The arts: The arts encompass a wide range of creative expression and cultural participation in various media. They are dynamic and constant in human life, evolving into stylized and intricate forms through study and training. They serve as a vehicle for cultivating distinct identities, transmitting values, and sharing experiences across time and space.

Art: Art is a varied human activity that produces creative and imaginative works. It encompasses technical skill, aesthetic appeal, emotional impact, and conceptual ideas.

Artist: An artist is a person who creates art and practices the arts. It commonly refers to visual arts practitioners, but can also include musicians and performers in the entertainment industry. The term "artiste" is a variant, but rarely used. Writers can also be considered artists, but this is less common and mostly seen in critics' reviews.

Architecture: Architecture is the art and technique of designing and constructing buildings or structures. It involves sketching, planning, and conceiving unique creations. It is rooted in the Latin and Greek words for 'chief creator'. Architectural works are seen as cultural symbols and artistic expressions, defining historical civilizations.

Architectural drawing: An architectural drawing is a technical drawing of a building used by architects and others for various purposes. It helps develop design ideas, communicate concepts, convince clients, assist contractors in construction, record designs, and document existing buildings.

Architectural theory: Architectural theory involves thinking, discussing, and writing about architecture. It is taught in architecture schools and practiced by leading architects. It takes various forms such as lectures, books, and competition entries. Architectural theory has a long history and gained richness with the rise of publishing. The 20th century saw a rapid formation and dissolution of styles and movements. The internet is expected to further enhance architectural discourse in the 21st century.

Landscape architecture: Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor spaces and structures to achieve environmental and aesthetic goals. It involves systematic design and engineering, considering social, ecological, and soil conditions. Various interventions are planned to create desired outcomes.

Sacral architecture: Sacral architecture refers to the design and construction of religious and sacred spaces like churches, mosques, temples, etc. These structures often represent impressive and enduring monolithic buildings created by various cultures. However, sacred architecture can also be non-monolithic, temporary, and intensely personal, providing a space for meta-intimacy and privacy.

Islamic architecture: Islamic architecture refers to the architectural styles of buildings linked to Islam, including both religious and secular structures from the early days until now. It encompasses a broad geographical area, spanning from western Africa and Europe to eastern Asia. While Islamic architectural styles share commonalities across regions, different areas developed their own unique styles based on local materials, techniques, dynasties, patrons, artistic centers, and occasionally religious affiliations.

Proportion (architecture): Proportion in architecture refers to the visual effect created by the relationships between different objects and spaces within a structure. It is a key principle that connects mathematics and art. These relationships are often based on multiples of a standard unit of length called a "module."

Chinese architecture: Chinese architecture is an ancient style that has evolved over centuries and influenced the architecture of East Asian countries. Its structural principles have remained consistent, with decorative details changing over time. Chinese architecture greatly influenced neighboring countries like Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and Mongolia, as well as Southeast and South Asian nations such as Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and the Philippines.

Architecture of India: Indian architecture is deeply influenced by the history, culture, and religion of the country. It encompasses various styles such as Hindu temple architecture, Indo-Islamic architecture (including Rajput, Mughal, and Indo-Saracenic), and South Indian architecture. Early structures were made of wood, which did not withstand the test of time. However, surviving examples of Indian architecture include rock-cut structures like Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain temples.

Iranian architecture: Iranian architecture, also known as Persian architecture, encompasses the architectural styles of Iran, West Asia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. With a history dating back to 5,000 BC, it includes diverse examples found across a vast region from Turkey to Uzbekistan. The range of Persian buildings varies from vernacular structures to grand complexes like palaces and mosques. However, the growth of cities like Tehran has led to the demolishment of historical sites as well as the construction of new ones.

Ancient Egyptian architecture: Ancient Egyptian architecture, spanning over three millennia, was characterized by constant change and split into different periods. It was not defined by one style but rather a collection of styles that evolved over time while sharing some similarities.

Ancient Greek architecture: Ancient Greek architecture, created by the Greeks or Hellenics, spanned from 900 BC to the 1st century AD. Its cultural center was in Greece, including the mainland, Peloponnese, Aegean Islands, and colonies in Anatolia and Italy. The earliest remaining architectural works date back to around 600 BC.

Ancient Roman architecture: Ancient Roman architecture combined elements of classical Greek architecture but evolved into its own distinct style. It thrived during the Roman Republic and Empire, utilizing materials like Roman concrete and innovative techniques such as arches and domes. Many well-engineered structures still exist today across the former empire.

Megalith: A megalith is a large stone used to construct prehistoric structures or monuments. Europe alone has over 35,000 megaliths, found from Sweden to the Mediterranean Sea.

Mesoamerican architecture: Mesoamerican architecture refers to the architectural traditions of pre-Columbian cultures in Mesoamerica, known for their monumental buildings. It encompasses various regional styles that developed through cultural exchange over thousands of years. The notable features are public, ceremonial, and urban structures, with a particular emphasis on pyramids that rival those in Ancient Egypt.

Architecture of Mesopotamia: The architecture of Mesopotamia refers to the ancient buildings and structures in the Tigris-Euphrates region, including urban planning, courtyard houses, and ziggurats. It dates back from the 10th millennium BC to the 6th century BC, and scribes played a significant role as architects for the government, nobility, and royalty.

Byzantine architecture: Byzantine architecture refers to the architectural style of the Byzantine Empire, which existed from 330 AD to 1453. It was initially similar to Roman architecture, with a focus on arches, vaults, and domes. As time passed, Byzantine architecture developed its own distinctive features. Grand buildings often featured wall mosaics with gold backgrounds, while frescos were used as a more affordable alternative. The style was characterized by its scale and use of elaborate decorations.

Gothic architecture: Gothic architecture, prevalent in Europe from the late 12th to the 16th century, evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture. Originating in northern France, it is characterized by pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses. The term "Gothic" was initially used contemptuously during the Renaissance by those seeking to revive classical antiquity.

Renaissance architecture: Renaissance architecture, emerging in the 15th and 16th centuries, revived and developed aspects of ancient Greek and Roman culture. It succeeded Gothic architecture and preceded Baroque architecture. Originating in Florence with Filippo Brunelleschi, it spread throughout Italy and later reached various parts of Europe, impacting each region differently.

Baroque architecture: Baroque architecture is a highly ornate and dramatic style that emerged in Italy in the 17th century. Originally employed by the Catholic Church, it aimed to counter the Reformation by introducing awe-inspiring structures. This style reached its zenith in the High Baroque, prevalent in churches and palaces across Europe. In the Late Baroque, it extended to far-flung regions like Russia and Latin America. Around 1730, an even more elaborately decorative variation known as Rococo emerged in Central Europe.

Romanesque architecture: Romanesque architecture, prevalent in medieval Europe from the 11th to 12th centuries, featured semicircular arches and eventually gave way to Gothic architecture. It emerged simultaneously in various countries, becoming the first pan-European architectural style since Imperial Roman times. The name "Romanesque" also applied to contemporary art of the period.

Modern architecture: Modern architecture, a prominent movement in the second half of the 20th century, embraced new construction technologies, functionalism, minimalism, and rejected ornamentation.

Neoclassical architecture: Neoclassical architecture, also known as Classical Revival, emerged in the mid-18th century in Italy, France, and Germany. It became a dominant style globally and aimed to revive the simplicity and authenticity of ancient Greek and Roman architecture. Neoclassical architecture rejected the extravagances of the Late Baroque period and sought a pure and modern adaptation of classical design.

Postmodern architecture: Postmodern architecture emerged in the late 1950s as a response to the rigidness of modern architecture. It rejected the uniformity and lack of creativity championed by figures like Philip Johnson and Henry-Russell Hitchcock. Denise Scott Brown and Robert Venturi introduced the movement in their 1972 book, "Learning from Las Vegas." Notable architects, including Scott Brown & Venturi, Philip Johnson, Charles Moore, and Michael Graves, showcased this style and it thrived from the 1980s to the 1990s. Afterwards, it fragmented into various new tendencies such as high-tech architecture, neo-futurism, new classical architecture, and deconstructivism. Nevertheless, some buildings constructed later still fall under the postmodern label.

Great Sphinx of Giza: The Great Sphinx of Giza is a limestone statue in Egypt. It has the head of a human and the body of a lion. It faces from west to east on the Giza Plateau. The Sphinx is believed to represent the pharaoh Khafre. Originally carved from bedrock, it has been restored with limestone. It measures 73m long, 20m tall, and 19m wide.

Empire State Building: The Empire State Building is a famous skyscraper in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. Built in 1930-1931, it stands 1,454 feet tall including its antenna. It was once the world's tallest building but is now the seventh-tallest in NYC. The building's Art Deco style and its name derived from New York's nickname, "Empire State," contribute to its iconic status.

Fallingwater: Fallingwater is a renowned house designed by Frank Lloyd Wright in 1935 in Pennsylvania's Laurel Highlands. It is located near Pittsburgh and built over a waterfall on Bear Run. The house was intended as a weekend retreat for Liliane and Edgar J. Kaufmann, owners of Kaufmann's Department Store.

Machu Picchu: Machu Picchu is a 15th-century Inca citadel located in southern Peru, known as the "Lost City of the Incas". It sits on a mountain ridge at an elevation of 2,430 meters and is situated in the Machupicchu District within Urubamba Province. The site is renowned as the iconic symbol of the Inca Empire and is surrounded by a canyon created by the Urubamba River. The name is pronounced differently in various languages, but it typically has a silent 'c' in Picchu.

Statue of Liberty: The Statue of Liberty is a massive neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor. It was a gift from the people of France, designed by sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi and built by Gustave Eiffel. The statue was dedicated in 1886.

Angkor Wat: Angkor Wat is a massive temple complex in Cambodia, renowned for its size and religious significance. It covers 162.6 hectares and is situated within the ancient Khmer capital city of Angkor. The Guinness World Records recognizes it as the largest religious structure worldwide. Originally built as a Hindu temple dedicated to Vishnu by King Suryavarman II in the 12th century, it later transformed into a Buddhist temple. This unique fusion of Hindu and Buddhist elements makes Angkor Wat a remarkable "Hindu-Buddhist" monument.

Borobudur: Borobudur is a 9th-century Buddhist temple in Central Java, Indonesia. It is a Mahayana Buddhist temple located near Magelang Regency and Muntilan.

Burj Khalifa: The Burj Khalifa is a skyscraper in Dubai, UAE. Standing at 829.8 m (2,717 ft), it is the world's tallest structure and building since 2009, surpassing Taipei 101.

Forbidden City: The Forbidden City in Beijing, China, is a palace complex at the center of the Imperial City. It is surrounded by lavish imperial gardens, temples, and parks. The complex is officially administered by the Palace Museum.

Great Wall of China: The Great Wall of China is a historical series of fortifications on the northern borders of ancient Chinese states and Imperial China. It was built to defend against nomadic groups from the Eurasian Steppe. The wall was constructed by various dynasties, starting from the 7th century BC. The most famous sections were built by the Ming dynasty.

Hagia Sophia: Hagia Sophia is a historical site in Istanbul, Turkey. Originally built as an Eastern Orthodox church in 537 AD, it became a Catholic church in 1204 and then reverted to Eastern Orthodox in 1261. After the Ottoman conquest in 1453, it was converted into a mosque and served this purpose until 1935, when it became a museum. In 2020, it was transformed back into a mosque.

Kaaba: The Kaaba, also known as al-Ka'ba al-Musharrafa, is a stone building located at the center of the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. It is Islam's most important mosque and holiest site. Muslims consider it to be the Bayt Allah (House of Allah) and it serves as the qibla (direction of prayer) for Muslims worldwide.

Kinkaku-ji: Kinkaku-ji, also known as Rokuon-ji, is a Zen Buddhist temple in Kyoto, Japan. It is a highly popular destination, attracting numerous visitors each year. This iconic temple is recognized as a National Special Historic Site and Landscape. Additionally, it is part of the Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto, a collection of World Heritage Sites.

Taj Mahal: The Taj Mahal is a marble mausoleum in Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. Commissioned by Shah Jahan in 1631, it is dedicated to his wife Mumtaz Mahal and also houses his own tomb. The complex spans 17 hectares and includes a mosque and guest house, surrounded by gardens and a protective wall.

Temple Mount: Temple Mount, also called Haram al-Sharif or al-Aqsa Mosque compound, is a significant hill in Jerusalem's Old City. It has been revered as a sacred place for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam for centuries.

Ziggurat of Ur: The Ziggurat of Ur is an ancient structure located in the city of Ur, Iraq. It was built during the Early Bronze Age and later restored in the 6th century BC.

Acropolis of Athens: The Acropolis of Athens is an ancient citadel above the city of Athens, Greece, housing the remains of significant archeological structures, including the renowned Parthenon. The term "acropolis" comes from Greek words meaning "highest point of the city," and there are other similar sites throughout Greece. Historically, the Acropolis of Athens was also known as Cecropia, after Cecrops, the legendary serpent-man and first king of Athens.

Alhambra: The Alhambra is a renowned palace and fortress in Granada, Andalusia, Spain, admired for its Islamic architecture and well-preserved historic significance. Additionally, it showcases remarkable examples of Spanish Renaissance architecture.

Arc de Triomphe: The Arc de Triomphe is a famous monument in Paris, France. Located at the western end of the Champs-Élysées, it stands in the centre of Place Charles de Gaulle. The arc is shared between three arrondissements. It commemorates those who fought and died for France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. The inner and outer surfaces are inscribed with the names of victories and generals. It also holds the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier from World War I.

Colosseum: The Colosseum is a massive ancient amphitheatre located in Rome, Italy. It was built during the Flavian dynasty and is the largest of its kind ever constructed. Despite its age, it remains the largest standing amphitheatre in the world. Construction began in 72 AD under Emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD by his successor, Titus. Additional modifications were made during the reign of Domitian. The Colosseum is renowned for its elliptical shape and association with the Flavius family.

Eiffel Tower: The Eiffel Tower, an iconic lattice tower in Paris, France, was designed and constructed by Gustave Eiffel's company between 1887 and 1889.

Florence Cathedral: Florence Cathedral, also known as the Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Flower, is a famous Gothic-style cathedral in Florence, Italy. Construction began in 1296 and was finished in 1436, with its iconic dome engineered by Filippo Brunelleschi. The basilica's exterior features stunning polychrome marble panels in green and pink, bordered by white, and boasts a detailed 19th-century Gothic Revival façade by Emilio De Fabris.

Leaning Tower of Pisa: The Leaning Tower of Pisa, also known as the Tower of Pisa, is a freestanding bell tower situated in Pisa Cathedral Square. It is distinguished by its famous four-degree inclination, caused by an unstable foundation. The tower is part of a trio of structures in the square, alongside the cathedral and Pisa Baptistry.

Kremlin: The Kremlin is a fortified complex in the center of Moscow, known for its five palaces, four cathedrals, and the surrounding Kremlin Wall with towers. It includes the Grand Kremlin Palace, once the residence of the Russian emperor in Moscow. Today, it serves as the official residence of the Russian president and welcomes millions of visitors as a museum. The Kremlin offers stunning views of the Moskva River, Saint Basil's Cathedral, Red Square, and Alexander Garden.

Notre-Dame de Paris: The Notre-Dame de Paris cathedral, known as Notre-Dame, is a medieval Catholic cathedral located on the Île de la Cité in Paris, France. It is a prime example of French Gothic architecture, dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Notably, it introduced the rib vault and flying buttress, featured colorful rose windows, and showcased realistic sculptures. The cathedral is distinguished by its three pipe organs and massive church bells.

Palace of Versailles: The Palace of Versailles, commissioned by King Louis XIV, is a former royal residence situated in Versailles, France, about 19 kilometers west of Paris.

Palace of Westminster: The Palace of Westminster, also known as the Houses of Parliament, is the meeting place of the UK Parliament and a significant center of political life in the country. Located in London, England, it consists of the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The iconic Elizabeth Tower, commonly known as Big Ben, is part of the palace and a famous landmark. The palace is an important symbol of the British government and is listed as a Grade I building and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Pantheon, Rome: The Pantheon in Rome is an ancient Roman temple and currently a Catholic church. Built on the site of an earlier temple commissioned by Marcus Agrippa, it was later rebuilt by Emperor Hadrian in around AD 126. The exact construction date is unknown as Hadrian retained the inscription of the previous temple.

