying reality. It includes various practices like meditation, astrology, and internal alchemy. The goal is self-cultivation and a deeper appreciation of the Tao, leading to a more harmonious existence. Taoist ethics emphasize virtues such as effortless action, naturalness, simplicity, and compassion. Taoist terms may lack easy definitions, often having multiple translations.

Shinto: Shinto is an indigenous East Asian religion from Japan, often seen as a nature religion. It lacks a central authority and its practitioners are diverse in belief and practice.

Manichaeism: Manichaeism, an ancient religion, was established in the 3rd century CE by the prophet Mani in the Sasanian Empire, becoming a significant global faith.

Dharma: Dharma, a fundamental concept in Indian religions, encompasses multiple meanings. It refers to behaviors aligned with the harmonious "order and custom" that sustains life. Dharma also encompasses "virtue" and encompasses religious and moral duties.

Karma: Karma is a concept found in Indian religions that emphasizes the principle of cause and effect. It highlights that an individual's intentions and actions have consequences in their future. Good deeds and intentions lead to positive outcomes and happiness, while bad deeds result in negative consequences. However, in some scriptures, karma is not connected to rebirth. Karma should not be confused with fate or predestination.

Om: Om is a sacred symbol in Hinduism representing a powerful sound and invocation. It embodies the essence of the supreme Absolute, Brahman, and is considered a sonic representation of the divine. Found in Vedas and other Hindu texts, Om is significant in Vedic authority and soteriological practices.

Qi: Qi, also known as ch'i or chi, is a vital force believed to exist in all living things in Chinese culture. It is often translated as "vital energy" or "vital force" and relates to the concept of "energy". Qi is important in traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts, and its cultivation and balance are pursued through qigong.

Swastika: The swastika is an ancient symbol used in various Eurasian, African, and American cultures. It is recognized as a symbol of the German Nazi Party in the West, but its origins lie in Asian cultures. Neo-Nazis worldwide still use it. In Indian religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, it represents divinity and spirituality. The swastika takes the form of a cross with equal and perpendicular arms, each bent at a right angle.

Yin and yang: The term 'Yin and yang' refers to interconnected opposing forces in Chinese philosophy. It is a foundational concept for critical reasoning in traditional Chinese medicine, helping to diagnose diseases and illnesses effectively.

Mantra: A mantra is a sacred utterance or sound that practitioners believe possesses religious or spiritual power. It can be a syllable, word, or group of words with or without literal meaning. Some mantras have a specific structure, while others do not.

Tantra: Tantra is an ancient practice originating in India that incorporates esoteric yogic techniques. It emerged during the 1st millennium CE and is found in both Hinduism and Buddhism.

Yoga: Yoga is a ancient Indian practice that aims to control and calm the mind. It includes physical, mental, and spiritual practices and is found in various schools of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. It is widely practiced globally.

Brahmin: In Hinduism, Brahman is the highest universal principle and ultimate reality. It is the immaterial cause of everything and the unchanging truth behind all changes. Brahman binds the diverse universe into a single unity.

Shaivism: Shaivism is a major Hindu tradition that worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. It is one of the largest Hindu denominations and incorporates various sub-traditions, from devotional dualistic theism to yoga-based monistic non-theism. Shaivism regards both the Vedas and Agama texts as significant sources of theology. It is the second-largest Hindu sect, with approximately 253 million followers, constituting about 26.6% of all Hindus.

Shaktism: Summary: Shaktism is a significant Hindu denomination that portrays the metaphysical reality, or the godhead, as symbolically feminine.

Vaishnavism: Vaishnavism, a major Hindu denomination, identifies Vishnu as the supreme being among other deities. Its followers, called Vaishnavites or Vaishnavas, revere Vishnu and believe in his leadership. Vaishnavism includes sub-sects like Krishnaism and Ramaism, centered around Krishna and Rama as supreme beings respectively. With approximately 751 million adherents, Vaishnavism is the largest Hindu sect, constituting about 80% of Hindus according to a 2023 estimate.

Vedanta: Vedanta is an orthodox school of Hindu philosophy that focuses on knowledge and liberation. It emerged from the speculations and concepts found in the Upanishads. Vedanta is based on the authority of three texts: the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita. It encompasses various schools of thought.

Vedas: The Vedas are ancient religious texts from India, written in Vedic Sanskrit. They are the oldest scriptures in Hinduism and form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature.

Upanishads: The Upanishads are ancient Sanskrit texts that mark a shift from Vedic ritualism to new religious ideas in Hinduism. They are the latest addition to the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, and discuss topics like meditation, philosophy, consciousness, and spiritual knowledge. Unlike earlier Vedic texts, which focused on rituals and ceremonies, the Upanishads explore deeper concepts and the nature of existence.

Bhagavad Gita: The Bhagavad Gita is a Hindu scripture consisting of 700 verses. It is part of the Mahabharata, specifically chapters 23-40 of book 6 known as the Bhishma Parva. The scripture is believed to date back to the second half of the first millennium BCE.

Ramayana: The Ramayana is an ancient Indian epic, considered one of the two important Hindu epics. It tells the life story of Rama, a prince from Ayodhya in the kingdom of Kosala. Rama's exile, along with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana, his wife's abduction by Ravana, the ensuing war, and Rama's triumphant return to Ayodhya are pivotal events in the epic. Written by Maharishi Valmiki, it is a significant smriti text in Indian literature.

Kumbh Mela: The Kumbh Mela is a major Hindu pilgrimage and festival celebrated every 12 years at four river-bank sites: Prayagraj, Haridwar, Nashik, and Ujjain. It involves a ritual dip in the rivers, but also includes community fairs, religious discourses, and mass gatherings of monks. Participants believe that bathing in the rivers cleanses them of past mistakes and sins.

Mahayana: Mahāyāna is a broad group of Buddhist traditions and practices originating in ancient India. It is one of the three main branches of Buddhism, alongside Theravāda and Vajrayāna. Mahāyāna incorporates early Buddhist teachings while also recognizing additional texts and doctrines not accepted by Theravāda. These include the Mahāyāna sūtras, which emphasize the bodhisattva path and Prajñāpāramitā. Vajrayāna, a subset of Mahāyāna, uses tantric methods to aid in achieving Buddhahood.

Zen: Zen is a form of Buddhism that started in China and later spread to Vietnam, Korea, and Japan. It originated as the Chan School and emphasizes the practice of meditation and attaining enlightenment through direct experience.

Theravada: Theravada is the oldest school of Buddhism, widely accepted and practiced. Its followers, called Theravādins, have meticulously preserved Gautama Buddha's teachings for more than 2,000 years in the Pāli Canon.

Vajrayana: Vajrayana, also called esoteric or tantric Buddhism, is a Buddhist tradition originating in India and spreading to Tibet, Nepal, East Asia, and Mongolia. It emphasizes the use of complex rituals, mantras, and visualizations to achieve enlightenment quickly.

Avalokiteśvara: Avalokiteśvara is a significant bodhisattva in Buddhism, known for his great compassion. Also called Lokeśvara and Chenrezig, he is closely related to Amitabha Buddha. Avalokiteśvara appears in different forms and is considered a source of Hindu deities in some texts.

Four Noble Truths: The core teachings of Buddhism, known as the Four Noble Truths, explain that suffering (dukkha) is inherent in the cycle of attachment, and it arises with craving (taṇhā). However, suffering can end through the release and cessation of this craving. The path (marga) leading to the end of suffering involves the confinement of craving.

Nirvana: Nirvana is an Indian religious concept representing the ultimate state of liberation from suffering and the cycle of birth and rebirth.

Diamond Sutra: The Diamond Sutra is a highly influential Buddhist text known for its teachings on wisdom and emptiness. It belongs to the Prajñāpāramitā genre and is widely translated and studied across various countries. In East Asia, it holds great significance in the Chan tradition, alongside the Heart Sutra.

Pali Canon: The Pali Canon is the primary collection of scriptures in Theravada Buddhism, written in Pali language. It is considered the most comprehensive surviving early Buddhist canon and is associated with the Tamrashatiya school.

Guru Granth Sahib: The Guru Granth Sahib is the sacred scripture of Sikhism, considered the final and eternal Guru by Sikhs. It was compiled by Guru Arjan, the fifth guru, and completed in 1604. It was first installed in the Golden Temple in Amritsar, with Baba Buddha as the first Granthi. Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth guru, added hymns of Guru Tegh Bahadur to it, renaming it the Guru Granth Sahib.

Golden Temple: The Golden Temple, also called Harmandir Sahib or Darbār Sahib, is a gurdwara situated in Amritsar, Punjab, India. As the primary spiritual site of Sikhism, it holds immense religious significance. Alongside Gurdwara Darbar Sahib Kartarpur and Gurdwara Janam Asthan, it ranks among the holiest places for Sikhs.

Tao Te Ching: The Tao Te Ching is a Chinese classic text that is considered the foundational work of Taoism. It was written around 400 BC by the sage Laozi, although there is debate about its authorship and the dates of composition and compilation. Some parts of the text are believed to have been written or compiled after the late 4th century BC, as evidenced by archaeological findings.

Zhuangzi(book): The Zhuangzi is a significant Taoist text, written in China during the late Warring States period (476–221 BC) by "Master Zhuang." It is a foundational text of Taoism, along with the Tao Te Ching. Comprised of stories and maxims, the Zhuangzi illuminates the essence of the ideal Taoist sage.

Kojiki: The Kojiki is an ancient Japanese chronicle that explores myths, legends, genealogies, and semi-historical accounts. It delves into the origin of the Japanese archipelago, the kami and the imperial line. Considered the oldest existing literary work in Japan, it was composed by Ō no Yasumaro in the 8th century at the request of Empress Genmei.

Chinese folk religion: Chinese folk religion, also known as Chinese popular religion, encompasses a wide range of traditional practices followed by Han Chinese and the Chinese diaspora. It involves the worship of spirits and ancestors, exorcism rituals, and a belief in the order of nature and balance in the universe. Deities and immortals are revered, representing various aspects of life, and their stories form Chinese mythology. This religious system emerged during the Song dynasty, blending Buddhist and Taoist teachings. While the Chinese government currently tolerates popular religious organizations that promote social stability, it suppresses or persecutes those that could potentially undermine it.

Haitian Vodou: Haitian Vodou is an Afro-Caribbean religion that emerged in Haiti between the 16th and 19th centuries. It blends elements of West and Central African traditional religions with Roman Catholicism through a process of syncretism. Vodouists, also called Vodouisants or Serviteurs, practice this religion, which is characterized by its lack of a central authority and the diversity among its followers.

Shamanism: Shamanism is a religious practice where practitioners connect with the spirit world through altered states of consciousness. They aim to bring spiritual energies into the physical world to assist with healing, divination, and helping humans.

Spiritualism: Spiritualism is a 19th-century social religious movement that believes in the continuation of an individual's awareness after death. It holds that spirits can be contacted and that the spirit world is dynamic. Spiritualists believe that spirits are more advanced than humans and can provide insight on moral, ethical, and divine matters. They often rely on specific spirits known as "spirit guides" for spiritual guidance. Emanuel Swedenborg is considered a key figure in the development of Spiritualism.

Traditional African religions: Summary: Traditional African religions encompass the diverse beliefs and practices of African people, which are primarily oral and passed down through generations via folk tales, songs, and festivals. These religions involve the worship of spirits, gods (both higher and lower, and sometimes a supreme being), and the veneration of the dead. They also incorporate the use of magic, traditional African medicine, and have animistic, polytheistic, and pantheistic elements. The objective of humanity in these religions is to maintain harmony between nature and the supernatural.

Yoruba religion: The Yoruba religion, also known as Orisa or Isese, is the traditional religious and spiritual system of the Yoruba people from Southwestern Nigeria. It encompasses various practices and beliefs and is mainly centered in Yorubaland, which includes parts of Nigeria, Benin, and Togo.

Zoroastrianism: Zoroastrianism, an ancient Iranian religion, follows the teachings of prophet Zoroaster. It believes in a dualistic cosmology of good and evil within a monotheistic framework. Zoroastrianism worships Ahura Mazda, a benevolent god of wisdom, and recognizes Angra Mainyu as a destructive adversary. It influenced other religious systems and philosophies with its distinctive monotheism, messianism, belief in free will, judgement after death, and concepts of heaven, hell, angels, and demons.

Avesta: The Avesta is the main collection of religious texts of Zoroastrianism, written in the Avestan language.