Parthenon: The Parthenon, an ancient Greek temple on the Athenian Acropolis, was dedicated to Athena in the 5th century BC. It showcases exquisite sculptures and is a symbol of Ancient Greece, democracy, and Western civilization.

Sagrada Família: The Sagrada Família is a church in Barcelona, Spain, designed by architect Antoni Gaudí. It is the largest unfinished Catholic church in the world and is part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Pope Benedict XVI consecrated the church in 2010.

St. Peter's Basilica: St. Peter's Basilica is a church in Vatican City, Rome, built in the Italian Renaissance style. It was planned in the 15th century and completed in 1626, replacing the old basilica built by Constantine the Great.

Stonehenge: Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument in Wiltshire, England. It consists of a ring of large vertical sarsen stones with connecting lintel stones. Inside is a ring of smaller bluestones and free-standing trilithons. The monument is aligned with the solstices and surrounded by other ancient structures.

Sydney Opera House: The Sydney Opera House is a renowned performing arts centre in Sydney, Australia. It is located on the Sydney Harbour and is recognized as a global icon of distinctive and exceptional 20th-century architecture.

Seven Wonders of the Ancient World: The term 'Seven Wonders of the Ancient World' refers to a list of notable structures from classical antiquity. It is the earliest known list, dating back to the 2nd–1st century BC.

Great Pyramid of Giza: The Great Pyramid of Giza, the largest Egyptian pyramid, was the tomb of pharaoh Khufu. It was built in the early 26th century BC and is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. As part of the Giza pyramid complex, it is situated at the northern end of a line of three pyramids.

Movie theater: A movie theater, also known as cinema or theater, is a commercial venue where people buy tickets to watch films on a big screen. It provides auditoria for public entertainment, catering to a wide audience.

Museum: A museum is an institution that displays and preserves culturally significant objects. It typically has exhibits open to the public and may also have private collections for researchers. Museums cover a wide range of topics, including arts, science, history, and attract millions of visitors, making them popular tourist attractions.

American Museum of Natural History: The American Museum of Natural History (AMNH) is a renowned museum in New York City, located on the Upper West Side. It houses 45 permanent exhibition halls, a planetarium, and a library. The museum showcases a vast collection of over 35 million specimens, including plants, animals, fossils, minerals, rocks, and cultural artifacts. With more than 2.5 million square feet of space, it is one of the largest museums in the world. AMNH employs a team of 225 scientists, conducts numerous field expeditions, and attracts around five million visitors annually.

Metropolitan Museum of Art: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, also known as the Met, is the largest art museum in the Americas and fourth-largest worldwide.

Museum of Modern Art: The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. It was founded in 1929 and is America's first museum solely dedicated to modern art. The museum's collection quickly grew under the leadership of A. Conger Goodyear and Alfred H. Barr Jr. who organized an initial exhibition featuring European modernists. Despite facing financial challenges and resistance from John D. Rockefeller Jr., the museum eventually found a permanent site on 53rd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues, thanks to a donation of land by Rockefeller.

National Gallery of Art: The National Gallery of Art is a renowned art museum in Washington, D.C., USA, located on the National Mall. Founded in 1937, it was established for the American people through a joint resolution of Congress. Andrew W. Mellon generously contributed a substantial art collection and funds for the museum's construction. The gallery's core collection includes significant works donated by various art patrons, showcasing Western art from the Middle Ages to the present. It holds the only Leonardo da Vinci painting in the Americas and the largest mobile by Alexander Calder. Admission is free for the public.

Smithsonian Institution: The Smithsonian Institution, or simply the Smithsonian, is the largest group of museums, education and research centers in the world. It was created by the U.S. government in 1846 to increase and spread knowledge. It operates as a trust instrumentality and is not officially part of the federal government. The institution is named after James Smithson, its founding donor. Originally known as the United States National Museum, it underwent administrative changes in 1967.

National Museum of China: The National Museum of China is China's primary museum, located near Tiananmen Square in Beijing. Its purpose is to educate visitors about Chinese arts and history. Funded by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, it serves as a level-1 public welfare institution.

National Palace Museum: The National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan is a renowned museum with a vast collection of around 700,000 Chinese artifacts and artworks. Many of these treasures were brought from mainland China during the retreat of the Republic of China. The museum was established in 1965 in its current location in Shilin, Taipei. It is one of the largest museums of its kind globally, and it also has a southern branch in Taibao, Chiayi.

Hermitage Museum: The Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, Russia, is a renowned art and culture museum founded in 1764. It was established by Empress Catherine the Great after acquiring a collection of paintings from Johann Ernst Gotzkowsky. The museum has been open to the public since 1852 and celebrates its founding on Saint Catherine's Day each year. With its rich history and impressive collection, it ranks 10th in The Art Newspaper's list of the most visited art museums, attracting 2,812,913 visitors in 2022.

British Museum: The British Museum is a globally renowned public museum in London's Bloomsbury district. It houses the world's largest permanent collection with eight million works spanning human history, art, and culture. From ancient times to the present, it chronicles the evolution of human culture. Being the first national museum of its kind, it embraces diverse fields of knowledge.

National Gallery: The National Gallery is an art museum in London, England, founded in 1824. It is located in Trafalgar Square and houses over 2,300 paintings from the 13th century to 1900. The current Director is Gabriele Finaldi.

Natural History Museum, London: The Natural History Museum in London showcases a wide array of specimens from different branches of natural history. Located on Exhibition Road in South Kensington, it shares the area with the Science Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum. Although its main entrance is on Cromwell Road.

Tate Modern: Tate Modern is a renowned London art gallery that houses the UK's national collection of modern and contemporary art, ranging from the year 1900 onwards. It is situated in the former Bankside Power Station, in Southwark's Bankside area, and is part of the Tate group, encompassing Tate Britain, Tate Liverpool, and Tate St Ives.

Louvre: The Louvre, also known as the Louvre Museum, is a famous national art museum in Paris, France, located on the Right Bank of the Seine River. It houses iconic works of Western art like the Mona Lisa and the Venus de Milo. The museum is situated in the historic Louvre Palace, which was originally built in the 12th to 13th century. The palace's medieval fortress remnants can be seen in the museum's basement. Over time, the fortress lost its defensive role and was transformed by Francis I into the primary residence of French Kings in 1546.

Musée National d'Art Moderne: The Musée National d'Art Moderne is a national museum in France dedicated to modern art. It is located in Paris within the Centre Pompidou. Ranked 10th in the world's most visited art museums in 2021, it attracts over 1.5 million visitors and boasts a vast collection of modern and contemporary artworks.

Museo del Prado: The Museo del Prado, also called Prado Museum, is Spain's main national art museum located in central Madrid. It houses an exceptional collection of European art spanning from the 12th to the early 20th century, including the finest Spanish art. Founded in 1819, it offers not only paintings and sculptures but also other valuable works. The Prado Museum is one of the world's most visited and renowned art museums, with masterpieces by celebrated artists such as Goya, Bosch, El Greco, Rubens, Titian, and Velázquez. Velázquez played a significant role in acquiring the museum's large collection of Italian masters.

Rijksmuseum: The Rijksmuseum is the national museum of the Netherlands, situated in Amsterdam's Museum Square. It is dedicated to Dutch arts and history. Nearby are the Van Gogh Museum, the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam, and the Concertgebouw.

Uffizi: The Uffizi Gallery is a renowned art museum in Florence, Italy. It is one of the largest and most important Italian museums, known for its collection of priceless works from the Italian Renaissance. Located near the Piazza della Signoria, it is highly visited and recognized worldwide.

Vatican Museums: The Vatican Museums in Vatican City display a vast collection of art amassed by the Catholic Church and the papacy throughout the centuries. They house famous Roman sculptures and Renaissance masterpieces and have approximately 70,000 works, with 20,000 on display. The museums employ 640 people across various departments.

Literature: Literature encompasses written works, including prose, fiction, drama, and poetry, both in print and digital form. It also includes oral literature, known as orature, which has been transcribed. Literature serves as a means of recording, preserving, and transmitting knowledge and entertainment. It can also hold social, psychological, spiritual, or political significance.

Literary criticism: Literary criticism is the evaluation and interpretation of literature. It is influenced by literary theory, which analyzes the goals and methods of literature. Critics are not always theorists, though the two are closely related.

Prose: Prose is a written or spoken language that resembles natural speech, adheres to ordinary grammatical structures, and conforms to formal academic writing conventions. It is distinct from poetry, which relies on rhythmic meter and rhyme. The word "prose" emerged in the 14th century from Old French and Latin expressions.

Writer: A writer is someone who uses written words in various styles, genres, and techniques to communicate ideas, evoke emotions, and entertain. They create diverse forms of writing, such as novels, short stories, plays, songs, and essays, which are published across various media. Skilled writers contribute greatly to a society's cultural content by effectively expressing ideas through language.

Novel: A novel is a long work of fiction written in prose and published as a book. It has a history of about two thousand years, originating from Ancient Greek and Roman novels, Medieval Chivalric romance, and Italian Renaissance novellas. Some authors use the term "romance" instead of novel. The novel typically presents a realistic depiction of society, while romance emphasizes extraordinary events. Examples of novels include Frankenstein, The Lord of the Rings, and To Kill a Mockingbird. Romance novels, focusing on romantic love, should not be confused with this broader definition.

Short story: A short story is a brief piece of prose fiction that aims to create a specific mood or effect. It can be read in one sitting and often focuses on a self-contained incident or a series of linked incidents. Short stories have a long history and have existed in various forms, such as legends, mythic tales, and folk tales. The modern short story as we know it today emerged in the early 19th century.

Poetry: Poetry, or verse, is a literary form that utilizes aesthetic and rhythmic language to convey additional meanings beyond its literal interpretation. It incorporates elements like phonaesthetics, sound symbolism, and metre. Poems are written compositions by poets who adhere to these principles.

Epic poetry: An epic poem is a lengthy narrative about extraordinary characters who shape the mortal universe through their extraordinary deeds and interactions with gods or superhuman forces.

Ghazal: The ghazal is a type of love poem that originated in Arabic poetry. It typically expresses the anguish of separation from a loved one and the enduring beauty of love.

Haiku: Haiku is a Japanese short form poetry with three phrases and a 5-7-5 pattern. It includes a cutting word and a seasonal reference. Variations that don't follow these rules are classified as senryū.

Ode: An ode is a form of lyric poetry that praises or glorifies an event or individual, while combining intellectual and emotional descriptions of nature. It is typically structured in three parts: strophe, antistrophe, and epode. Various forms, such as the homostrophic ode and irregular ode, are also used.

Prose poetry: Prose poetry: Poetry written in prose, not verse, with key elements of vivid imagery, parataxis, and emotional impact.

Rhyme: A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounds in the stressed syllables of two or more words, often used for musical or aesthetic purposes in poetry or songs. It can also refer to other similar sounds at the end of words. Additionally, the term "rhyme" is sometimes used as a shorthand for brief poems like nursery rhymes.

Sonnet: A sonnet is a poetic form that originated in the Court of Frederick II in Palermo. It was invented by Giacomo da Lentini and spread to the mainland by the Sicilian School of poets. The original Sicilian language sonnets have been lost, but they were later translated into Tuscan dialect.

Fiction: Fiction is any creative work portraying imaginary individuals, events, or places. It includes written narratives like novels, as well as theatrical performances, films, TV shows, comics, and video games. Fictional stories are distinct from history and fact, exploring imaginary possibilities.

Children's literature: Children's literature refers to stories, books, magazines, and poems specifically designed for children. It is classified based on genre or the intended age of the reader. This classification ranges from picture books for young children to young adult fiction for older readers.

Fable: A fable is a short fictional story that teaches a moral lesson through the use of animals, plants, or inanimate objects that have human-like qualities. The moral lesson is often stated explicitly at the end of the story.

Fairy tale: A fairy tale is a short story with magical elements and fanciful beings that belong to the folklore genre. They are part of literature in preliterate societies, combining myths, folktales, and fairy tales. Fairy tales differ from legends, moral tales, and beast fables, and commonly include dragons, elves, giants, witches, and magical elements like talking animals and enchantments.

Fictional universe: A fictional universe is an internally consistent setting found in fantasy and science fiction works. It appears in various forms of media such as novels, comics, films, TV shows, video games, and art.

Romance novel: A romance novel, also known as a romantic novel, is a type of genre fiction that revolves around the romantic relationship and love between two individuals. These novels typically end with an emotionally satisfying and optimistic conclusion. Renowned authors such as Samuel Richardson, Jane Austen, and Charlotte Brontë have made significant contributions to the development of this popular genre.

Legend: A legend is a type of folklore narrative believed to be set in human history, showcasing human actions and values. It often incorporates miracles and evolves over time to remain relevant.

Saga: Sagas are historical prose stories originating from Iceland and Scandinavia, containing vital narratives and histories.

Satire: Satire is a genre of arts that uses humor to criticize and expose flaws in individuals, corporations, government, or society. It can take the form of fiction or non-fiction and aims to bring about constructive social criticism and improvement.

Black comedy: Black comedy, also called dark comedy, is a form of humor that finds amusement in unconventional, taboo or sensitive subjects. It is often used by writers and comedians to elicit discomfort and provoke deep thought while providing laughter. In fiction, black comedy is a genre characterized by its prominent use of dark humor.

Detective fiction: Detective fiction is a subgenre of crime and mystery fiction. It revolves around an investigator, whether professional, amateur, or retired, who delves into crimes, often murder. This genre emerged in the mid-nineteenth century, alongside speculative and other genre fiction. It is still immensely popular, especially in novels. Notable detective heroes include C. Auguste Dupin, Sherlock Holmes, and Hercule Poirot. Juvenile stories featuring The Hardy Boys, Nancy Drew, and The Boxcar Children have also enjoyed long-term publication success.

Fantasy: Fantasy is a genre of fiction based on mythical or folkloric elements, often set in an imagined world. It includes magical elements and can encompass various forms of artistic expression.

Horror fiction: Horror fiction is a genre of disturbing and frightening fiction that aims to scare or disturb readers. It is divided into sub-genres like psychological and supernatural horror. These stories create an unsettling atmosphere and often use metaphors to reflect society's fears.

Science fiction: Science fiction is a speculative genre that explores imaginative and futuristic concepts involving advanced science, space exploration, time travel, parallel universes, and alien life. It is related to fantasy, horror, and superhero fiction, and encompasses various subgenres. Its definition has been disputed by authors, critics, scholars, and readers.

Time travel: Time travel is the theoretical concept of traveling into the past or future. It is a well-known idea in philosophy and science fiction, often achieved through a fictional device called a time machine. The notion of a time machine was introduced by H. G. Wells in his 1895 novel The Time Machine.

Non-fiction: Non-fiction refers to any document or media content that strives to provide information about the real world. It aims to present subjects objectively based on historical, scientific, and empirical data. While generally factual, non-fiction also includes subjective perspectives and opinions on real-world matters.

Biography: A biography, also known as a bio, is a detailed account of someone's life, going beyond basic facts and including personal experiences, relationships, and analysis of their personality. It portrays a person's life story, emphasizing different aspects and intimate details.

Diary: A diary is a written or digital record of personal experiences, thoughts, and feelings arranged by date. Diaries can be handwritten or digital and are kept by diarists. They serve various purposes in human civilization, including government, business, and military records. In British English, the word can also refer to a preprinted journal format.

Essay: An essay is a written piece of work presenting the author's argument. It shares similarities with letters, papers, articles, pamphlets, and short stories. Essays can be classified as either formal or informal. Formal essays exhibit seriousness, organization, and length, while informal essays showcase personal elements, humor, style, and unconventional themes.

Dictionary: A dictionary is a reference book that lists words from one or more languages in alphabetical order. It provides definitions, usage examples, etymologies, pronunciations, and translations, among other information. It serves as a comprehensive tool to understand relationships between words.

Encyclopedia: An encyclopedia is a compendium of knowledge organized into articles or entries, typically alphabetically or by categories. It provides detailed and factual information about various subjects, unlike dictionaries which focus on linguistic aspects. Encyclopedia entries are longer and more comprehensive than dictionary entries, offering summaries of knowledge in a specific field. They can be accessed through hyperlinks and search functions.

Thesaurus: A thesaurus is a reference work that organizes words by their meanings, providing lists of synonyms and antonyms. It helps writers find the most suitable words to express their ideas accurately and precisely.