Prehistoric religion: Prehistoric religion refers to the religious practices of ancient cultures before the development of written records. It makes up over 99% of human experience, primarily during the Paleolithic period. These cultures existed for millions of years and had diverse religious practices. The lack of written records makes studying their faiths challenging.

Ancient Egyptian religion: Ancient Egyptian religion was a polytheistic system with about 1500 deities. It involved rituals and offerings to gain favor with the gods. The pharaohs acted as intermediaries between people and gods, maintaining Ma'at, the order of the cosmos, and repelling chaos. The state invested heavily in religious rituals and temple construction.

Ancient Greek religion: Ancient Greek religion included beliefs, rituals, and mythology in both public religion and cult practices. The application of the term "religion" to ancient Greece is debated, as the Greeks did not have a word for it in the modern sense. Greek writers did not classify gods or cult practices as separate religions. Instead, they referred to common shrines, sacrifices, and customs observed by the Hellenes.

Ancient Mesopotamian religion: Ancient Mesopotamian religion refers to the original religious beliefs and practices of ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia, including Sumer, Akkad, Assyria, and Babylonia between 6000 BC and 400 AD. It was a consistent and coherent tradition that evolved over millennia, adapting to the needs of its followers. This religious development was not greatly influenced by external movements.

Aztec religion: The Aztec religion is a polytheistic and monistic pantheism centered around the concept of teotl, with a supreme god called Ometeotl. It includes a diverse pantheon of lesser gods and nature representations. The popular religion emphasizes mythology and polytheism, while the state religion supports monism for the upper classes and allows for heterodoxies among the people.

Ancient Celtic religion: The term 'Ancient Celtic religion' refers to the religion of the ancient Celtic peoples in Europe. It is also known as Celtic paganism. Since there are no surviving native records of their beliefs, our understanding comes from archaeology, Greco-Roman accounts, and early Christian literature. Celtic paganism was part of a wider group of polytheistic religions in Iron Age Europe.

Germanic paganism: Germanic paganism, also known as Germanic religion, was the traditional belief system of the Germanic peoples spanning over a thousand years across Scandinavia, the British Isles, modern Germany, and parts of Europe. The beliefs and practices varied, influenced by neighboring cultures like the Celts, Romans, and later, Christianity. Limited authentic sources exist, posing challenges for understanding the precise details and continuity between Germanic paganism, Norse paganism, and Indo-European religion.

Maya religion: Maya religion is an ancient belief system practiced by the Maya peoples in Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and Mexico. It has evolved over centuries, blending with Roman Catholicism. With roots dating back over 2,500 years, it was once widespread among indigenous kingdoms. Today, it coexists with the Pan-Maya movement and various forms of Christianity.

Old Norse religion: Old Norse religion, also known as Norse paganism, was a branch of Germanic religion. It developed during the Proto-Norse period as the North Germanic peoples separated from the rest of the Germanic peoples. It was later replaced by Christianity during the Christianization of Scandinavia. Scholars study this ancient religion through historical linguistics, archaeology, toponymy, and records left by North Germanic peoples, including runic inscriptions. Norse mythology, which is a part of this religion, is recorded in numerous Old Norse works from the 13th century.

Religion in ancient Rome: Religion in ancient Rome encompassed diverse religious practices, observed by both Romans and those under their dominion. This included a blend of imperial and provincial rituals, shaping the spiritual beliefs and customs of the ancient Roman civilization.

Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia: Pre-Islamic Arabia featured a diverse religious landscape with indigenous Arabian polytheism, ancient Semitic religions, Christianity, Judaism, Mandaeism, and Zoroastrianism coexisting.

Slavic paganism: Slavic paganism is the ancient religious beliefs, myths, and rituals of the Slavs prior to their conversion to Christianity. It existed from the 8th to the 13th century, with Christianization occurring at different times. The South Slavs initially came into contact with Eastern Christianity in the Balkan Peninsula, while the East Slavs adopted Christianity under the rule of Vladimir the Great in Kievan Rus'.

Western esotericism: Western esotericism is a term used to categorize various loosely related ideas and movements that developed in Western society. It is distinct from orthodox Judeo-Christianity and rationalism of the Enlightenment era. It has influenced Western philosophy, mysticism, religion, pseudoscience, art, literature, and music.

Freemasonry: Freemasonry is a fraternal organization that originated in the 14th century, initially governing stonemasons' qualifications and interactions with authorities. Contemporary Freemasonry is divided into Regular Freemasonry, which requires belief in a Supreme Being, excludes women, and avoids religious and political discussions, and Continental Freemasonry, which has fewer or no such restrictions.

New Age: The New Age movement is a diverse and evolving spiritual movement that gained popularity in the Western society during the early 1970s. Its beliefs and practices are highly eclectic and difficult to define precisely. While some scholars consider it a religious movement, its followers view it as a spiritual path that unifies the mind, body, and spirit. They seldom refer to themselves as part of the New Age, and some prefer to see it as a cultural milieu or spirit of the times.

New religious movement: A new religious movement (NRM) is a modern spiritual group that is separate from the dominant religion in its society. It can be a unique religion or part of a larger one. Some NRMs emphasize individualism, while others emphasize strong community bonds. There are thousands of NRMs worldwide, ranging from small groups to those with millions of followers.

Falun Gong: Falun Gong, also known as Falun Dafa, is a new religious movement founded by Li Hongzhi in China in the early 1990s. With its global headquarters located in Dragon Springs, New York, this movement covers a 427-acre compound near Li Hongzhi's residence.

Modern paganism: Modern paganism, also called contemporary paganism or neopaganism, is a diverse family of religions influenced by ancient European and nearby cultures. It encompasses various beliefs, practices, and texts, and is often referred to as new religious movements. Scholars differ on whether to view it as multiple religions or as a single religion with different denominations.

Wicca: Wicca, also known as "The Craft," is a modern pagan religion developed in England during the first half of the 20th century. It is considered a new religious movement and part of Western esotericism. Introduced in 1954 by Gerald Gardner, a British civil servant, Wicca is an earth-centered religion that incorporates ancient pagan and hermetic influences into its rituals and theological beliefs.

Satanism: Satanism is a set of religious, ideological, and philosophical beliefs centered around Satan, the devil in Christian belief. It involves the worship or veneration of Satan and the temptation of humans into sin. Historically, the term was used by Christians to accuse their ideological opponents. Modern self-identified Satanism began with the founding of the atheistic Church of Satan in the United States in 1966 by Anton LaVey. This group does not believe in a literal Satan. Satanism can be connected to paganism, ceremonial magic, and other occult practices like Set, Lilith, Hecate, and Chaos.

Folklore: Folklore is a collection of oral traditions, tales, myths, legends, proverbs, poems, and jokes shared by a specific group of people or culture. It also encompasses material culture, like traditional building styles.

Myth: A myth is a type of folklore or theology that includes important narratives in a society, like origin myths or foundational tales. It is different from the common usage of "myth" as something untrue. The truth value of a myth is not a defining factor, making it distinct from other types of storytelling.

Comparative mythology: Comparative mythology is the study of myths across cultures, aiming to uncover shared themes and characteristics. It serves academic purposes such as tracing religious and cultural developments, proposing common origins for myths, and supporting psychoanalytical theories.

Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology: Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology encompasses the divine spirituality woven into the rituals and stories of Indigenous Australians, practiced by various language groups across the country. It includes sacred elements such as the Dreamtime, songlines, and oral literature.

Chinese mythology: Chinese mythology refers to the collection of myths and legends that have been passed down orally or through literature in Greater China. It contains diverse stories from different regions and cultures, often featuring extraordinary individuals and creatures with magical abilities. These tales commonly unfold in mythical realms or ancient times. Chinese mythology, like other mythologies, was historically considered a partially factual account of history. It is closely linked to Chinese folk religion and Taoism, particularly in older variants. Many ancient stories have both a mythological and a more historical interpretation.

Egyptian mythology: Egyptian mythology is a collection of ancient Egyptian myths that explain their understanding of the world through the actions of the gods. These myths are an integral part of their religion, appearing in various forms of writings and art. However, most sources only offer incomplete accounts or fragments of these myths.

Greek mythology: Greek mythology is a collection of stories from ancient Greece that explain the origin of the world, the lives of gods and heroes, and the rituals of the ancient Greeks. It is intertwined with Roman mythology and is studied by scholars to gain insights into ancient Greek religion and society.

Japanese mythology: Japanese mythology is a compilation of ancient tales and beliefs from the Japanese archipelago, influenced by the Shinto traditions and centuries of contact with Chinese and Indian myths.

Korean mythology: Korean mythology encompasses written and oral traditions. Written mythology focuses on the founding monarchs of historical kingdoms, while oral mythology consists of sacred narratives sung by shamans and priestesses in rituals invoking gods.

Mythologies of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas: The Indigenous peoples of the Americas have diverse cultures and mythologies, featuring common themes like close connection with nature and belief in a varied Great Spirit.

Norse mythology: Norse mythology, derived from Old Norse religion and continuing after Christianization, includes myths, deities, and heroes of North Germanic peoples. It stems from Proto-Germanic folklore and encompasses various sources, such as medieval manuscripts and archaeological representations. The mythology mentions notable gods like Thor, Odin, and Freyja.

Persian mythology: Persian mythology, also known as Iranian mythology, consists of ancient myths told by Persians and other Iranian peoples. It explores the origin of the world, the lives of deities, heroes, and mythical creatures. These myths also shed light on religious and political institutions in present-day Iran and other regions influenced by Persian culture. The Persosphere, including parts of West Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, and Transcaucasia, has been impacted by Persian culture through historical dynasties and settlements.

Roman mythology: Roman mythology refers to the myths and legends of ancient Rome, depicted in literature and art. It encompasses a wide range of folklore genres and can also refer to the modern study of these representations. It draws inspiration from the mythology of the Italic peoples and even traces back to Proto-Indo-European mythology.

Abraham: Abraham, a prominent figure in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, is regarded as the common patriarch of these Abrahamic religions. He established a significant bond between Jews and God in Judaism, served as the spiritual ancestor for all believers in Christianity, and holds a crucial position in the lineage of Islamic prophets.

Adam and Eve: 'Adam and Eve' are the legendary first man and woman in the Abrahamic creation myth. They represent the shared ancestry of all humanity and are the foundations for beliefs like the fall of man and original sin, primarily in Christianity. However, these concepts are not integral to Judaism or Islam.

Lilith: Lilith is a female figure in Mesopotamian and Jewish mythology, often referred to as the first wife of Adam. She is known as a primordial she-demon and was banished from the Garden of Eden for refusing to obey Adam.

Cain and Abel: Cain and Abel were the first sons of Adam and Eve. Cain was a farmer and Abel was a shepherd. They both made sacrifices to God, but God favored Abel's sacrifice. Enraged, Cain murdered Abel and was condemned to a life of wandering. He settled in the land of Nod, built a city, and became the father of Enoch, starting a new lineage.

Daniel (biblical figure): Daniel is the protagonist of the Book of Daniel in the Hebrew Bible. He was a noble Jewish youth from Jerusalem who was captured by Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon. Daniel served the king and his successors with loyalty and skill, remaining faithful to the God of Israel. While some believe he was a real person and the book was written in the 6th century BCE, most scholars see him as a fictional character and the book as a cryptic reference to the reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes in the 2nd century BCE.

David: David, the third king of the United Kingdom of Israel, is a biblical figure who likely lived around 1000 BCE. Limited information is available about him from historical records.

Elijah: Elijah - a biblical prophet and miracle worker from ancient Israel during King Ahab's reign.

Ezra: Ezra, also known as Esdras, was a significant Jewish scribe and priest during the early Second Temple period. His Aramaic name, Azaryahu, means "Yah helps." In Greek, he is called Ésdrās, which later became Esdras in Latin.

Isaac: Isaac, a patriarch of the Israelites, is a significant figure in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. He was the son of Abraham and Sarah, and the father of Jacob and Esau. He is also known as the grandfather of the twelve tribes of Israel.

Isaiah: Isaiah, an Israelite prophet of the 8th-century BC, lent his name to the biblical Book of Isaiah.

Ishmael: Ishmael, the first son of Abraham and Hagar, plays a significant role in Abrahamic religions. He died at the age of 137, according to the Genesis account.