Narrative: A narrative is an account of related events or experiences, both real or fictional. It can be conveyed through words, images, or a combination of both. The term originates from the Latin word for 'to narrate', and it is a fundamental aspect of storytelling. Narration is one of the four traditional modes of discourse, along with argumentation, description, and exposition. Various techniques, notably in literature, are employed to construct and enhance narratives.

Character (arts): A character in fiction is a person or being in a story, either fictional or based on a real person. The concept originates from the Greek word χαρακτήρ and gained popularity from its appearance in Tom Jones by Henry Fielding in 1749. Characters are portrayed by actors in theater or cinema, creating the illusion of being a human person. In literature, characters help readers understand plots and contemplate themes. "In character" refers to an effective impersonation by an actor, and the creation of characters is known as characterization in the art of acting or writing.

Superhero: A superhero is a character with superpowers who wears a costume to conceal their identity and uses their abilities to protect the public, fight crime, and make the world a better place. Superhero fiction is a genre that focuses on these characters, commonly found in American comic books since the 1930s and Japanese media.

African literature: African literature refers to both oral and written works in African and Afro-Asiatic languages. It includes pre-colonial literature dating back to the 4th century AD, with the Kebra Negast being a prominent example.

Ancient Egyptian literature: Ancient Egyptian literature, the world's earliest literature, was written in the Egyptian language during ancient Egypt's pharaonic period until Roman domination. It is the oldest surviving body of Egyptian literature, alongside Sumerian literature.

Ancient Greek literature: Ancient Greek literature refers to writings in the Ancient Greek language from the earliest texts until the Byzantine Empire. It includes the famous epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey, along with other important works like the Homeric Hymns and the writings of Hesiod. These texts laid the foundation for the Greek literary tradition, which persisted through the Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman eras.

Arabic literature: Arabic literature refers to written works in the Arabic language, encompassing prose and poetry. The term "Adab" is used for literature, reflecting etiquette, culture, and enrichment.

Chinese literature: Chinese literature, spanning thousands of years, includes court archives, vernacular fiction, and baihua literature. Woodblock printing in the Tang dynasty and movable type printing in the Song dynasty facilitated the spread of written knowledge. Lu Xun is regarded as a significant figure in modern Chinese literature.

English literature: English literature is a body of works written in English, evolving over 1,400 years. It began with Old English, brought to Britain by Anglo-Saxon invaders. Beowulf is a famous early work. After the Norman conquest, French became dominant, but Middle English emerged in the 11th century. Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales helped establish Middle English. The printing press and the King James Bible standardized the language. The Great Vowel Shift also played a role in shaping English literature.

French literature: French literature refers to writings in the French language by citizens of France and other French-speaking territories. It can also include literature by individuals living in France who speak regional languages. Works written in French by citizens of other countries like Belgium, Switzerland, Canada, and various African nations are known as Francophone literature.

German literature: German literature refers to texts written in German, encompassing works from Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Belgium, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, South Tyrol, and the German diaspora. While primarily in Standard German, some literature is influenced by dialects.

Indian literature: Indian literature refers to writings created in the Indian subcontinent before 1947, and in the Republic of India after that. The Constitution of India recognizes 22 languages, and the Sahitya Akademi, India's top literary authority, recognizes 24 literary languages.

Italian literature: Italian literature refers to written works in the Italian language, both within Italy and abroad. It encompasses literature written by Italians and in languages spoken in Italy, including regional varieties and vernacular dialects.

Japanese literature: Japanese literature has been shaped by interactions with neighboring Asian literatures, especially China. Early texts were written in Classical Chinese or a Chinese-Japanese mix. Indian literature also influenced Japanese writing through the spread of Buddhism.

Jewish literature: Jewish literature encompasses writings by Jews on Jewish themes as well as works in Jewish languages. It includes ancient and medieval literature, such as the Bible and rabbinic texts, as well as ethical, philosophical, and mystical writings. Jewish literature expanded in modern times with the rise of secular Jewish culture, producing Yiddish, Ladino, Hebrew, and Jewish American literary traditions.

Latin American literature: Latin American literature refers to the oral and written works in languages like Spanish, Portuguese, and indigenous dialects. It gained global recognition in the latter half of the 20th century, largely due to magical realism. This literary movement, known as the Latin American Boom, is closely associated with renowned author Gabriel García Márquez. The literature has a long and diverse history, spanning many centuries.

Latin literature: Latin literature refers to writings in the Latin language, including essays, histories, poems, plays, and other forms. It began around 240 BC with the first Latin stage play in Rome and thrived for six centuries. The classical era of Latin literature can be divided into Early Latin literature, The Golden Age, The Imperial Period, and Late Antiquity.

Persian literature: Persian literature is one of the oldest in the world, consisting of oral and written works in the Persian language. Its origins lie in Greater Iran, including present-day Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, and Turkey. It has also influenced regions in Central Asia, South Asia, and the Balkans. Persian literature encompasses various genres and has been written by diverse ethnic groups in addition to Persians. Notable poets like Rumi contributed to its rich legacy, and Persian was adopted as the court language by empires like the Ghaznavids. Works in languages other than Persian, such as Greek and Arabic, are sometimes included.

Russian literature: Russian literature refers to the literary works of Russia and Russian-speaking authors. It has its roots in the Middle Ages with epics and chronicles in Old East Slavic. During the Age of Enlightenment, Russian literature gained importance and underwent a remarkable golden age in poetry, prose, and drama from the early 1830s. Romanticism allowed for a flourishing of poetic talent, with notable figures like Vasily Zhukovsky and Alexander Pushkin emerging. Prose also thrived, with authors like Mikhail Lermontov, Nikolai Gogol, Ivan Turgenev, Fyodor Dostoevsky, and Leo Tolstoy gaining international renown. The Silver Age of Russian poetry in the early 20th century saw the rise of renowned poets like Konstantin Balmont, Anna Akhmatova, and Vladimir Mayakovsky. This era also produced exceptional novelists and short-story writers such as Ivan Bunin, Leonid Andreyev, and Maxim Gorky.

Scandinavian literature: Scandinavian literature refers to the literature in the Nordic countries of Northern Europe, including Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and associated autonomous territories. It predominantly uses North Germanic languages, although Finland has a Uralic language. Finnish history and literature have close ties with Sweden and Norway, with shared control and significant Sami influences.

Spanish literature: Spanish literature refers to works written in the Spanish language within the Kingdom of Spain. It is influenced by Catalan, Galician, Latin, Jewish, and Arabic literary traditions. Additionally, Spanish literature in America has its distinct features, dating back to the early years of Spain's conquest.

Anabasis(Xenophon): 'Anabasis' is a renowned work by Xenophon, an Ancient Greek soldier and writer. It recounts the journey of the Ten Thousand, a group of Greek mercenaries hired by Cyrus the Younger to assist him in claiming the Persian throne from his brother, Artaxerxes II, in 401 BC.

Analects: The Analects, also known as the Sayings of Confucius, is an ancient Chinese philosophical text composed of sayings and ideas attributed to Confucius and his contemporaries. It was traditionally believed to have been compiled by his followers. Scholars agree that it was written during the Warring States period and reached its final form in the mid-Han dynasty. Initially considered a commentary, the Analects later became one of the central texts of Confucianism.

Apology(Plato): The Apology, written by Plato, is a speech in which Socrates defends himself during his trial for impiety and corruption in 399 BC. This Socratic dialogue delves into his legal self-defense.

The Art of War: "The Art of War" is an ancient Chinese military treatise by Sun Tzu, dating back to the late Spring and Autumn Period. Consisting of 13 chapters, it explores various aspects of warfare and military strategy. Its influence spans over 1,500 years, as it was included in the Seven Military Classics anthology. This text continues to be highly regarded in East Asian and Western military theory, as well as in non-military realms like espionage, culture, politics, business, and sports.

I Ching: The I Ching, also known as the Book of Changes, is an ancient Chinese divination text that dates back to the Western Zhou period. Initially used for divination, it later transformed into a cosmological text with philosophical commentaries called the "Ten Wings". It became a part of the Chinese Five Classics and influenced divination practices in the Far East for centuries. Additionally, it played a significant role in shaping Western understanding of East Asian philosophical thought during the 18th to 20th centuries.

Metaphysics(Aristotle): Metaphysics is a significant work by Aristotle that introduces the concept of First Philosophy. It covers diverse topics like substance theory, different types of causation, form and matter, the existence of mathematical objects, and the cosmos. This compilation laid the foundation for what is now recognized as the branch of philosophy called metaphysics.

Nicomachean Ethics: The Nicomachean Ethics is Aristotle's famous work on ethics, exploring the science of the good for human life and the ultimate goal of our actions. Divided into ten books, it is closely tied to Aristotle's Eudemian Ethics and plays a crucial role in unraveling his ethical philosophy.

Organon: The Organon is Aristotle's collection of six works on logical analysis and dialectic. It was named "an instrument" of Philosophy by Aristotle's followers, the Peripatetics, who defended it against the Stoics.

Dead Sea Scrolls: The Dead Sea Scrolls, also known as the Qumran Caves Scrolls, are ancient Jewish manuscripts discovered between 1946 and 1956 near the Dead Sea. Dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE, they are the oldest surviving manuscripts of biblical books and include other religious texts. These scrolls shed light on the history of archaeology, late Second Temple Judaism, and the emergence of Christianity. Most of the 15,000 scrolls are held in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem. Ownership of the scrolls is contested by Jordan and the Palestinian Authority, while Israel claims them based on historical and religious grounds.

Euclid'sElements: Euclid's Elements is a collection of 13 mathematical books written by the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid around 300 BC. These books provide definitions, postulates, propositions, and mathematical proofs, covering various topics such as Euclidean geometry, number theory, and incommensurable lines. Elements is the oldest surviving comprehensive deductive treatment of mathematics and has greatly influenced the development of logic and modern science. Its logical rigor was only surpassed in the 19th century.

Hippocratic Corpus: The Hippocratic Corpus is a collection of 60 early Ancient Greek medical works associated with the physician Hippocrates. It covers diverse aspects of medicine, including medical theories, ethical practices, and treatment of illnesses. The authorship is mostly unknown, but Hippocrates played a significant role. His teachings blended healing art and scientific observations, laying the foundation for Western medical practice.

Histories(Herodotus): The Histories of Herodotus is a significant work in Western literature, often hailed as the foundation of history. While not entirely unbiased, it is a vital source for understanding historical events. It not only introduced the genre of history but also pioneered its study in the Western world.

History of the Peloponnesian War: The History of the Peloponnesian War is a renowned historical account penned by Thucydides, an Athenian historian and general. It explores the conflict fought between the Peloponnesian League and the Delian League. This classic work is hailed as one of the earliest scholarly works in history and is divided into eight books.

Republic(Plato): The 'Republic' is a dialogue written by Plato in 375 BC, examining justice, the characteristics of a just city-state, and the just individual. This influential work provides deep insights into philosophy and political theory.

Septuagint: The Septuagint, also known as the Greek Old Testament or The Translation of the Seventy, is the earliest surviving Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible. It was translated by seventy-two Hebrew translators, six from each of the Twelve Tribes of Israel, at the request of Ptolemy II Philadelphus.

The Book of Healing: 'The Book of Healing' is an encyclopedia written by Abu Ali ibn Sīna from medieval Persia. It was composed between 1014 and 1020 and published in 1027. This scientific and philosophical work serves as a comprehensive reference, covering various disciplines.

The Consolation of Philosophy: "The Consolation of Philosophy" is a philosophical work written by Boethius during his imprisonment in 523. It is considered the last great Western work of the Classical Period and has influenced philosophy in late antiquity, as well as Medieval and early Renaissance Christianity.

The Incoherence of the Philosophers: "The Incoherence of the Philosophers" is an influential 11th-century work by al-Ghazali, critiquing the Avicennian school of Islamic philosophy for its adherence to Greek philosophy which the author believes contradicts Islam. It denounces influential Muslim philosophers like Avicenna and Alpharabius. The book's success marked a significant milestone in the rise of the Asharite school in Islamic philosophy and theology.

Muqaddimah: The Muqaddimah is a book written by Arab historian Ibn Khaldun in 1377. It offers a comprehensive view of universal history and encompasses various disciplines such as sociology, demography, and cultural history. Additionally, it explores Islamic theology, historiography, the philosophy of history, economics, political theory, and ecology. Some scholars consider it as a precursor to social Darwinism and Darwinism.

Summa Theologica: The Summa Theologica is Thomas Aquinas' best-known work, serving as a comprehensive guide to Catholic theology. It covers various topics such as God, creation, humanity, Christ, and the sacraments. The book presents logical reasoning for nearly all points of Christian theology, making it essential for theology students and those interested in deepening their understanding of the Catholic Church's teachings.

Vulgate: The Vulgate is a 4th-century Latin Bible translation referred to as the Latin Vulgate.

Critique of Pure Reason: The Critique of Pure Reason is a book by Immanuel Kant that explores the limits and scope of metaphysics. It is known as Kant's "First Critique" and was followed by two more critiques. Kant aims to determine if metaphysics is possible or impossible and he defines "critique" as a systematic analysis, not the colloquial meaning of criticism.

De revolutionibus orbium coelestium: De revolutionibus orbium coelestium is the groundbreaking book by Nicolaus Copernicus, presenting the heliocentric theory. Published in 1543, it provided an alternative model to the widely accepted geocentric system proposed by Ptolemy.

A Dictionary of the English Language: The term 'A Dictionary of the English Language' refers to a influential dictionary written by Samuel Johnson in 1755. This dictionary is commonly known as Johnson's Dictionary and is considered a significant work in the history of the English language. It was published on April 15th and remains influential to this day.

Discourse on the Method: The 'Discourse on the Method' is a philosophical and autobiographical work published by René Descartes in 1637. It is famous for introducing the quote "Je pense, donc je suis" (I think, therefore I am). Similar arguments can be found in Descartes' other works such as 'Meditations on First Philosophy' and 'Principles of Philosophy'.

Encyclopædia Britannica: The Encyclopædia Britannica is a widely-known general knowledge English-language encyclopaedia that has been published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. since 1768. It has had multiple owners and is currently maintained by around 100 full-time editors and over 4,000 contributors. The last printed edition was released in 2010, consisting of 32 volumes and 32,640 pages. Since 2016, it has been exclusively available as an online encyclopaedia.

Gutenberg Bible: The Gutenberg Bible, also called the 42-line Bible or B42, was Europe's first major book printed using mass-produced metal movable type. It kickstarted the "Gutenberg Revolution" and introduced printed books in the Western world. This highly valued and revered book is known for its aesthetic beauty, artistic qualities, and historical importance.

The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire is a six-volume work by Edward Gibbon, an English historian. It covers the peak of the Roman Empire, the history of early Christianity, the rise and fall of the Roman State Church, and events like the emergence of Genghis Khan and Tamerlane. The book discusses the decline of the Roman Empire, the fall of Byzantium, and explores the ruins of Ancient Rome.

King James Version: The King James Version (KJV) is an Early Modern English translation of the Christian Bible, commissioned by King James VI and I in 1604 and published in 1611. It includes 80 books, consisting of 39 books from the Old Testament, 14 books of Apocrypha, and 27 books from the New Testament.

Leviathan(Hobbes book): "Leviathan" is a book written by Thomas Hobbes in 1651, during the English Civil War. It examines the structure of society and the importance of legitimate government. Often referred to as one of the earliest and most influential works of social contract theory, the book argues for the need of a strong, undivided government to prevent civil war and chaotic state of nature. Its name is derived from the biblical creature Leviathan.

Ninety-five Theses: The Ninety-five Theses were written by Martin Luther in 1517, challenging the Catholic Church's practice of selling indulgences. These propositions launched the Protestant Reformation, criticizing corruption and abuse by Catholic clergy. Indulgences were certificates that supposedly reduced punishment in purgatory for sins.

Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica: The 'Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica' or simply the 'Principia' is a book written by Isaac Newton. It explains Newton's laws of motion and law of universal gravitation. Published on 5 July 1687, it consists of three volumes written in Latin.

Popol Vuh: 'Popol Vuh' is an important text that tells the mythology and history of the Kʼicheʼ people in Guatemala and other Maya populations inhabiting regions of Mexico, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador.

The Prince: "The Prince" is a 16th-century political treatise by Niccolò Machiavelli, serving as an instruction guide for new rulers. It asserts that immoral actions are justified if they lead to political success.

The Wealth of Nations: 'The Wealth of Nations' is a renowned book by economist Adam Smith, published in 1776. Considered a foundational work in classical economics, it explores the factors that contribute to a nation's wealth. Smith delves into topics like division of labor, productivity, and free markets, providing early insights during the Industrial Revolution.

The Communist Manifesto: "The Communist Manifesto" is a political pamphlet written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Published in 1848, it outlines the core idea that the history of society is a history of class struggles. It defines social classes based on people's relationship to the means of production. This influential document was published during a time of revolts and its repression across Europe.

Das Kapital: 'Das Kapital' is a foundational text in materialist philosophy and critique of political economy, written by Karl Marx and published in three volumes between 1867 and 1894. It analyzes capitalism and applies Marx's theory of historical materialism to reveal the economic laws of modern society. The second and third volumes were completed and published by Friedrich Engels after Marx's death. It is the most cited pre-1950 book in the social sciences.

Encyclopédie: The Encyclopédie is a general encyclopedia published in France from 1751 to 1772. It covers a wide range of subjects in sciences, arts, and crafts. It had multiple writers, known as Encyclopédistes, and was edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert until 1759.

The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money: 'The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money' is a groundbreaking book by economist John Maynard Keynes, published in 1936. It revolutionized economic thought by establishing macroeconomics as a central aspect of economic theory and introducing key terms of the "Keynesian Revolution." This seminal work also had a significant impact on economic policy, advocating for government spending, budget deficits, monetary intervention, and counter-cyclical policies. It reflects a skepticism towards the rationality of decision-making in free-market systems.

The Golden Bough: The Golden Bough is a comprehensive study by Sir James George Frazer, exploring mythology and religion across cultures. It was published in volumes in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and has influenced European literature and thought. The book caters to a wide audience and its impact is significant.

On the Origin of Species: 'On the Origin of Species' is a groundbreaking scientific work by Charles Darwin, published in 1859. It introduced the theory of evolution through natural selection, explaining how populations evolve over generations. The book provides compelling evidence for the diversity of life arising from a common ancestor, supported by Darwin's collected data from the Beagle expedition and further research.

Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung: 'Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung' is a collection of writings and speeches by Mao Zedong, the former Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party. It was published from 1964 to 1979 and gained immense popularity during the Cultural Revolution as it was widely distributed.

Silent Spring: 'Silent Spring' is a well-known environmental science book written by Rachel Carson in 1962. It reveals the damaging effects of widespread pesticide use, exposing the chemical industry for spreading disinformation. Carson criticizes public officials for naively accepting the industry's marketing claims without question.

The Structure of Scientific Revolutions: 'The Structure of Scientific Revolutions' is a significant book by philosopher Thomas S. Kuhn that explores the history of science. It challenges the prevailing notion of scientific progress as a gradual accumulation of established facts and theories. Instead, Kuhn proposes a model in which periods of incremental progress, termed "normal science," are punctuated by revolutionary episodes. These revolutions are sparked by the discovery of anomalies that lead to the emergence of new paradigms. These fresh perspectives ask different questions, break from the previous paradigm's puzzle-solving approach, and reshape the direction of research.

Night(memoir): 'Night' is a memoir by Elie Wiesel, recounting his experiences in Nazi concentration camps during the Holocaust. Wiesel discusses the loss of faith and growing disillusionment with humanity that he experienced. The memoir follows his journey from ghettos in Romania to various camps, where Wiesel becomes his father's caregiver. Tragically, his father dies before the liberation of Buchenwald by the US Army in 1945.

Oxford English Dictionary: The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is a comprehensive historical dictionary published by Oxford University Press (OUP). It provides scholars and researchers with a detailed record of the English language's development and includes usage variations worldwide.

Aesop's Fables: Aesop's Fables are renowned ancient Greek stories, collection of clever tales attributed to a slave named Aesop, who lived from 620 to 564 BCE. These fables, originating from various sources, have been passed down through generations and reimagined in different forms of storytelling up to the present day.

The Bacchae: The Bacchae is an ancient Greek tragedy written by Euripides in Macedonia. It premiered after his death in 405 BC and won first prize in a festival competition. The play is part of a tetralogy and explores themes of religion and spirituality.

The Golden Ass: 'The Golden Ass' is an ancient Roman novel, also known as 'The Metamorphoses of Apuleius'. It is the sole surviving complete Latin novel from that era.

Lysistrata: 'Lysistrata' is an ancient Greek comedy play by Aristophanes, performed in 411 BC. It tells the story of Lysistrata, a woman who aims to end the Peloponnesian War between Greek city states by persuading women to withhold sex from men. Through this tactic, she intends to force the men to negotiate peace, but this strategy stirs up conflict between the genders.

Medea(play): 'Medea' is an ancient Greek tragedy by Euripides, written in 431 BC. The play revolves around the character of Medea, a former princess from Colchis, who is married to Jason. When Jason abandons her for a Greek princess, Medea seeks revenge by killing his new wife and their two children. She then escapes to Athens to start afresh. The play is a part of a trilogy and explores themes of betrayal, vengeance, and the position of women in Greek society.

Oedipus Rex: 'Oedipus Rex', also known as 'Oedipus the King', is an Athenian tragedy written by Sophocles and first performed around 429 BC. The play was originally titled 'Oedipus' and later renamed to 'Oedipus Tyrannus' to distinguish it from another play by the same author. The term "tyrant" in ancient times referred to a ruler without a legitimate claim, but was not always negative.

Oresteia: The Oresteia, written by Aeschylus in the 5th century BCE, is a trilogy of Greek tragedies. It explores the murder of Agamemnon by Clytemnestra, the subsequent murder of Clytemnestra by Orestes, and the trial that follows. The plays also address the curse on the House of Atreus and the resolution of conflict with the Furies.

Panchatantra: The Panchatantra is an ancient Indian collection of animal fables in Sanskrit verse and prose, dating back to around 200 BCE. It is believed to be authored by Vishnu Sharma or Vasubhaga, although their existence is uncertain. The text is rooted in Hinduism and draws from age-old oral traditions, encompassing timeless animal fables.

Kādambari: Kādambari is a romantic novel in Sanskrit, composed by Bāṇabhaṭṭa in the 7th century CE. The novel was completed by Banabhatta's son Bhushanabhatta according to his father's plan. It is divided into two parts, Purvabhaga and Uttarabhaga, written by Banabhatta and Bhushanabhatta respectively.

Kathasaritsagara: The Kathāsaritsāgara is an renowned 11th-century anthology of Indian legends, histories, and folk tales, recast in Sanskrit by Somadeva, a Shaivite.

One Thousand and One Nights: 'One Thousand and One Nights' is a compilation of Middle Eastern folktales written in Arabic during the Islamic Golden Age. Also known as the Arabian Nights, it gained popularity from its first English edition titled 'The Arabian Nights' Entertainment.'

Aladdin: 'Aladdin' is a popular Middle Eastern folktale that gained recognition through Antoine Galland's translation of One Thousand and One Nights. Although not originally part of the collection, Galland added it based on a folktale he heard from a storyteller in Aleppo, Syria.

Romance of the Three Kingdoms: "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" is a 14th-century historical novel written by Luo Guanzhong. Set during the end of the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period, it depicts the period from 184 AD to 280 AD when the land was unified under the Western Jin. The novel draws heavily from the "Records of the Three Kingdoms" by Chen Shou, written in the 3rd century.

The Tale of Genji: The Tale of Genji, or Genji Monogatari, is a renowned Japanese literary masterpiece written by Murasaki Shikibu in the 11th century. The original manuscript, created during the Heian period, is no longer available. It was crafted in the unique "concertina" or orihon style, with multiple sheets of paper pasted and folded alternately.

Water Margin: Water Margin is an ancient Chinese novel, written in vernacular Mandarin by Shi Nai'an. It is also known as Outlaws of the Marsh and All Men Are Brothers.

Candide: 'Candide' is a French satire written by Voltaire, published in 1759. It follows Candide, a sheltered young man who experiences hardships that challenge his optimistic worldview. The novella critiques Leibnizian optimism and concludes with a practical philosophy of tending to one's own affairs instead of relying on a perfect world.

Cinderella: "Cinderella" is a well-known folk tale with countless versions told worldwide. It follows the journey of a young girl living in unfortunate circumstances, whose life dramatically transforms when she marries a king and becomes a queen. The earliest known variant of this story is the tale of Rhodopis, a Greek slave girl who weds the king of Egypt, as recorded by the Greek geographer Strabo between 7 BCE and 23 CE.

Don Quixote: "Don Quixote" is a Spanish novel by Miguel de Cervantes, published in two parts in 1605 and 1615. It is considered a foundational work in Western literature, often hailed as the first modern novel and one of the greatest ever written. This highly translated and widely popular book is recognized for its enduring impact and significant sales.

Dream of the Red Chamber: Dream of the Red Chamber, also known as The Story of the Stone, is a significant 18th-century Chinese novel by Cao Xueqin. It is recognized as one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature due to its profound exploration of 18th-century Chinese society, encompassing psychology, worldview, aesthetics, lifestyles, and social relationships.

Goethe'sFaust: 'Goethe's Faust' is a renowned tragedy in two parts by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, commonly known as Faust, Part One and Faust, Part Two. Part One and a significant portion of Part Two are written in rhymed verse. While the entire play is seldom performed, it is highly popular on German-language stages. Considered by many as Goethe's magnum opus, Faust is widely regarded as the greatest work in German literature.

Gulliver's Travels: "Gulliver's Travels" is a 1726 satire by Jonathan Swift, mocking human nature and travel stories. It follows Lemuel Gulliver, a surgeon turned ship captain, as he explores new lands. Swift's most famous work, it critiques society and was intended to provoke rather than entertain.

Investiture of the Gods: The Investiture of the Gods is a 16th-century Chinese novel written during the Ming dynasty. It is also known as Fengshen Yanyi and Fengshen Bang. This major work in the gods and demons genre combines history, folklore, mythology, legends, and fantasy. With 100 chapters, it was published between 1567 and 1619, or by another source, in a finalized edition in 1605.

Journey to the West: 'Journey to the West' is a renowned Chinese novel from the 16th century, authored by Wu Cheng'en during the Ming dynasty. This classic work is considered one of the greatest in Chinese literature, widely celebrated in East Asia. In English-speaking countries, it is recognized through Arthur Waley's famous abridged translation titled 'Monkey'.'

La Princesse de Clèves: 'La Princesse de Clèves' is a significant French novel published anonymously in 1678. It is recognized as one of the first psychological novels, marking the start of this literary tradition. The book is considered a classic and its author is commonly attributed to Madame de La Fayette.

Robinson Crusoe: "Robinson Crusoe" is an English adventure novel by Daniel Defoe, published in 1719. It showcases the journey of the title character, who is stranded on a remote desert island for 28 years. The book combines various narrative forms and follows Crusoe's encounters with cannibals, captives, and mutineers before his eventual rescue. It is believed to be inspired by the real-life experiences of Alexander Selkirk and Pedro Serrano.

Tartuffe: Tartuffe, a comedic play by Molière, debuted in 1664. It portrays characters like Tartuffe, Elmire, and Orgon, who are regarded as iconic in classical theater.

Utopia(More book): "Utopia" is a fictional book by Thomas More, written in 1516. This socio-political satire revolves around a fictional island society with unique religious, social, and political customs. It offers a depiction reminiscent of monastic life, presented through a frame narrative.

Hamlet: 'Hamlet' is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare in the late 16th century. It is Shakespeare's longest play, set in Denmark, and revolves around Prince Hamlet seeking revenge against his uncle Claudius for killing his father and taking over the throne.

King Lear: King Lear is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, loosely based on the mythological Leir of Britain. The play tells the story of Lear, who divides his power between his daughters Goneril and Regan, based on their false expressions of love. Lear's third daughter, Cordelia, is honest and refuses to flatter him, causing Lear to disown her. Regan and Goneril mistreat Lear, leading him to become destitute and insane. Meanwhile, Edmund, the illegitimate son of Gloucester, betrays his family. Ultimately, Lear, Cordelia, and other characters meet tragic fates.

Macbeth: Macbeth, a tragedy by William Shakespeare, portrays the destructive consequences of political ambition on individuals. It was likely performed in 1606 and is considered to reflect Shakespeare's connection with King James I. Published in 1623, it is one of Shakespeare's shortest tragedies.

A Midsummer Night's Dream: 'A Midsummer Night's Dream' is a comedy play by Shakespeare, set in Athens and centered around the marriage of Theseus and Hippolyta. The play includes subplots involving four lovers and a group of amateur actors. These groups find themselves in a fairy-inhabited forest where manipulation and domestic intrigue take place. This popular play is known for its entertaining and widely performed storylines.

Othello: 'Othello' is a tragic play by Shakespeare, written around 1603. It follows the story of Othello and Iago, exploring themes of jealousy and manipulation.

Romeo and Juliet: 'Romeo and Juliet' is a renowned tragedy by William Shakespeare depicting the love story of two young Italians from rival families. It was one of Shakespeare's most popular and frequently performed plays and is considered a classic tale of young lovers.

The Tempest: The Tempest is a play by William Shakespeare written in 1610–1611. It takes place on a remote island where complex character Prospero and his daughter Miranda live with two servants, Caliban and Ariel. The play explores themes of magic, betrayal, revenge, and family. It includes music and songs that create an enchanting atmosphere. Act IV features a wedding masque that adds spectacle and allegory.

Adventures of Huckleberry Finn: The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a novel written by Mark Twain, published in 1884 and 1885. It tells the story of a boy named Huck Finn and his adventures along the Mississippi River. This American classic explores themes of race, morality, and the journey towards freedom.

Alice's Adventures in Wonderland: 'Alice in Wonderland' is a famous children's novel written by Lewis Carroll in 1865. The story revolves around Alice, a girl who enters a magical world after falling into a rabbit hole. The book is known for its nonsensical style and is accompanied by 42 illustrations by John Tenniel.

Anna Karenina: 'Anna Karenina' is a renowned novel by Leo Tolstoy, published in 1878. Tolstoy considered it his first true novel and it is regarded as one of the greatest works of literature. The story was released in parts from 1875 to 1877, with high acclaim. It has gained immense recognition, even being listed by William Faulkner as one of the three greatest novels of all time.

The Brothers Karamazov: "The Brothers Karamazov" is the final novel by Fyodor Dostoevsky, hailed as a masterpiece of world literature. Written over the course of two years, it was published as a serial from January 1879 to November 1880. Unfortunately, Dostoevsky passed away just months after its release.

A Christmas Carol: "A Christmas Carol" is a novella by Charles Dickens, published in 1843. It tells the story of Ebenezer Scrooge, a mean-spirited old man, who undergoes a transformation after being visited by the ghost of his former partner and the spirits of Christmas.

Crime and Punishment: 'Crime and Punishment' is a significant novel by Fyodor Dostoevsky, published in 1866. It marks the second full-length novel of Dostoevsky's mature period, written after his ten-year exile in Siberia. The story was initially serialized in The Russian Messenger before being published as a single volume. It is widely regarded as one of the greatest works in world literature.

A Doll's House: "A Doll's House" is a three-act play by Henrik Ibsen, first performed in 1879 in Copenhagen. Set in a Norwegian town during the same period, the play explores themes of societal expectations and the struggle for personal freedom.

Dracula: Dracula is a 1897 novel by Bram Stoker, told through letters, diary entries, and newspaper articles. It follows solicitor Jonathan Harker's encounter with the vampire Count Dracula in Transylvania. Dracula then moves to England and terrorizes the town of Whitby. A group led by Abraham Van Helsing investigates, hunts, and ultimately kills Dracula.

Eugene Onegin: 'Eugene Onegin' is a novel in verse by Alexander Pushkin, a classic of Russian literature. The story follows the protagonist, who has inspired many Russian literary heroes. The novel was published between 1825 and 1832, and the current version is based on the 1837 publication.

Frankenstein: "Frankenstein" is an 1818 novel by Mary Shelley about Victor Frankenstein, a young scientist who creates a sentient creature through an unconventional experiment. Shelley wrote the story at 18 and it was first published anonymously in London in 1818. The second edition, published in Paris in 1821, revealed Shelley as the author.