Jacob: Jacob, also known as Israel, is a patriarch in Abrahamic religions. He is a central figure in Judaism, Samaritanism, Christianity, and Islam. Jacob is the son of Isaac and Rebecca, and the grandson of Abraham, Sarah, and Bethuel. He is presented as the second-born twin, with his brother Esau being the elder. Jacob acquired Esau's birthright and deceived his father for his blessing with his mother's aid. Eventually, due to a drought, Jacob and his descendants, aided by his son Joseph, relocated to Egypt, where he passed away at 147 years old. He is believed to be buried in the Cave of Machpelah.

Joseph (Genesis): Joseph (Genesis) is a prominent character in the Bible's Book of Genesis and the Quran, being the beloved son of Jacob and Rachel. He is the progenitor of the Israelite Tribe of Joseph and his story explains why Israel resided in Egypt. Due to jealousy, his brothers sell him into slavery, leading to his incarceration in Egypt. However, after skillfully interpreting Pharaoh's dreams, Joseph becomes second-in-command and saves Egypt from famine. Consequently, Jacob's family seeks refuge in Egypt, ultimately settling in the Land of Goshen through Joseph's influence.

Moses: Moses, revered in multiple religions, is a highly significant figure known as the key prophet in Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Druze faith, Baháʼí Faith, and other Abrahamic religions. He led the Israelites and is credited with receiving the divine Torah, which holds immense importance in religious teachings.

Noah: Noah is a significant figure in Abrahamic religions, representing the last patriarch before the Great Flood. His story appears in the Hebrew Bible, the Quran, and Baha'i writings. He is also mentioned in several other biblical texts, including the New Testament and deuterocanonical books.

Satan: Satan, also known as the Devil, is an entity in Abrahamic religions who tempts humans into sin or falsehood. In Judaism, Satan is a metaphor for evil inclination and subservient to God. In Christianity and Islam, Satan is seen as a fallen angel who rebelled against God and has temporary power over the fallen world and demons. In the Quran, Shaitan is a fire entity cast out of Heaven for refusing to bow before Adam and influences humans to sin through whisperings.

Solomon: Solomon, also called Jedidiah, was an ancient Israelite monarch and the successor of King David. He ruled over an amalgamated Israel and Judah from 970–931 BCE. Solomon's reign led to the split of the Israelites, with the Kingdom of Israel in the north and the Kingdom of Judah in the south. His descendants continued to rule over Judah.

Yahweh: Yahweh is an ancient deity worshipped by the Israelites. Scholars believe Yahweh emerged as a "divine warrior" associated with various regions before being linked to Canaan. His worship dates back to at least the early Iron Age, possibly even earlier, during the Late Bronze Age.

Anansi: Anansi is a spider character from Akan folklore associated with wisdom, trickery, and storytelling. Originating in Ghana, Anansi tales were brought to the Caribbean through the slave trade. Known as a clever trickster, Anansi uses his cunning and wit to defeat stronger opponents. Despite his mischief, Anansi is both the protagonist and antagonist, often taking the lead in the stories.

Tengri: Tengri is the all-encompassing god of heaven in Turkic, Mongolic, and other nomadic Altaic beliefs. Although not considered a deity in the usual sense, Tengri personifies the universe and is associated with being the judge, source of life, and eternal. European and Muslim writers identify Tengri as a deity for Turkic and Mongolic peoples. According to Mongolian belief, Tengri's will can transcend laws and intervene on earth by choosing someone.

Jade Emperor: The Jade Emperor, also known as Yudi or Yu Huang, is an important deity in Chinese culture and mythology. He is regarded as the primary god and is represented as the first god in traditional religions.

Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors: The Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors were revered ancient rulers and sages in China, regarded as cultural heroes and divine ancestral spirits in ancient times. They were believed to have existed before the Xia dynasty, and were thought to have aided the Chinese people even in later periods as incorporeal beings. Key figures include Nüwa, a spirit in the Shang dynasty, and Shennong, identified as the godly form of Hou Ji and a Zhou founder.

Yellow Emperor: The Yellow Emperor, known as Huangdi, is a mythical Chinese ruler considered a cultural hero. He is part of the legendary Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors and is worshipped as an individual deity in Chinese religion. According to jesuit missionaries and Chinese chronicles, Huangdi's traditional reign dates are estimated to be around 2697–2597 BC.

Amun: Amun, an important Egyptian deity, was a member of the Hermopolitan Ogdoad. He became the patron deity of Thebes, replacing Montu, during the 11th Dynasty.

Anubis: Anubis, an Ancient Egyptian god, is known as a canine-headed deity. He is associated with funerary rites, protection of graves, and guiding souls in the underworld.

Hathor: Hathor, a major goddess in ancient Egyptian religion, had diverse roles. She was the mother or consort of the sky god Horus and the sun god Ra, symbolizing the pharaohs' mothers. As the Eye of Ra, she protected him with a vengeful aspect. She also represented music, dance, joy, love, sexuality, and maternal care, and was the companion of male deities. Hathor assisted souls in transitioning to the afterlife, embodying Egyptian femininity.

Horus: Horus, an ancient Egyptian deity, was revered as a god of kingship, healing, protection, the sun, and the sky. Worshiped from prehistoric Egypt to Roman times, Horus took on different forms throughout history, each regarded as a separate god. Egyptologists believe these forms represented distinct attributes of a complex deity, which the ancient Egyptians saw as complementary facets of reality. Horus was often depicted as a falcon, specifically a lanner or peregrine falcon, or as a man with a falcon head.

Isis: Isis was a goddess in ancient Egyptian religion, worshipped in the Greco-Roman world as well. She played a significant role in the Osiris myth, resurrecting her brother/husband Osiris and protecting their son Horus. She aided the dead in entering the afterlife and was considered the divine mother of the pharaoh. Isis was invoked for healing spells and had a limited role in royal rituals but was prominently involved in funerary practices. She was depicted as a human woman with a hieroglyphic headpiece and later wore Hathor's headdress.

Osiris: Osiris was an ancient Egyptian god associated with fertility, agriculture, the afterlife, and resurrection. He was depicted as a green-skinned deity with a pharaoh's beard, partially mummy-wrapped at the legs, wearing an atef crown, and holding a crook and flail. He became connected with the mummy wrap and was revered until the decline of ancient Egyptian religion with the rise of Christianity.

Ra: Ra, an ancient Egyptian deity, was the god of the sun, ruling over the entire created world including the sky, Earth, and the underworld. By the Fifth Dynasty, he became one of the most significant gods in Egyptian religion, symbolizing the midday sun. He was also associated with order, kingship, and the sky, and was believed to have been the first pharaoh of Ancient Egypt.

Thoth: Thoth, an ancient Egyptian deity, was depicted as a man with the head of an ibis or baboon. He was revered as the god of the Moon, wisdom, knowledge, writing, hieroglyphs, science, magic, art, and judgment. His feminine counterpart was Seshat, and his wife was Ma'at.

Achilles: Achilles, a hero of the Trojan War, was the greatest Greek warrior in Greek mythology. He was the son of Thetis and Peleus, and was raised in Phthia with his friend Patroclus. He received his education from the centaur Chiron and was the commander of the Myrmidons in Homer's Iliad.

Aeneas: Aeneas is a Trojan hero, son of the Trojan prince Anchises and the Greek goddess Aphrodite. He is mentioned in Homer's Iliad and has a significant role in Roman mythology, particularly in Virgil's Aeneid. Aeneas is considered an ancestor of Romulus and Remus, and he is recognized as the first true hero of Rome. Additionally, Snorri Sturluson identifies him with the Norse god Víðarr of the Æsir.

Heracles: Heracles, also known as Hercules in Rome, was a legendary hero in Greek mythology. He was the divine son of Zeus and Alcmene, and a descendant of Perseus. Heracles was revered as the greatest Greek hero and defended the Olympian order against chthonic monsters. His lineage gave rise to the Heracleidae royal clans. His cult extended to Rome, where he became a figure of emulation for the Roman emperors, including Commodus and Maximian.

Odysseus: Odysseus, known as Ulysses in Latin, is a legendary Greek king of Ithaca and the hero in Homer's epic poems, the Odyssey and the Iliad. He also plays important roles in other works of the same epic cycle.

Perseus: Perseus is a legendary Greek hero who founded the Perseid dynasty. He was one of the greatest heroes, known for slaying monsters before Heracles. Perseus beheaded the Gorgon Medusa to secure a reward and rescued Andromeda from a sea monster. He was the son of Zeus and mortal Danaë, and also had a connection to Heracles.

Titans: The Titans were pre-Olympian gods in Greek mythology, born from Uranus and Gaia. There were six male Titans and six female ones. Cronus, a male Titan, mated with his sister Rhea, giving birth to the first generation of Olympians. Some descendants of the Titans, like Prometheus and Atlas, are also referred to as Titans.

Aphrodite: Aphrodite, an ancient Greek goddess, represents love, beauty, desire, and fertility. She is associated with Venus in Roman mythology. Symbolized by seashells, roses, doves, and swans, her worship originated from the Phoenician goddess Astarte. Aphrodite's main temples were in Cythera, Cyprus, Corinth, and Athens, and her primary festival was the Aphrodisia. In some regions, she was also worshipped as a warrior deity. Aphrodite became the patron goddess of prostitutes, but the notion of "sacred prostitution" is now considered inaccurate.

Apollo: Apollo is a Greek and Roman god associated with archery, music, truth, healing, the Sun, and more. Son of Zeus and Leto, he is the twin brother of Artemis. Known as the kouros ideal, Apollo is considered the most beautiful god. In Etruscan mythology, he is called Apulu.

Artemis: Artemis is the ancient Greek goddess associated with the hunt, nature, childbirth, and chastity. She is also linked to the moon and often depicted roaming the forests with her nymph companions. In Roman mythology, she is known as Diana.

Athena: Athena is an ancient Greek goddess associated with wisdom, warfare, and handicraft. She was later syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva. Athena was revered as the patron of various Greek cities, particularly Athens, and is symbolized by owls, olive trees, snakes, and the Gorgoneion. In depictions, she appears wearing a helmet and holding a spear.

Demeter: Demeter is the Greek goddess of harvest, food, and fertility. She is also associated with health, birth, marriage, and the Underworld. Demeter is the second child of Titans Rhea and Cronus, and sister to Hestia, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus.

Hephaestus: Hephaestus is the Greek god associated with various crafts such as blacksmithing and sculpture, as well as fire, metallurgy, and volcanoes. He is considered to be either the son of Zeus and Hera or Hera's parthenogenous child. Hephaestus was cast off Mount Olympus due to his lameness, caused either by a congenital impairment or by his actions to protect Hera from Zeus. His Roman counterpart is Vulcan.

Hera: Hera, a powerful goddess in ancient Greek religion, is known for her roles as the protector of women during childbirth and the queen of the Olympians. As Zeus's sister and wife, she exhibits a jealous and vengeful nature, particularly towards Zeus's lovers and illegitimate children.

Hermes: Hermes is an Olympian god in Greek mythology who is known as the herald of the gods and protector of various roles including travelers, thieves, merchants, and orators. With his winged sandals, he can swiftly move between mortal and divine realms. Hermes also serves as a psychopomp, guiding souls into the afterlife.

Poseidon: Poseidon is a deity in Greek mythology, associated with the sea, storms, earthquakes, and horses. He protected seafarers and guarded various cities. He was worshipped as a major deity in Pylos and Thebes and had the title "earth shaker." In Arcadia, he was revered as a horse and god of the waters. Poseidon was known for his control over horses and ability to create springs with his trident. The Roman equivalent of Poseidon is Neptune.

Zeus: Zeus is the ancient Greek sky and thunder god, reigning as the king of the gods on Mount Olympus. His name is derived from the first part of his Roman counterpart Jupiter.

Hades: Hades is a prominent figure in ancient Greek religion and mythology, known as the god of the dead and ruler of the underworld. He is the eldest son of Cronus and Rhea. Alongside his brothers Zeus and Poseidon, Hades defeated the Titans and claimed joint rulership over the cosmos. Hades was given control over the underworld, while Zeus ruled the sky and Poseidon the sea. Often depicted with a bident and wearing his helm, Hades is accompanied by Cerberus, the three-headed guard-dog of the underworld.

Jupiter (god): Jupiter (god) is the ancient Roman god of the sky, thunder, and king of the gods. He held the utmost importance in the Roman state religion from the Republic to the Imperial eras until Christianity took over. Jupiter played a significant role in establishing key religious principles, including offerings and sacrifices, through negotiations with Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome.