Grimms' Fairy Tales: 'Grimms' Fairy Tales', a collection of German fairy tales, was originally known as the Children's and Household Tales. It was published by the Grimm brothers, Jacob and Wilhelm, in 1812. The first edition included 86 stories, followed by 70 more tales in the second edition. Over time, the collection expanded to 200 tales and 10 "Children's Legends" by 1857. These stories are recognized by UNESCO in its Memory of the World Registry.

Heart of Darkness: 'Heart of Darkness' is a 1899 novella by Joseph Conrad. The story is narrated by sailor Charles Marlow, who recounts his experience as a steamship captain for a Belgian company in Africa. The book criticizes European colonialism in Africa and explores themes of power and morality. The narrative mainly takes place on an unnamed river, possibly the Congo River in the Congo Free State, which was then a private territory of King Leopold II of Belgium. Marlow receives a text from Kurtz, an ivory trader who has become immersed in the local culture and is the focus of Marlow's journey.

The Hunchback of Notre-Dame: "The Hunchback of Notre-Dame" is a 1831 French Gothic novel by Victor Hugo, centered around the Notre-Dame Cathedral in 15th-century Paris. The story revolves around Quasimodo, a hunchbacked man, Esmeralda, a Roma street dancer, and Claude Frollo, Quasimodo's guardian and the Archdeacon. This tragic tale contains elements of impossible love, a Renaissance backdrop, and marginalized characters, making it a notable example of Romanticism in literature.

The Importance of Being Earnest: "The Importance of Being Earnest" is a comedic play by Oscar Wilde, first performed in 1895. Set in late Victorian London, the play satirizes social conventions, particularly marriage, through the use of fictitious identities adopted by the main characters. It is celebrated for its humor, farcical elements, witty dialogue, and the way it treats serious institutions with triviality. Despite differing opinions, the play has remained highly popular over time.

Jane Eyre: "Jane Eyre" is a novel by Charlotte Brontë, published in 1847. It is a bildungsroman following the life of Jane Eyre, who grows from a young girl to an adult. The story revolves around her love for Mr. Rochester, the mysterious owner of Thornfield Hall. It explores themes of love, identity, and personal growth.

Les Misérables: "Les Misérables" is a renowned French historical novel (1862) by Victor Hugo, widely regarded as a masterpiece from the 19th century. This acclaimed work has gained popularity through various adaptations for stage, film, and television, including an influential musical.

Little Women: 'Little Women' is a 19th-century novel by Louisa May Alcott that depicts the growth of four March sisters, Meg, Jo, Beth, and Amy, as they transition from childhood to adulthood. Drawing inspiration from the author's own life, this semi-autobiographical story explores themes of coming-of-age and sisterhood.

Madame Bovary: "Madame Bovary" is a novel written by Gustave Flaubert in 1857. It portrays the life of the eponymous character who seeks to escape the dullness of provincial life by living extravagantly and beyond her means.

Middlemarch: "Middlemarch" is a novel by George Eliot, published in 1871-1872. Set in a fictional English town, it explores various intersecting stories and addresses themes like women's status, marriage, idealism, religion, and political reform. It incorporates historical events and societal changes of the time. The book is considered one of Eliot's finest works and a significant contribution to English literature.

Moby-Dick: 'Moby-Dick; or, The Whale' is a novel written by Herman Melville in 1851. It follows the vengeful quest of Captain Ahab, who seeks revenge against Moby Dick, a giant white sperm whale that bit off his leg. Although initially received with mixed reviews and commercial failure, it gained recognition as a Great American Novel in the 20th century. Famous authors like William Faulkner and D. H. Lawrence praised its uniqueness and brilliance. Its opening line, "Call me Ishmael," remains iconic in world literature.

Pride and Prejudice: "Pride and Prejudice" is a notable novel by Jane Austen, published in 1813. It explores the growth of Elizabeth Bennet, the main character, as she experiences the consequences of quick judgments and gains a deeper understanding of true goodness. This novel is primarily concerned with manners and societal expectations during the time it was written.

The Scarlet Letter: "The Scarlet Letter" is a historical fiction novel by Nathaniel Hawthorne published in 1850. It is set in the Puritan Massachusetts Bay Colony during 1642 to 1649 and tells the story of Hester Prynne, who becomes pregnant with a man she is not married to. Hester is publicly shamed and forced to wear a scarlet letter 'A' as punishment. The novel explores themes of legalism, sin, and guilt, and follows Hester's journey to repentance and dignity.

The Three Musketeers: 'The Three Musketeers' is a 1844 French historical adventure novel by Alexandre Dumas, written with ghostwriter Auguste Maquet. It belongs to the swashbuckler genre, portraying heroic and chivalrous swordsmen fighting for justice.

Uncle Tom's Cabin: 'Uncle Tom's Cabin' is an influential anti-slavery novel written by Harriet Beecher Stowe. Published in 1852, it had a significant impact on American perceptions of African Americans and slavery, potentially contributing to the American Civil War.

War and Peace: 'War and Peace' is a renowned literary masterpiece written by Leo Tolstoy. It takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and combines fictional storytelling with chapters dedicated to history and philosophy. Initially serialized in 1865, it was later reworked and published as a complete book in 1869. This work is considered Tolstoy's greatest accomplishment and is widely regarded as a timeless classic in world literature.

Wuthering Heights: Wuthering Heights is Emily Brontë's only novel, published in 1847 under the pen name "Ellis Bell." Set in the West Yorkshire moors, it portrays the intense relationships between two families of the landed gentry – the Earnshaws and the Lintons. The story revolves around their foster son, Heathcliff, and captures the themes of Romanticism and Gothic fiction.

The Call of the Wild: "The Call of the Wild" is a 1903 adventure novel by Jack London, set during the Klondike Gold Rush in Yukon, Canada. The story follows Buck, a dog who is stolen from his home in California and becomes a sled dog in Alaska. In the harsh wilderness, Buck transforms into a wild and primitive creature, fighting for survival and dominance. Through his experiences, Buck sheds his civilized nature and emerges as a leader in the wild, relying on instinct and learned skills.

The Catchers of the Rye: "The Catcher in the Rye" is a novel written by J. D. Salinger that was initially serialized in 1945-46 and later published as a novel in 1951. While originally targeted at adults, it has gained popularity among adolescents due to its exploration of themes such as angst, alienation, and criticism of shallow society. The book delves into ideas of innocence, identity, belonging, loss, connection, sex, and depression. The protagonist, Holden Caulfield, has become an emblem of teenage rebellion as he shares his thoughts on various aspects of his recent life experiences.

The Color Purple: 'The Color Purple' is a Pulitzer Prize-winning novel by Alice Walker that tells the story through letters and won several awards.

The Grapes of Wrath: 'The Grapes of Wrath' is a novel written by John Steinbeck and published in 1939. It won the National Book Award, Pulitzer Prize for fiction, and contributed to Steinbeck being awarded the Nobel Prize in 1962.

The Great Gatsby: "The Great Gatsby" is a 1925 novel by F. Scott Fitzgerald, set in the Jazz Age near New York City. It follows Nick Carraway as he interacts with the enigmatic millionaire Jay Gatsby, who is driven by an intense desire to reconnect with his former lover, Daisy Buchanan.

In Search of Lost Time: "In Search of Lost Time" is a seven-volume novel by Marcel Proust, also known as "Remembrance of Things Past" and "La Recherche" in French. This early 20th-century work is famous for its length and exploration of involuntary memory. Notably, it includes the famous "episode of the madeleine" in the first volume.

Lolita: 'Lolita' is a controversial 1955 novel written by Vladimir Nabokov, a Russian-American novelist. It explores the theme of hebephilia through the story of a French literature professor who moves to New England and takes on the alter ego of Humbert Humbert. Humbert becomes obsessed with Dolores Haze, a 12-year-old girl whom he kidnaps and sexually abuses after becoming her stepfather. He privately refers to her as "Lolita," a Spanish nickname for Dolores. Initially written in English, the novel was first published in Paris due to fear of censorship in the US and Britain.

The Metamorphosis: 'The Metamorphosis' is a renowned novella by Franz Kafka, published in 1915. It follows the tale of Gregor Samsa, a salesman who wakes up one day transformed into a gigantic insect. Throughout the story, Gregor grapples with adapting to his bizarre new form. This work is highly discussed by literary critics, who propose diverse interpretations. In various adaptations, the insect is often portrayed as a cockroach.

Midnight's Children: 'Midnight's Children' is a 1981 novel by Salman Rushdie that explores India's transition from British colonial rule to independence and partition. The story is told through the perspective of the main character, Saleem Sinai, and combines postcolonial, postmodern, and magical realist elements. It intertwines historical events with fictional accounts, offering a self-reflexive approach to preserving history.

On the Road: "On the Road" is a renowned 1957 novel by Jack Kerouac that follows his journeys across the United States with his friends. It stands as a significant literary piece for the Beat and Counterculture generations, portraying characters immersed in jazz, poetry, and drugs. This roman à clef includes notable figures like William S. Burroughs, Allen Ginsberg, and Neal Cassady, with Kerouac representing himself as the narrator, Sal Paradise.

One Hundred Years of Solitude: 'One Hundred Years of Solitude' is a renowned novel by Gabriel García Márquez, published in 1967. It revolves around the Buendía family and their journey across generations in the fictional town of Macondo. This masterpiece is highly regarded as a significant accomplishment in global literature.

Snow Country: 'Snow Country' is a renowned Japanese novel by Yasunari Kawabata. It is acclaimed as a classic piece of Japanese literature, recognized by the Nobel Committee when Kawabata was honored with the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1968.

The Sound and the Fury: "The Sound and the Fury" is a 1929 novel by William Faulkner that features multiple narrative styles, including stream of consciousness. Initially unsuccessful, it gained commercial success and critical attention after Faulkner's sixth novel was published.

The Sun Also Rises: "The Sun Also Rises" is Ernest Hemingway's debut novel, following American and British expatriates on their journey from Paris to the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona, where they witness bull runs and fights. Despite mixed reviews upon release, it is considered Hemingway's greatest work and an important modernist novel. Published in the US in October 1926 by Scribner's and a year later in London as "Fiesta" by Jonathan Cape, the book continues to be in print.

Things Fall Apart: 'Things Fall Apart' is the debut novel by Chinua Achebe, published in 1958. Set in pre-colonial Igboland, it portrays the arrival of European missionaries and colonial forces in the late 19th century. The book is considered a modern African classic and received widespread critical praise. It is commonly taught in African schools and widely studied worldwide. Originally published by William Heinemann Ltd, it holds the distinction of being the first book in Heinemann's African Writers Series.

To Kill a Mockingbird: 'To Kill a Mockingbird' is a renowned novel by Harper Lee, achieving instant success upon its publication in 1960. The story, inspired by Lee's personal experiences and set in 1936 Alabama, revolves around the lives of relatable characters. Its recognition as a classic of modern American literature was affirmed when it received the prestigious Pulitzer Prize in 1961. Notably, the novel has gained widespread popularity among students in the United States, being commonly taught in high schools and middle schools.

To the Lighthouse: "To the Lighthouse" is Virginia Woolf's 1927 novel that follows the Ramsay family as they make regular visits to the Isle of Skye in Scotland from 1910 to 1920. It explores their dynamics and experiences within this timeframe.

Ulysses(novel): 'Ulysses' is a significant modernist novel by Irish author James Joyce. Originally serialized in The Little Review between 1918 and 1920, it was published as a complete work in 1922. Beach, the publisher, released it in Paris on Joyce's 40th birthday. This novel is acclaimed as a fundamental piece of modernist literature, showcasing the movement at its best. It is known for its groundbreaking portrayal of the thought process in fiction, a technique unprecedented before Joyce's time.

The Chronicles of Narnia: The Chronicles of Narnia is a series of seven fantasy novels by C.S. Lewis. The books follow various children who are transported to the magical world of Narnia. They encounter mythical creatures, protect Narnia from evil, and witness its creation and destruction. The series has been adapted for various media platforms.

Harry Potter: Harry Potter is a popular fantasy novel series by J.K. Rowling. It follows the adventures of young wizard Harry, along with his friends Hermione and Ron, as they attend Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. The central plot revolves around Harry's battles against the evil Lord Voldemort, who seeks immortality and domination over wizards and Muggles.

The Little Prince: "The Little Prince" is a famous novella by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, a French aristocrat, writer, and military pilot. Published in 1943, the story revolves around a young prince who embarks on a journey across planets, exploring themes of loneliness, friendship, love, and loss. Although it is considered a children's book, "The Little Prince" offers profound observations about life, adults, and human nature.

The Wind in the Willows: 'The Wind in the Willows' is a classic children's novel by Kenneth Grahame, published in 1908. It follows the adventures of Mole, Ratty, and Badger as they assist Mr. Toad, who becomes fixated on motorcars and encounters difficulties. The book also includes separate short stories about the characters. Inspired by Grahame's bedtime tales for his son, the novel has been widely adapted for stage and screen.

The Crucible: The Crucible is a play by Arthur Miller, recounting the events of the Salem witch trials in Massachusetts in the late 17th century. It serves as an allegory for McCarthyism, a government persecution of suspected communists in the United States. Miller himself was questioned by the House of Representatives and convicted of contempt of Congress for refusing to disclose names of others he had met with.

Waiting for Godot: 'Waiting for Godot' is a play by Irish playwright Samuel Beckett about two characters, Vladimir and Estragon, who engage in discussions and encounters as they wait for Godot, who never shows up. The play is a tragicomedy in two acts and is Beckett's translation of his original French-language play, 'En attendant Godot.'

Brave New World: Brave New World is Aldous Huxley's dystopian novel, published in 1932. It portrays a futuristic society where citizens are genetically engineered, controlled through psychological manipulation, and divided into a strict social hierarchy. The story follows a protagonist who challenges this oppressive system. Huxley later revisited the themes in his essay Brave New World Revisited and wrote a utopian novel called Island. The book is often compared to George Orwell's 1984.

Gravity's Rainbow: 'Gravity's Rainbow' is a 1973 novel by Thomas Pynchon set in Europe during World War II. It revolves around the development and launch of V-2 rockets by the German military. The narrative follows various characters on a quest to uncover the secret of the enigmatic Schwarzgerät device, planned for installation in a rocket marked with the serial number "00000".

The Lord of the Rings: "The Lord of the Rings" is a widely popular epic fantasy novel written by J.R.R. Tolkien. It is set in Middle-earth and originally intended as a sequel to "The Hobbit." The book took shape between 1937 and 1949 and has since become one of the best-selling novels of all time, with over 150 million copies sold.

Nineteen Eighty-Four: "Nineteen Eighty-Four" is a dystopian novel by George Orwell that warns about the dangers of totalitarianism and mass surveillance. It portrays a society controlled by a repressive regime, based on the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. The book explores the manipulation of truth and the consequences of living in a world where facts can be distorted. Published in 1949, it remains a cautionary tale about the power of authoritarianism and the importance of individual freedom.

The War of the Worlds: 'The War of the Worlds' is a science fiction novel by H. G. Wells, published in 1898. It depicts an early conflict between humans and extraterrestrial beings known as Martians, as told through a first-person narrative in southern England. The novel is highly regarded in the genre of science fiction.

The Adventures of Tintin: 'The Adventures of Tintin' is a highly popular series of 24 bande dessinée albums created by Belgian cartoonist Hergé. It became one of the most popular European comics of the 20th century, with over 200 million copies sold in more than 70 languages. Tintin's adventures have been adapted into various forms such as radio, television, theatre, and film.

Asterix: "Asterix" is a popular bande dessinée comic book series depicting the adventures of Gaulish warriors in their fight against the Roman Republic during Julius Caesar's era. The warriors are aided by a magic potion as they travel the world. Created by René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo in 1959, the series has had new writers and illustrators since then, with a recent volume released in October 2023 by Fabrice Caro.

Peanuts: Peanuts is a popular American comic strip created by Charles M. Schulz that ran from 1950-2000. It is considered one of the most influential in comic strip history, with nearly 18,000 published strips. Peanuts reached a massive readership of around 355 million in 75 countries and was translated into 21 languages. It solidified the four-panel gag strip format and earned Schulz over $1 billion through merchandise sales.

Aeneid: The Aeneid is a Latin epic poem written by Virgil between 29 and 19 BC. It follows the legendary tale of Aeneas, a Trojan who escapes the fall of Troy and journeys to Italy. The poem consists of 9,896 lines in dactylic hexameter. The first six books depict Aeneas' travels, while the second half portrays the Trojans' successful battle against the Latins, leading to their integration into Roman society.