Mars (mythology): Mars, in Roman mythology, is the god of war and agriculture. He is the son of Jupiter and Juno, and held a prominent place among the military gods of ancient Rome. His festivals were celebrated in March and October, marking the start and end of the seasons for both warfare and farming.

Minerva: Minerva, the Roman goddess, embodies wisdom, justice, victory, and the support of arts, trade, and strategy. She is associated with strategic warfare, unlike the violent Mars. The Romans identified her with the Greek goddess Athena. Among the Capitoline Triad, Minerva stands alongside Jupiter and Juno.

Venus (mythology): Venus is a Roman goddess associated with love, beauty, and fertility. She is viewed as the ancestor of the Roman people through her son, Aeneas. Important in religious festivals, Venus holds numerous cult titles and was claimed as an ancestor by Julius Caesar.

Brahma: Brahma, a Hindu god, is known as "the Creator" in the Trimurti alongside Vishnu and Shiva. Associated with creation, knowledge, and the Vedas, Brahma plays a significant role in creation legends. According to some Puranas, he formed himself as a golden embryo called the Hiranyagarbha.

Vishnu: Vishnu, a principal Hindu deity, is also known as Narayana and Hari. He is revered as the supreme being in Vaishnavism, a major tradition of Hinduism.

Shiva: Shiva, also known as Mahadeva, is a principal deity in Hinduism and the Supreme Being in Shaivism, a major tradition within the religion.

Ganesha: Ganesha, also called Ganesh, Ganapati, Vinayaka, or Pillaiyar, is a highly revered deity in Hinduism and the main god in the Ganapatya sect. He is widely worshipped throughout India and respected by various Hindu denominations, as well as Jains, Buddhists, and others.

Kali: Kali, a significant deity in Hinduism, represents time, change, creation, power, destruction, and death. She is associated with Shaktism and holds the foremost position among the ten Mahavidya goddesses in the Hindu tantric tradition.

Krishna: Krishna is a prominent deity in Hinduism, considered the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also worshipped as the Supreme God. He is revered for his role as a protector and symbolizes qualities like compassion, tenderness, and love. Celebrated annually on Krishna Janmashtami, his birthday falls in late August or early September according to the Hindu calendar.

Rama: Rama is a prominent deity in Hinduism, worshipped as the seventh avatar of Vishnu. He holds great popularity and is revered as the Supreme Being in Rama-centric traditions.

Enki: Enki is the Sumerian god associated with water, knowledge, crafts, and creation. He is also part of the Anunnaki pantheon. In Akkadian religion, he is known as Ea or Ae, and some scholars identify him with Ia in Canaanite religion. In Greek sources, he is referred to as Aos.

Enlil: Enlil, also known as Elil, is an ancient Mesopotamian god associated with wind, air, earth, and storms. He was worshiped by various civilizations and his primary center of worship was the Ekur temple in Nippur. Enlil was considered so holy that even other gods couldn't look upon him. He rose to prominence during the twenty-fourth century BC but declined after Nippur was sacked in 1230 BC. He was eventually replaced as the chief god by the Babylonian deity Marduk.

Inanna: Inanna is an ancient Mesopotamian goddess associated with love, war, fertility, beauty, sex, divine law, and political power. Worshiped in Sumer and known as Ishtar by the Akkadian Empire, Babylonians, and Assyrians, her prominent title is "the Queen of Heaven."

Coyote (mythology): Coyote is a mythological figure found in the Indigenous cultures of North America, representing a male anthropomorphic character based on the coyote animal. He possesses distinct coyote-like traits - fur, pointed ears, a tail, yellow eyes, and blunt claws. This legendary being is featured in diverse myths and legends that differ across various cultures.

Great Spirit: The Great Spirit is a concept of a supreme being or life force present in indigenous cultures in Canada and the United States. It is known by different names and interpretations vary among different cultures. In Lakota, it is called Wakan Tanka and in Algonquian it is called Gitche Manitou. Some refer to it as the Great Mystery.

Quetzalcoatl: Quetzalcoatl is a deity in Aztec culture, associated with wind, Venus, Sun, merchants, arts, crafts, knowledge, and learning. He is the patron god of the Aztec priesthood and one of the major gods in the Aztec pantheon alongside Tlaloc, Tezcatlipoca, and Huitzilopochtli. Additionally, Tlaloc and Xolotl are also represented by the planet Venus.

Odin: Odin is a revered god in Germanic paganism, associated with wisdom, healing, death, royalty, knowledge, and war. He is also connected to the runic alphabet and is depicted as the husband of the goddess Frigg. Known by various names in different Germanic languages, Odin ultimately means 'lord of frenzy' or 'leader of the possessed'.

Thor: Thor is a significant god in Germanic paganism, known for wielding a hammer and associated with lightning, thunder, storms, sacred groves and trees, strength, protection of humankind, hallowing, and fertility. Also referred to as Þórr, Thunor, Thuner, or Donar in various languages, his name ultimately means 'Thunder' in Proto-Germanic.

Freyja: Freyja is a Norse goddess known for her associations with love, beauty, fertility, war, and gold. She owns the necklace Brísingamen, rides a chariot pulled by cats, and is accompanied by a boar named Hildisvíni. With her husband Óðr, she is the mother of two daughters - Hnoss and Gersemi. Freyja, a member of the Vanir, possesses a cloak made of falcon feathers. Variations of her name include Freya, Freyia, and Freja.

Amaterasu: Amaterasu is the goddess of the sun in Japanese mythology, often regarded as the main deity of the Shinto pantheon. She is prominently featured in Japan's earliest literary texts as the ruler of the heavenly realm and the mythical ancestor of the Imperial House. Amaterasu is part of the "Three Precious Children" alongside her siblings, the moon deity Tsukuyomi and storm god Susanoo, symbolizing their significance as offspring of the creator god Izanagi.

Legendary creature: A legendary creature is a mythical being, often a mix of different creatures, mentioned in folklore but lacking evidence. It may also appear in historical records predating modern times.

Centaur: A centaur, or occasionally hippocentaur, is a mythical creature from Greek mythology. It has a human upper body and the lower body and legs of a horse, and was believed to reside in Thessaly's mountains. The centaurs were named after Centaurus and were seen as relatives of the legendary Lapith tribe.

Death (personification): Death is often personified as a force in various mythologies. It is commonly depicted as the Grim Reaper, responsible for collecting souls. Some view death as a benevolent figure, guiding souls to the afterlife. Death is typically portrayed as male, but can be seen as female in certain cultures. It is also one of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse. Claims of encountering death are frequently reported in near-death experiences.

Demon: A demon is a malevolent supernatural entity that appears in various forms of religious, occult, and fictional narratives throughout history. It is found in literature, mythology, folklore, and popular media like comics, video games, movies, and TV series.

Devil: A devil is the embodiment of evil in different cultures and religions. It represents a hostile and destructive force, and there are four main interpretations: as a separate evil entity, as a part of God, as a created being becoming evil, and as a symbol of human evil.

Dragon: Dragons are large magical creatures found in the folklore of various cultures. In Western cultures, they are often depicted as winged, horned, and able to breathe fire. Eastern cultures portray them as wingless, intelligent serpentine creatures. Dragons possess a mix of feline, reptilian, mammalian, and avian qualities. Scholars believe that large extinct or migrating crocodiles are the closest resemblance to dragons, particularly when spotted in forests or swamps, and likely serve as the inspiration for Asian dragon imagery.

Fairy: A fairy is a legendary creature found in European folklore, described as anthropomorphic and possessing supernatural qualities.

Ghost: A ghost is a spirit or soul of a deceased person or animal that can appear to the living. They can vary from invisible to translucent or realistic forms. People try to contact them through necromancy or séances. Other terms for ghosts include apparition, haunt, phantom, poltergeist, and specter.

Giant: Giants, often depicted as human-like creatures, are known for their enormous size, incredible strength, and distinctive appearance. This term originated from the Gigantes in Greek mythology and was first recorded in 1297 by Robert of Gloucester.

Jinn: Jinn, also known as djinn or genies, are invisible beings found in early religions of pre-Islamic Arabia and later in Islamic culture. They are similar to humans and can be believers or unbelievers, depending on their acceptance of God's guidance. Jinn are not exclusive to Islam and can incorporate beliefs from other religions. They are neither inherently good nor evil and, like humans, are subject to God's judgment and afterlife. However, Islam rejects worshiping or seeking protection from jinn, aligning with its concept of strict monotheism.

Leprechaun: A leprechaun is a small fairy in Irish folklore, often portrayed as mischievous little men with beards, wearing coats and hats. They are sometimes associated with shoemaking and are believed to possess a hidden pot of gold at the end of the rainbow.

Mermaid: A mermaid is a mythical creature found in folklore globally. It has the upper body of a human female and the tail of a fish. Mermaids are present in the traditions of various cultures around the world, such as Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Minotaur: The Minotaur is a mythological creature with the head and tail of a bull and the body of a man. It lived in the Labyrinth, a complex maze created by Daedalus and Icarus, under the orders of King Minos of Crete. The creature was slain by the hero Theseus.

Pegasus: Pegasus is a winged horse in Greek mythology. He is a white stallion, born from Poseidon and Medusa. Pegasus is the brother of Chrysaor, and both were born when Perseus decapitated their mother. According to Greco-Roman poets, Pegasus ascended to heaven after his birth and followed Zeus' commands to bring lightning and thunder from Olympus.

Phoenix (mythology): The phoenix is an immortal bird found in Greek, Egyptian, and Persian mythology. It is associated with the sun and is known for its cyclic regeneration. The bird obtains new life by rising from the ashes of its predecessor. It is classified as motif B32 in the Motif-Index of Folk-Literature, a tool used by folklorists.

Siren (mythology): Sirens are enchanting beings in Greek mythology with captivating voices. They are depicted in the Odyssey where Odysseus saves his crew from their deadly allure. Roman poets placed them on small islands called Sirenum scopuli. These islands include Anthemoessa, located on Cape Pelorum, and the Sirenuse near Paestum, among others. All of these locations are characterized by cliffs and rocks.

Sphinx: The Sphinx is a legendary being with a human head, lion body, and eagle wings.

Unicorn: The unicorn is a mythical creature with a single large spiral horn on its forehead, mentioned in ancient texts.

Vampire: A vampire is a mythical creature that survives by feeding on the life force of the living. They originated in European folklore as undead beings who caused trouble and death in their communities. Early descriptions portrayed them as swollen and dark, contrasting with today's pale and skeletal depiction. Vampires exist in various cultures, with the term becoming popular in Western Europe during an 18th-century hysteria. In Southeastern Europe, they were referred to by different names, such as shtriga, vrykolakas, and strigoi.

Werewolf: A werewolf is a folklore creature capable of transforming into a wolf, whether by choice, curse, or affliction. These metamorphoses usually happen during the full moon. The belief in this ability, known as lycanthropy, can be traced back to early sources such as Petronius and Gervase of Tilbury.

Zombie: A zombie is an undead creature that is created by reanimating a dead body. It originated from Haitian folklore and is commonly associated with horror and fantasy genres. While traditional zombies are revived through magical practices, modern depictions in popular culture often involve scientific methods like viruses, fungi, and radiation.

Atlantis: Summary: Atlantis is a fictional island in Plato's works, representing a naval empire that ruled the Western world. It serves as an allegory on the pride of nations, contrasting the Achaemenid Empire. After a failed conquest of Ancient Athens, Atlantis is punished by the gods and sinks into the Atlantic Ocean. Plato's account highlights his ideal state, showcasing the superiority of his concept of a state.

El Dorado: El Dorado refers to a legendary city or empire in the Americas associated with vast amounts of gold. Originally, it described a mythical tribal chief or king of the Muisca people in Colombia, who covered himself in gold dust and submerged in Lake Guatavita as an initiation rite.

Paradise: Paradise is a blissful and happy place described in various religions. It is associated with peace, prosperity, and happiness, contrasting with the miseries of human civilization or infernal realms like Hell. Often depicted as a higher, holiest place, it represents contentment, luxury, and everlasting bliss.

Utopia: Utopia refers to an idealized community or society imagined to have highly desirable qualities. Coined by Sir Thomas More for his 1516 book, it portrays a fictional island society in the New World.

Holy Grail: The Holy Grail is a legendary object in Arthurian literature, often described as a powerful cup or stone with healing abilities. It is commonly associated with the Fisher King and hidden in a castle. It symbolizes an elusive and significant goal or object that people seek.