Divan-i Shams-i Tabrizi: Divan-i Shams-i Tabrizi, also known as Divan-i Kabir, is a collection of over 40,000 Persian poems by Rumi, a renowned Persian poet and Sufi mystic. It includes 3,000 ghazals and showcases Rumi's distinctive poetic style. Written after the disappearance of Rumi's spiritual teacher, Shams-i Tabrizi, the Divan is dedicated to him and explores themes of love and longing. Despite being a compilation of lyrical poems, it delves into deep philosophical ideas.

Epic of Gilgamesh: The Epic of Gilgamesh is an ancient Mesopotamian epic poem. It originated from Sumerian poems about King Bilgamesh and was later combined into an Akkadian epic. The oldest surviving version, called the "Old Babylonian" version, dates back to the 18th century BC. The later "Standard Babylonian" version was compiled by Sîn-lēqi-unninni between the 13th and 10th centuries BC. Approximately two-thirds of this version have been found, with important copies discovered in the library ruins of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal from the 7th century BC.

Iliad: The Iliad is an ancient Greek epic poem attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest surviving works of literature still widely read today. Divided into 24 books and written in dactylic hexameter, it contains 15,693 lines. Set during the Trojan War, the poem portrays the final weeks of the ten-year siege on Troy by a coalition of Greek states. It highlights a fierce argument between King Agamemnon and warrior Achilles. The Iliad is considered a pivotal part of the Epic Cycle and is often viewed as the earliest significant piece of European literature.

Mahabharata: The Mahabharata is an important Hindu Smriti text and Sanskrit epic, alongside the Ramayana. It depicts the Kurukshetra War, a battle for power between two groups of princely cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas.

Masnavi: The Masnavi is a renowned Persian poem written by Rumi, considered one of the most influential works of Sufism. It is often compared to the Quran and is highly regarded in Islamic literature. Comprising six books and around 25,000 verses, it serves as a spiritual guide for Sufis to attain profound love for God.

Metamorphoses: Metamorphoses is a Latin narrative poem by Ovid, written in 8 CE. It is considered Ovid's most important work. The poem tells the history of the world, covering over 250 myths, in a framework that combines mythology and history. It consists of 15 books and 11,995 lines.

Odyssey: The Odyssey is a renowned ancient Greek epic poem by Homer. It is one of the oldest surviving literary works and consists of 24 books. The story revolves around Odysseus, the king of Ithaca, as he embarks on a perilous journey back home after the Trojan War. Lasting for 10 years, Odysseus faces countless challenges and loses all his crewmates. Meanwhile, his family deals with presumptions of his death and the pursuit of suitors for his wife Penelope's hand in marriage.

Shahnameh: The Shahnameh is a long epic poem written by Ferdowsi, considered the national epic of Greater Iran. It consists of 50,000 couplets, making it one of the world's longest epic poems written by a single author. The poem narrates the mythical and historical past of the Persian Empire from the beginning of time to the Muslim conquest in the 7th century. This national epic is celebrated not only in Iran but also in countries influenced by Persian culture like Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and parts of Armenia, Dagestan, Georgia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.

Beowulf: Beowulf is an Old English epic poem about a hero named Beowulf who comes to the aid of a king whose hall has been attacked by a monster. Beowulf defeats the monster and its mother, becomes king, and later dies while battling a dragon. The poem consists of 3,182 alliterative lines and is considered one of the most important works of Old English literature. It is set in pagan Scandinavia in the 6th century and is believed to have been written between 975 and 1025 AD.

The Canterbury Tales: The Canterbury Tales is a renowned collection of 24 stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer in Middle English between 1387 and 1400. It is considered his most significant work, and tells the tales of pilgrims traveling from London to Canterbury to visit Saint Thomas Becket's shrine. The stories are presented as part of a contest, with a free meal at the Tabard Inn as the prize.

Divine Comedy: The Divine Comedy is an influential Italian narrative poem by Dante Alighieri. It is considered a masterpiece of Western literature, portraying an imaginative vision of the afterlife in the 14th century. The poem helped establish the Tuscan language as standardized Italian and is divided into three parts: Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso.

Nibelungenlied: The Nibelungenlied, also known as The Song of the Nibelungs, is an epic poem written in Middle High German around 1200. It is based on Germanic heroic legends with historical roots in the 5th and 6th centuries. The poem has similarities to Scandinavian epics such as the Poetic Edda and the Völsunga saga. The anonymous poet is believed to be from the Passau region.

Poetic Edda: The Poetic Edda is a collection of Old Norse narrative poems in alliterative verse, separate from the Prose Edda. It is vital for studying Old Norse poetry and exists in various versions. A notable version is the Codex Regius, a medieval Icelandic manuscript with 31 poems.

Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam: The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam is a renowned collection of poems translated by Edward FitzGerald in 1859. It consists of selected quatrains attributed to Omar Khayyam, a Persian astronomer-poet from the 11th and 12th centuries. FitzGerald's translation introduced Khayyam's mesmerizing verses to the English-speaking world, earning him the title of "the Astronomer-Poet of Persia."

Song of Roland: The Song of Roland is an ancient French epic poem from the 11th century based on the leader Roland in the Battle of Roncevaux Pass during the reign of Charlemagne. It is the oldest known significant work in French literature, and its popularity continued for centuries in the Medieval and Renaissance periods, as evident through its numerous manuscript versions.

Oku no Hosomichi: 'Oku no Hosomichi' is a renowned haibun by poet Matsuo Bashō, regarded as an important piece of Japanese literature from the Edo period. It was first published in 1702 after the poet's death.

Paradise Lost: 'Paradise Lost'is a renowned epic poem written by English poet John Milton in the 17th century. It consists of ten books in the initial publication in 1667, later revised in 1674 to contain twelve books. This masterpiece solidified Milton's reputation as one of the greatest English poets ever. The poem revolves around the biblical account of humanity's fall, narrating Adam and Eve's temptation by Satan, a fallen angel, and their subsequent expulsion from the Garden of Eden.

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner: "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" is a lengthy poem by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, first published in 1798. It is considered a significant work in British Romantic literature and marks a shift towards modern poetry. A revised edition, printed in 1817, includes a gloss.

Shakespeare's sonnets: Shakespeare's sonnets are a collection of 154 poems written by William Shakespeare between 1592 and 1598. They cover various themes and emotions. The majority of the sonnets were published together in 1609, but there are also six additional sonnets embedded within three of his plays. Additionally, a partial sonnet is found in the play Edward III.

Songs of Innocence and of Experience: 'Songs of Innocence and of Experience' is a collection of illustrated poems by William Blake created in 1789. Blake printed and illuminated a few initial copies himself, and later combined them with new poems in a volume titled 'Songs of Innocence and of Experience Shewing the Two Contrary States of the Human Soul'. Prior to this, Blake was a painter whose works included depictions of Oberon, Titania, and Puck dancing with fairies.

Duino Elegies: The 'Duino Elegies' are a collection of ten powerful poems written by Rainer Maria Rilke, a renowned German-language poet. He started writing them in 1912 while staying at Duino Castle, and dedicated them to Princess Marie von Thurn und Taxis upon their publication in 1923. Rilke faced long periods of depression during the ten-year writing process, often influenced by World War I and his military service. However, he completed the collection with renewed passion in February 1922 while residing in Switzerland. The 'Duino Elegies' quickly gained recognition as Rilke's most significant work.

Leaves of Grass: 'Leaves of Grass' is a renowned poetry collection by American poet Walt Whitman. It underwent multiple editions over four decades, with six or nine separate versions depending on categorization. Whitman passionately devoted much of his life to writing, revising, and expanding this collection until his death in 1892. The initial edition consisted of only twelve poems, while the final one encompassed an impressive compilation of over 400 poems.

The Raven: "The Raven" is a famous narrative poem by Edgar Allan Poe, published in January 1845. It is known for its musicality, stylized language, and eerie atmosphere. The poem tells the story of a heartbroken lover visited by a talking raven, symbolizing doom and despair. The raven's relentless repetition of the word "Nevermore" torments the protagonist. Throughout the poem, Poe incorporates various references from folklore, mythology, religion, and classical literature.

The Waste Land: 'The Waste Land' is a renowned 20th-century poem by T. S. Eliot. Considered a crucial piece of modernist poetry, it consists of 434 lines and was first published in 1922. Notable phrases from the poem include "April is the cruellest month," "I will show you fear in a handful of dust," and "These fragments I have shored against my ruins."

Music: Music is the arrangement of sounds to create form, harmony, melody, and rhythm. It is a cultural universal, but varies in definition across cultures. The creation of music involves composition, improvisation, and performance. It encompasses academic disciplines, criticism, philosophy, psychology, and therapy. Music can be performed using various instruments, including the human voice, making it versatile and creative.

Concert: A concert is a live music performance for an audience. It can be a solo recital or involve a musical ensemble like an orchestra or band. Concerts take place in various settings, from small clubs to large stadiums. They are also referred to as shows or gigs.

Choir: A choir is a group of singers who perform choral music. This music can be classical or popular, covering centuries of compositions. The choir is led by a conductor who directs the performances using gestures.

Music video: A music video is a short film produced to promote a song or album through visual representation. It serves as a marketing tool for music recordings and is primarily showcased on TV and streaming platforms like YouTube. It can also be released on home video formats. Various terms, such as "illustrated song" or "promo film," have been used to describe this format.

Music industry: The music industry is the complex network of individuals and organizations involved in creating, producing, performing, and selling music. It includes songwriters and composers, musicians, singers, record labels, music publishers, recording studios, music producers, live event organizers, and various support services. This industry encompasses all aspects of music creation, distribution, and live performances.

Musicology: Musicology is the study of music through scholarly analysis and research. It is primarily associated with the humanities but also intersects with social sciences. Musicologists are scholars who engage in musical research.

Orchestra: An orchestra is a large ensemble of instruments from various families, typically found in classical music. It consists of four main sections: bowed strings (violin, viola, cello, double bass), woodwinds (flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon), brass (horn, trumpet, trombone, cornet, euphonium, tuba), and percussion (timpani, snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, triangle, tambourine, tam-tam, mallet percussion).

Rapping: Rapping is a form of artistic vocal expression incorporating rhyme, rhythmic speech, and street vernacular. It is performed over musical accompaniment, distinguishing it from spoken-word poetry. Rap's key components are content, flow, and delivery. It differs from singing as it lacks pitch variation and often plays with vocal qualities like timbre. Rap is a vital element of hip hop music and is commonly referred to as "rap music."

Singing: Singing is the act of producing musical sounds with the voice. Singers, also known as singers, artists, or vocalists, perform music with or without musical accompaniment. They can perform solo or as part of a group like a choir. Singing encompasses various styles including opera, Chinese opera, Indian music, Greek music, Japanese music, religious music like gospel, traditional and world music, jazz, blues, and popular music genres like pop, rock, and electronic dance music.

Song: A song is a musical composition sung with distinct melodies and patterns of sound and silence. It may include repetition and variation of sections.

Musical notation: Musical notation is a visual system that represents music through symbols. It includes symbols for durations of silence and is used to play instruments or sing. Reading music is the process of decoding musical notation.

Music theory: Music theory is the study of music practices and possibilities. It has three main uses: understanding music notation, learning scholars' views on music throughout history, and defining processes and principles in music. Unlike music analysis, it focuses on the fundamental materials of music rather than individual works or performances.

Chord (music): A chord in music is a combination of multiple notes played together or almost together. It includes arpeggios and broken chords in the appropriate musical context.

Counterpoint: Counterpoint is the harmonically interconnected yet rhythmically and melodically independent relationship between multiple musical lines, commonly found in European classical music. It flourished during the Renaissance and Baroque periods. The term stems from the Latin phrase "note against note".

Harmony: Harmony in music is the combination of different sounds to create distinct musical ideas. It involves the effects created by different pitches coinciding with each other, categorized into chords, textures, and tonalities. Harmony encompasses both the frequency and time dimensions, overlapping with concepts like melody, timbre, and form.

Melody: A melody, also called a tune, voice, or line, is a sequence of musical tones that the listener perceives as a unified entity. It combines pitch and rhythm and can include tonal color. Melody is the main focus and is accompanied by background music.

Rhythm: Rhythm refers to the regulated succession of strong and weak elements or different conditions. It involves a regular recurrence or pattern in time, which can be seen in various natural phenomena with different periodicities ranging from microseconds to years.

Scale (music): A scale in music theory is a set of notes ordered by pitch. Ascending scales increase in pitch, while descending scales decrease in pitch.

Ballad: A ballad is a musical narrative poem that originated from the medieval French "dance songs." It was a popular form of poetry and song in Britain, Ireland, and across Europe from the Late Middle Ages until the 19th century. Ballads spread to various continents including Australia, North Africa, North America, and South America.

Lullaby: A lullaby is a soothing song played for children, with various purposes including passing down cultural knowledge and aiding sleep. Lullabies help develop communication skills, indicate emotional intent, maintain attention, regulate behavior, and modulate infants' arousal. They are simple and repetitive melodies found worldwide since ancient times.

National anthem: A national anthem is a patriotic musical composition symbolizing a country's history and traditions. Most national anthems are marches or hymns. Different regions have different musical styles, with American, Central Asian, and European nations favoring ornate and operatic pieces, and regions like the Middle East, Oceania, Africa, and the Caribbean using simpler fanfare. Some countries with multiple states have their own official anthems for each state, although they are not sovereign states.

Protest song: A protest song is a song linked to a movement for social change and falls under the category of topical songs. It can be folk, classical, or commercial music.

Christmas carol: A Christmas carol is a festive song sung during the Christmas season, often referred to as noel. It is a subset of Christmas music and carries the theme of Christmas.

Hymn: A hymn is a devotional song written for adoration or prayer, typically addressed to a deity or a prominent figure. The term comes from Greek ὕμνος, meaning "a song of praise." A writer of hymns is called a hymnist and the singing or composition of hymns is known as hymnody. Hymns can be found in collections called hymnals or hymn books, and may or may not include instrumental accompaniment.

Classical music: Classical music is Western art music known for its complexity and formality. It distinguishes from folk and popular music and can also refer to non-Western art music. It has a rich history since the ninth century, with a sophisticated notational system and extensive literature. Composers have greatly influenced its development, making classical music a foundational component of Western culture.

Aria: An aria is a standalone vocal piece in music, often accompanied by instruments, and is usually part of a larger composition.

Chamber music: Chamber music is a form of classical music composed for a small group of instruments suited for a palace chamber or large room. It encompasses art music performed by a small number of musicians, with one musician per part. It excludes solo instrument performances.

Concerto: A concerto is an instrumental composition from the late Baroque era, typically written for soloist(s) and accompanied by an orchestra or ensemble. It features a three-movement structure, with a slow movement between fast movements. The concerto's structure became standard in the early 18th century.

Fugue: A fugue is a contrapuntal technique in classical music, consisting of two or more voices. It is built on a subject that is introduced in imitation and recurs throughout the composition. Fugues typically have three sections: exposition, development, and a final entry with the subject in the tonic key. They may include episodes, stretto, and a recapitulation. Fugues were popular in the Baroque era and demonstrated mastery of harmony and tonality through counterpoint.

Opera: Opera is a theatrical art form where singers take on dramatic roles accompanied by music. It combines various performing arts, including acting, scenery, costume, and occasionally dance. Usually performed in an opera house, with an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble conducted by a conductor. It is distinct from musical theatre.

Sonata: A sonata is a piece played, not sung, in music. Its meaning has evolved throughout history and it represents a variety of forms. In the Classical era, it became an important principle for composing large-scale works. Sonata is a vague term with different meanings across time periods. It is considered one of two fundamental methods, alongside the fugue, for organizing and analyzing concert music. Despite changing musical styles, most modern sonatas maintain the same structure as those from the Classical era.

Symphony: A symphony is a lengthy musical composition typically performed by an orchestra. It consists of multiple distinct sections or movements, often with four, and begins with a sonata-form first movement. Symphonies are scored for a combination of string, brass, woodwind, and percussion instruments, played by 30 to 100 musicians. The musical score contains all the instrument parts, and some symphonies include vocal sections.

Medieval music: Medieval music refers to the sacred and secular music of Western Europe during the Middle Ages (6th-15th centuries). It is the first and longest era of Western classical music, divided into Early, High, and Late medieval periods. Considered part of early music, it preceded the common practice period and was followed by Renaissance music.

Gregorian chant: Gregorian chant is a sacred song in Latin of the Roman Catholic Church. It developed in Europe during the 9th and 10th centuries by combining Old Roman and Gallican chants. Although often attributed to Pope Gregory I, scholars believe it emerged from a Carolingian synthesis. It is a monophonic and unaccompanied form of plainchant.

Renaissance music: Renaissance music refers to European music from the 15th and 16th centuries. It marks a shift from Medieval to Baroque styles, emphasizing triadic harmony and the contenance angloise influence. This period's end is often linked to the introduction of basso continuo in the Baroque era.

Baroque music: Baroque music refers to the dominant style of Western classical music from about 1600 to 1750. It followed the Renaissance period and preceded the Classical period. The Baroque period is divided into three phases: early, middle, and late. Baroque music is a major part of the classical music canon and is well-studied, performed, and appreciated. The term "baroque" comes from the Portuguese word for "misshapen pearl." Notable composers of the Baroque era include Vivaldi, Handel, and Bach, as well as Monteverdi, Scarlatti, Pachelbel, and Purcell, among others.

Classical period (music): The Classical period in music spanned from around 1750 to 1820. It was characterized by balanced compositions, clarity of form, and refined melodies. Notable composers during this period include Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven.

Romantic music: Romantic music refers to a style of Western classical music that emerged during the 19th century, known as the Romantic era. It is intricately linked to the broader artistic and intellectual movement of Romanticism, which prevailed in Western culture from approximately 1798 to 1837.

20th-century classical music: 20th-century classical music refers to art music composed between 1901 and 2000. This period lacked a dominant style, with various styles like modernism, impressionism, and post-romanticism emerging. Neoclassicism and expressionism also became prominent. Minimalism marked a shift towards postmodernism. Significant developments in this era include aleatory, atonality, serialism, musique concrète, electronic music, and concept music. Additionally, jazz and ethnic folk music greatly influenced composers during this time.

Contemporary classical music: Contemporary classical music refers to Western art music created in recent times. It encompasses various styles such as post-tonal, serial, electronic, experimental, minimalist, spectral, and post-minimalist. It emerged after the death of Anton Webern in 1945 and continues to evolve in the 21st century.

Disco: Disco emerged in the 1970s as a dance music genre and subculture in the US, characterized by four-on-the-floor beats, syncopated basslines, various instruments like string sections, brass, horns, electric piano, synthesizers, and electric rhythm guitars.

Funk: Funk is a rhythmic and danceable music genre that started in African-American communities during the mid-1960s. It blends various popular African-American music styles, emphasizing groove over melody. Funk relies on a strong bassline and percussion to create a hypnotic and dance-friendly feel. It incorporates complex percussive grooves, using extended chords similar to bebop jazz.

Pop music: Pop music is a popular genre that emerged in the mid-1950s in the US and UK. It started as a fusion of rock and roll and youth-oriented styles. In the late 1960s, it became more commercial, ephemeral, and easily accessible.

Reggae: Reggae is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1960s. It incorporates traditional mento, American jazz, and rhythm and blues influences. The term "reggae" was first popularized by Toots and the Maytals' 1968 single "Do the Reggay." It is known for its recognizable offbeat rhythm, the interplay between bass and drums, and its lyrical focus on news, social gossip, and political commentary. Reggae evolved from earlier genres like ska and rocksteady, incorporating the use of the bass as a percussion instrument.

Salsa music: Salsa music is a Latin American style that combines Cuban, Puerto Rican, and American influences. It incorporates various genres like son montuno, son cubano, guaracha, cha-cha-chá, danzón, descarga, bolero, guajira, rumba, mambo, jazz, funk, R&B, rock, bomba, and plena, all adapted to fit the basic Son montuno template within the context of salsa. Its origin has sparked controversies due to its incorporation of pre-existing musical components.

Samba: Samba is a diverse genre of rhythmic music with various styles, including samba urbano carioca and samba de roda. It is recognized as part of UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage. Originating mostly in Rio de Janeiro and Bahia, Brazil, it encompasses many forms and rhythms.

Blues: Blues is a music genre that originated in the Deep South of the United States in the 1860s. It incorporates various elements from African-American culture, such as spirituals, work songs, chants, and rhymed ballads. The blues form is found in jazz, rhythm and blues, and rock and roll, characterized by call-and-response patterns, the blues scale, and specific chord progressions like the twelve-bar blues. Blue notes, flattened thirds, fifths, or sevenths, are crucial for its sound. The presence of blues shuffles and walking bass creates a trance-like rhythm known as the groove.

Rhythm and blues: Rhythm and blues (R&B) is a genre of popular music that emerged in African-American communities in the 1940s. Originally marketed to African Americans, it encompassed rocking, jazz-infused music with a strong beat. In the 1950s to 1970s, R&B music commonly featured bands with instruments like piano, guitar, bass, and saxophone. The lyrics of R&B songs often reflect the African-American history, addressing themes of pain, freedom, joy, racism, oppression, relationships, and aspirations.

Soul music: Soul music is a popular genre originating in the late 1950s from African American gospel and rhythm and blues. It gained popularity for both dancing and listening, with influential record labels like Motown, Atlantic, and Stax during the Civil Rights Movement. Soul music went global, impacting rock music and African music. A resurgence in the late 1990s brought about neo-soul, adding modern production and hip-hop influences.

Electronic music: Electronic music is a genre that uses electronic instruments and technology to create sound. It includes both purely electronic instruments and those with mechanical components. Examples range from synthesizers and theremins to electric guitars and pianos.

Country music: Country music is a genre from the Southern and Southwestern US. It emerged in the 1920s and showcases themes of working class Americans and their lives.

Folk music: Folk music is a genre that blends traditional and contemporary styles. It encompasses music transmitted orally, with unknown composers, played on traditional instruments, and related to cultural identity. It contrasts with commercial and classical styles and has roots dating back to the 19th century. The term is broad and includes world music.

Hip hop music: Hip hop music, also known as rap, originated in the early 1970s among African Americans and Caribbean immigrants in the Bronx, New York City. It started as an anti-drug and anti-violence genre, featuring rhythmic music and poetic speech known as rapping. Hip hop is part of a broader subculture that includes MCing/rapping, DJing/scratching, breakdancing, and graffiti art. While often associated with rapping, hip hop encompasses various elements such as DJing, turntablism, beatboxing, and instrumental tracks.

Jazz: Jazz is a music genre that started in African-American communities of New Orleans in the late 19th century. It combines elements of blues and ragtime with swing, blue notes, complex chords, call and response vocals, polyrhythms, and improvisation. Jazz has roots in both European harmony and African rhythmic traditions. Since the 1920s, it has become a significant form of musical expression in traditional and popular music.

Bossa nova: Bossa nova is a relaxed style of samba that originated in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in the 1950s and 1960s. It introduced unconventional chords and syncopation to traditional samba, creating a unique rhythm. Although it is not an autonomous genre, the bossa nova beat had a global impact and helped modernize Brazilian music.

Ragtime: Ragtime is a popular musical style from the late 19th to early 20th century known for its syncopated rhythm. It reached its peak between the 1890s and 1910s and was popularized by composers like Scott Joplin. Ragtime music is typically performed on piano but has been adapted for various instruments and styles.

Rock music: Rock is a popular genre of music that originated as rock and roll in the late 1940s and early 1950s. It developed into various styles in the mid-1960s, influenced by blues, rhythm and blues, country, electric blues, and folk. Rock is typically centered around the electric guitar and is song-based, often following a 4/4 time signature and verse-chorus structure. The genre incorporates influences from jazz, classical, and other styles. Rock lyrics cover a wide range of themes, including romantic love and social or political issues. It was the most popular genre in the US and Western world from the 1950s to the 2010s.

Heavy metal music: Heavy metal is a rock music genre that emerged in the late 1960s, primarily in the UK and US. It combines elements of blues rock, psychedelic rock, and acid rock. Heavy metal bands distinguish themselves with a powerful sound featuring distorted guitars, extended guitar solos, strong beats, and high volume.

Punk rock: Punk rock is a genre that emerged in the mid-1970s, influenced by 1950s rock and roll and 1960s garage rock. It rejects mainstream corporate rock, featuring short, fast-paced songs and stripped-down instrumentation. Punk lyrics focus on anti-establishment themes. The genre showcases a DIY ethic with self-production and distribution through independent labels.

Rock and roll: Rock and roll is a popular music genre that emerged in the United States in the late 1940s and early 1950s. It draws influence from African-American music like jazz, blues, gospel, and country. The genre's name was not established until 1954, although its roots can be traced back to earlier blues and country records.

Sub-Saharan African music traditions: Sub-Saharan African music traditions serve a purpose beyond entertainment, playing a significant role in daily routines and community life. They provide music and dance for various occasions, including work, religious ceremonies, and key life events like birth, marriage, and funerals. The drums are not only used for communication but also serve as a means of cultural expression.

Arabic music: Arabic music encompasses diverse styles and genres found throughout the Arab world. Each country and region has its own distinct traditional music, reflecting the rich and varied musical heritage. This music is influenced by the linguistic dialects and cultures of the Arab countries, resulting in a vibrant and unique musical tradition.

Music of China: The music of China encompasses diverse traditions originating from ethnic groups, both within and outside the country. It incorporates traditional classical and folk genres, as well as popular music influenced by Western culture. Chinese music theory, traditional instruments, and languages are integral to its production and expression.

Indian classical music: Indian classical music is the traditional music of the Indian subcontinent, with two major traditions: Hindustani in the North and Carnatic in the South. These traditions were unified until the 15th century when they became distinct. Hindustani music emphasizes improvisation and exploring ragas, while Carnatic music tends to be composition-based. Despite their differences, they also share common features. Additionally, Odissi music is another unique classical tradition from the Eastern part of India, originating thousands of years ago.

Gamelan: Gamelan is traditional Indonesian ensemble music played by Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese people. It consists mostly of percussive instruments including metallophones and hand-drums called kendang. Other common instruments are the kemanak, gangsa, xylophones, bamboo flutes, a bowed string instrument called a rebab, and a zither-like instrument called a siter. Vocalists, known as sindhen or gerong, are also featured.

Musical instrument: A musical instrument is a device that creates musical sounds. It can be any object that produces sound with the purpose of making music. Those who play musical instruments are known as instrumentalists. Musical instruments have been used since the beginning of human culture, initially for rituals and later for entertainment. They have evolved alongside changing applications and technologies.

Electronic musical instrument: An electronic musical instrument, also known as an electrophone, uses electronic circuitry to produce sound. It generates an electrical or digital audio signal which is then amplified and played through loudspeakers.

Synthesizer: A synthesizer is an electronic instrument that produces sound waves in various ways, such as subtractive and additive synthesis. It can modify sounds using filters, envelopes, and low-frequency oscillators. They are played with keyboards or controlled by sequencers and software, and can be synchronized with other equipment via MIDI.

Keyboard instrument: A keyboard instrument is a musical device operated by pressing levers with fingers. Examples include piano, organ, synthesizers, and digital pianos. Other types are celestas and carillons, offering unique sounds and methods of operation.

Accordion: The accordion is a box-shaped musical instrument with a bellows that is played with both hands. It combines a melody section on the right side and accompaniment functionality on the left side. The musician plays the melody using buttons or keys on the right and uses bass or chord buttons on the left for accompaniment. Someone who plays the accordion is called an accordionist.

Harpsichord: A harpsichord is a keyboard instrument that plucks strings using levers activated by the keys. It has a soundboard mounted in a wooden case to amplify vibrations. Harpsichords can have multiple keyboards and a pedal board. Some also include stop buttons for additional octaves and a buff stop to mute the strings for a lute-like sound.

Piano: The piano is a keyboard instrument with 88 black and white keys. It can play 88 different pitches in a range of over seven octaves. This includes keys for the C major scale and "accidentals" for playing in all twelve keys.

Pipe organ: A pipe organ is a musical instrument that uses pressurized air to produce sound through a selection of organ pipes. It consists of different sets of pipes called ranks, each with a consistent timbre, volume, and construction across the keyboard. With controls called stops, players can use various ranks of pipes with different pitch, timbre, and volume in combination or individually.

Percussion instrument: A percussion instrument is struck or scraped to produce sound. It includes a variety of instruments such as drums, rattles, and beaters. Percussion instruments are considered to be the oldest musical instruments in history. They can be categorized into idiophones, membranophones, aerophones, and cordophones.

Bell: A bell is a percussion instrument shaped like a hollow cup that produces a single strong tone when struck. It can be struck by a clapper, hammer, or small loose sphere inside. Its shape allows for efficient resonance.

Cymbal: A cymbal is a common percussion instrument made of thin round plates of various alloys. It is often used in pairs and can produce indefinite or definite pitches. Cymbals are widely used in a variety of musical ensembles including orchestras, percussion ensembles, jazz and heavy metal bands, and marching groups. Drum kits typically include crash, ride, or crash/ride cymbals, as well as a pair of hi-hat cymbals. A person who plays cymbals is called a cymbalist.

Djembe: The djembe is a goblet drum originating from West Africa. It is played with bare hands and has a skin-covered surface. The name "djembe" signifies the drum's purpose of bringing people together in peace, with "djé" meaning "gather" and "bé" meaning "peace" in the Bambara language.

Drum: A drum is a percussion instrument with a stretched membrane called a drumhead that is struck with hands or mallets to produce sound. It is the world's oldest and most common musical instrument, remaining largely unchanged for thousands of years.

Xylophone: The xylophone is a percussion instrument with wooden bars that are struck by mallets. It resembles a keyboard and each bar is tuned to a musical pitch. Its scale can be pentatonic, heptatonic, diatonic, or chromatic depending on the style and cultural influence.

String instrument: String instruments, also known as chordophones, produce sound by vibrating strings when played or sounded by a performer.

Bass guitar: The bass guitar is a low-pitched member of the guitar family. It looks like an electric or acoustic guitar but has a longer neck and scale length. It usually has four to six strings and is often used in popular music instead of the double bass. The bass guitar is favored for its lighter weight, use of frets, and design for electric amplification.

Cello: The cello, also known as the violoncello, is a string instrument in the violin family. It is played with a bow, sometimes plucked or hit. Its four strings are tuned in perfect fifths: C2, G2, D3, and A3. Cello music is typically written in the bass clef, with occasional use of the tenor and treble clefs for higher-range passages.

Double bass: The double bass, also called upright bass, is the largest and lowest-pitched instrument in the symphony orchestra. It resembles the cello and has four or five strings.

Electric guitar: An electric guitar is a musical instrument that relies on amplification to produce sound. It uses pickups to convert string vibrations into electrical signals, which are then played through speakers. The guitar's sound can be modified through amplifier settings, knobs, and effects like reverb and distortion. Electric guitars are popular in various music genres, including blues, jazz, rock, and heavy metal. Some designs combine features of electric and acoustic guitars, such as semi-acoustic and acoustic-electric models.

Guitar: A guitar is a stringed instrument with usually six or twelve fretted strings. It is played by strumming or plucking the strings with one hand while pressing selected strings against frets with the other hand. The guitar can produce sound acoustically or can be amplified electronically.

Harp: The harp is a triangular-shaped stringed musical instrument made of wood. It has individual strings that are plucked with the fingers and can be played in different positions and settings. Some harps have multiple rows of strings and pedal attachments.

Lute: A lute is a plucked string instrument with a neck, round back, and hollow cavity. It can be fretted or unfretted.

Lyre: A lyre is a stringed musical instrument in the lute family. It is classified as a yoke lute and has strings attached to a yoke that lies in the same plane as the sound table. It consists of two arms and a crossbar.

Mandolin: A mandolin is a plucked string instrument in the lute family, with four pairs of strings. It is commonly tuned in perfect fifths like a violin. Steel strings are most commonly used. It is part of a family of instruments that includes the mandola, octave mandolin, mandocello, and mandobass.

Viola: The viola is a string instrument that is larger than a violin and produces a lower sound. It has been the middle voice of the violin family since the 18th century. The viola is usually tuned to C3, G3, D4, and A4.

Violin: The violin, also known as a fiddle, is the smallest and highest-pitched instrument in the violin family. It has a hollow wooden body, four strings (tuned in perfect fifths), and is played by drawing a bow across the strings. It can also be plucked (pizzicato) or struck with the wooden side of the bow.

Wind instrument: A wind instrument is a musical instrument where air is blown by the player into a resonator causing vibration. The pitch is determined by the length of the tube and manual adjustments. Sound is produced by blowing through a reed, buzzing into a metal mouthpiece, or blowing through a hole at an edge.

Bagpipes: Bagpipes are a type of woodwind instrument that use enclosed reeds and a bag to provide a continuous source of air. They have been played for centuries in various regions including Europe, Africa, Asia, and South Asia. The Great Highland bagpipes are particularly famous.

Brass instrument: A brass instrument is a musical device that produces sound through the vibrating lips of the player, creating resonance in a tube. They are known as labrosones or labrophones, derived from Latin and Greek words meaning 'lip' and 'sound.'

Horn (instrument): A horn is a musical instrument made of a curved metal tube. It has a narrow end for the musician to blow into and a wide end for sound to come out. Unlike some other brass instruments, the horn has a conical shape that gradually widens. In jazz and popular music, "horn" is sometimes used to refer to any wind instrument. A group of brass or woodwind instruments is called a horn section.

Trombone: The trombone is a brass instrument that produces sound when the player's vibrating lips create vibrations in the instrument's air column. It uses a slide mechanism to change the pitch rather than valves. However, the valve trombone and superbone deviate from this design by incorporating valves in addition to the slide.

Trumpet: The trumpet is a brass instrument used in classical and jazz ensembles. It has various types with different pitch ranges, from the highest piccolo trumpet to the lowest bass trumpet.

Tuba: The tuba is a large and deep-sounding brass instrument that uses lip vibration to produce sound. It emerged in the mid-19th century and replaced the ophicleide, becoming an essential part of modern orchestra and concert bands. The word "tuba" comes from Latin and means "trumpet."

Harmonica: The harmonica, also known as a French harp or mouth organ, is a wind instrument used worldwide in various musical genres. It comes in different types, including diatonic, chromatic, tremolo, octave, orchestral, and bass versions. Using the mouth to direct air, the player produces sound by vibrating a reed inside a chamber behind each hole. The most common type is the diatonic Richter-tuned harmonica with ten air passages and twenty reeds, often called the blues harp.

Woodwind instrument: Woodwind instruments are a family of musical instruments that produce sound by splitting air blown into them on a sharp edge, like a reed or a fipple. They include flutes, clarinets, oboes, bassoons, and saxophones. Contrary to their name, woodwinds can be made from various materials, including wood, brass, silver, and cane. The saxophone, for instance, is made of brass but is classified as a woodwind because it needs a reed. Some woodwinds are even crafted from earthen materials like ocarinas.

Bassoon: The bassoon is a woodwind instrument known for its distinctive tone color, wide range, versatility, and virtuosity. It is played in the tenor and bass ranges and is typically made of wood. There are two modern forms: Buffet and Heckel systems. The bassoon is played while sitting using a seat strap and sound is produced by blowing air pressure on the reed. It appears in orchestral, concert band, and chamber music literature, and is occasionally heard in popular music. A player of the bassoon is called a bassoonist.

Clarinet: The clarinet is a cylindrical woodwind instrument with a flared bell and a single reed.

Flute: The flute is a woodwind instrument that produces sound with a vibrating column of air. Unlike reed instruments, it produces sound when air flows across an opening. Flutes are classified as edge-blown aerophones and a person who plays the flute is called a flautist or flutist.

Pan flute: A pan flute is a closed tube instrument with multiple pipes of various lengths. It is commonly made from bamboo or reeds and has been widely used as a folk instrument. Other materials such as wood, plastic, metal, and ivory are also occasionally used.

Recorder (musical instrument): The recorder is a woodwind instrument with a whistle mouthpiece and is part of the internal duct flute family. It has a thumb-hole and seven finger-holes, making it distinct from other flutes. The recorder is widely used in western classical music.

Western concert flute: The Western concert flute is a popular woodwind instrument made of metal or wood. It is played sideways and is the most common type of flute. In British English, a flute player is called a "flautist," while in American English they are called a "flutist."

Oboe: The oboe is a woodwind instrument with a double reed. It is commonly made of wood but can also be made from synthetic materials like plastic or resin.

Saxophone: The saxophone is a single-reed woodwind instrument with a conical brass body. It produces sound when a reed vibrates on a mouthpiece, and pitch is controlled by opening and closing holes to change tube length. Leather pads attached to keys operated by the player close the holes. Saxophones come in different sizes and are typically transposing instruments. Players are called saxophonists.

Brandenburg Concertos: The Brandenburg Concertos are a renowned collection of six instrumental works composed by Johann Sebastian Bach in 1721. They were presented by Bach to Christian Ludwig, Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt. These concertos, also known as Six Concerts à plusieurs instruments, showcase various combinations of solo instruments. Considered among the finest orchestral compositions of the Baroque era, they are highly regarded.

The Four Seasons(Vivaldi): The Four Seasons by Antonio Vivaldi is a set of four violin concerti written around 1718-1720. Each concerto represents a different season of the year. Vivaldi composed these pieces while he was the court chapel master in Mantua. They were later published in 1725 in Amsterdam, along with eight more concerti, under the title Il cimento dell'armonia e dell'inventione.

Mass in B minor: The Mass in B minor by Johann Sebastian Bach is an extensive composition of the Mass ordinary. It was completed in 1749, a year before the composer's death, and incorporates earlier work Bach had composed. Notably, the "Et incarnatus est" part of the Credo was specifically created to complete the Mass in the late 1740s.

Messiah(Handel): 'Messiah' is an English oratorio composed by Handel in 1741, with a libretto compiled from the King James Bible and the Coverdale Psalter. It premiered in Dublin in 1742 and gained popularity over time, becoming one of the most well-known and frequently performed choral works in Western music.

The Well-Tempered Clavier: The Well-Tempered Clavier is a collection of 24 preludes and fugues composed by Johann Sebastian Bach for keyboard instruments like the harpsichord and clavichord. It includes all major and minor keys and was written during Bach's time. The term "clavier" refers to different stringed keyboard instruments. The collection is not limited to the organ.

Piano sonatas (Beethoven): Ludwig van Beethoven composed 32 influential piano sonatas from 1795 to 1822. Considered a significant collection of works, they hold great importance in the history of music. These sonatas have been compared to "The New Testament" of piano literature by Hans von Bülow.

Symphony No. 3 (Beethoven): Symphony No. 3 is a significant composition by Ludwig van Beethoven. It is written in E♭ major and consists of four powerful movements.

Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven): Beethoven's Symphony No. 5, also known as the Fate Symphony, is a renowned classical composition. Composed between 1804 and 1808, it is widely considered a cornerstone of western music. The symphony is famous for its four movements and was first performed in Vienna in 1808. E. T. A. Hoffmann described it as one of the most important works of its time.

Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven): Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125, is a choral symphony and his final complete symphony. Composed between 1822 and 1824, it premiered in Vienna on 7 May 1824. Considered a masterpiece of Western classical music, it is highly acclaimed by critics and musicologists. Known for its significance in the history of music, it is one of the most frequently performed symphonies globally.

Symphony No. 41 (Mozart): Symphony No. 41, also known as the Jupiter Symphony, is the final and longest symphony composed by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Completed on August 10, 1788, in the key of C major (K. 551), it is widely regarded as one of the greatest symphonies in classical music. The nickname "Jupiter Symphony" was likely given by Johann Peter Salomon, an impresario.

Nocturnes (Chopin): The Nocturnes by Chopin are a collection of 21 solo piano pieces composed between 1827 and 1846. Widely regarded as exceptional short works for the piano, they are significant in modern concert performances. Despite not being the originator, Chopin popularized and advanced the genre, building upon the foundation established by John Field, an Irish composer.

Symphony No. 2 (Mahler): Symphony No. 2, also known as the Resurrection Symphony, is a major work by Gustav Mahler. It was written between 1888 and 1894 and premiered in 1895. This symphony became one of Mahler's most popular and successful compositions. It explores themes of afterlife and resurrection, establishing the composer's lifelong perspective on beauty. The symphony showcases Mahler's innovative use of "sound of the distance" and creates a distinct musical world. With a duration of 80 to 90 minutes, it is conventionally considered to be in C minor, although it incorporates tonalities of C minor–E♭ major. In a survey of conductors by BBC Music Magazine, it was ranked as the fifth-greatest symphony of all time.

La bohème: 'La bohème' is an opera composed by Giacomo Puccini in the late 19th century. It tells the story of a group of poverty-stricken artists and a seamstress living in Paris during the 1830s. The opera captures the Bohemian lifestyle through their struggles and relationships.

Carmen: Carmen is a renowned French opera composed by Georges Bizet. It tells the story of a captivating gypsy named Carmen, based on a novella by Prosper Mérimée. Despite its initial shock to audiences, it gained international acclaim within a decade. Bizet, unfortunately, passed away after the 33rd performance. Carmen remains popular and frequently performed, with standout arias like the "Habanera" and the "Toreador Song."

Don Giovanni: Don Giovanni is a two-act opera composed by Mozart with a libretto by Da Ponte. It is based on a Spanish legend and combines comedy, melodrama, and supernatural elements. Premiered in 1787, it is considered one of Mozart's greatest operas. Critics praise its timeless beauty and its collaboration with Da Ponte as one of Mozart's masterpieces.

The Magic Flute: "The Magic Flute" is a popular opera written by Mozart that premiered in 1791. It is a Singspiel, combining singing and spoken dialogue. The opera continues to be performed and was followed by two sequels. The libretto for a fragmentary second part of the opera was written by Goethe.

The Marriage of Figaro: 'The Marriage of Figaro' is an opera composed by Mozart in 1786. It is based on a comedy by Beaumarchais and tells the story of Figaro and Susanna, two servants who outsmart their employer, Count Almaviva, to get married. The opera explores themes of love, fidelity, and class struggle.

Der Ring des Nibelungen: Der Ring des Nibelungen is a cycle of four epic music dramas composed by Richard Wagner. It is based on Germanic heroic legends and is commonly known as the Ring cycle. The works are structured as a "Bühnenfestspiel," with three days of performances preceded by a Vorabend. They incorporate characters from Norse sagas and the Nibelungenlied.

La traviata: La traviata is an opera by Giuseppe Verdi, based on the novel La Dame aux camélias. It was originally titled Violetta and debuted in 1853 at La Fenice opera house in Venice.

Tristan und Isolde: "Tristan und Isolde" is a three-act opera composed by Richard Wagner and based on the 12th-century romance by Gottfried von Strassburg. Premiered in 1865, it is known for its passionate storyline and complex characters. Wagner referred to it as "eine Handlung" rather than an opera.

The Nutcracker: The Nutcracker is a classical ballet composed by Tchaikovsky in 1892. It is based on a Christmas Eve story set around a child's imagination and the adaptation of Hoffmann's short story. The ballet was choreographed by Marius Petipa with assistance from Lev Ivanov. While the complete ballet was not as successful as the Nutcracker Suite, the ballet soon gained popularity.

The Rite of Spring: 'The Rite of Spring' is a groundbreaking ballet and orchestral piece composed by Igor Stravinsky for the 1913 Paris season of the Ballets Russes. It features avant-garde music and choreography by Vaslav Nijinsky, causing a sensation during its first performance. The piece gained fame both as a stage work and a concert piece, becoming one of the most influential musical compositions of the 20th century.

Swan Lake: Swan Lake is a famous ballet by Tchaikovsky, composed in 1875-76. Initially unsuccessful, it has become one of the most beloved and well-known ballets worldwide.

The Phantom of the Opera(1986 musical): "The Phantom of the Opera" is a musical by Andrew Lloyd Webber, Charles Hart, and Richard Stilgoe. It is based on a French novel by Gaston Leroux. The story revolves around Christine Daaé, a talented soprano, who becomes the object of obsession for a masked musical genius living beneath the Paris Opéra House.

West Side Story: 'West Side Story' is a musical created by Jerome Robbins, with music by Leonard Bernstein, lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, and a book by Arthur Laurents. It is a renowned production that combines music, dance, and storytelling to depict a modern Romeo and Juliet set in 1950s New York City.

Respect (song): "Respect" is a popular song by Otis Redding, released in 1965 from his album Otis Blue. It achieved significant success, serving as a crossover hit for Redding.

Kind of Blue: 'Kind of Blue' is the 1959 studio album by jazz musician Miles Davis, released by Columbia Records. It features Davis leading a sextet including John Coltrane and Julian "Cannonball" Adderley on saxophone, Bill Evans and Wynton Kelly on piano, Paul Chambers on bass, and Jimmy Cobb on drums. Recorded in New York City, the album showcases Davis's innovative compositions and improvisational style, becoming one of the most influential and best-selling jazz albums of all time.

Rhapsody in Blue: 'Rhapsody in Blue' is a famous 1924 musical composition by George Gershwin for solo piano and jazz band. It combines classical and jazz elements and was commissioned by Paul Whiteman for an experimental concert. The piece premiered in New York City with Gershwin on piano, and it was orchestrated by Ferde Grofé several times, including versions for pit orchestra and symphony.

Thriller(album): Thriller is Michael Jackson's sixth studio album, released in 1982. Produced by Quincy Jones, it showcases a blend of pop, post-disco, rock, funk, synth-pop, and R&B sounds. Thriller marked a shift in Jackson's musical direction and introduced themes of paranoia and darkness. Notably, it includes "The Girl Is Mine" featuring Paul McCartney, making it the first album to credit a featured artist. Recorded in Los Angeles over seven months, the album had a budget of $750,000.

Heartbreak Hotel: "Heartbreak Hotel" is a song recorded by Elvis Presley and released as his first single under RCA Victor. Inspired by a newspaper article about a lonely man's suicide, the song was presented to Presley by Mae Boren Axton in November 1955. It was recorded on January 10, 1956, featuring a blues progression and heavy reverberation to imitate Presley's earlier Sun recordings.

Like a Rolling Stone: "Like a Rolling Stone" is a song released in July 1965 by Bob Dylan. It features confrontational lyrics that originated from a draft Dylan wrote after returning from an exhausting tour. The song was recorded a few weeks later as part of the sessions for the album Highway 61 Revisited.

Johnny B. Goode: "Johnny B. Goode" is a popular song released in 1958 by Chuck Berry. It reached number two on the Hot R&B Sides chart and remains a significant track in early and later rock music.

Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band: 'Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band' is the eighth studio album by the Beatles, released in May 1967. Considered an early concept album, it pushed the boundaries of sound composition, extended form, psychedelic imagery, and album art. It had a significant impact on multiple generations and was associated with various aspects of youth culture like fashion, drugs, mysticism, and optimism. Critics praised its innovative songwriting, production, and graphic design, as well as its ability to bridge the gap between popular music and high art, reflecting the interests of contemporary youth and counterculture.

Performing arts: Performing arts include music, dance, and drama, performed live for an audience. It is distinct from visual arts, which create physical art objects. The disciplines of performing arts encompass theatre, music, and dance, presented in front of a live audience.

Acting: Acting is the activity of portraying a character in a story through enactment, commonly seen in theater, television, film, radio, or similar mediums. It involves an actor adopting a role to communicate the narrative using the mimetic mode.

Audience: An audience is a group of people who engage with various forms of art, literature, music, and academics. Depending on the medium, audience members participate differently, ranging from active participation to limited interaction like applause and critique.

Costume: Costume is the unique attire or appearance of a person or group that represents their class, gender, profession, ethnicity, nationality, activity, or era. It is a visual representation of a culture.

Stage (theatre): The stage in theater is a designated space for performances. It serves as a focal point for the audience and provides a space for actors or performers. It may be a platform or series of platforms, often permanent in dedicated theaters.

Mime artist: A mime artist, also known as a mime, is a performer who uses the art of mime to tell stories through body movements without speaking. It is a theatrical medium and performance art that originated from mummers. Miming is distinct from silent comedy, where the artist is a character without sound in films or skits.

Performance art: Performance art is an art form where artists or participants create and execute actions as their artworks. It can be witnessed live or through documentation and is typically presented to the public in a fine art context. Also called artistic action, it has played a significant role in avant-garde art of the 20th century.

Performance poetry: Performance poetry refers to poetry that is created and performed specifically for an audience. It encompasses various styles and genres and emerged during the 1980s as a term to describe poetry intended for live performance instead of print distribution. It often allows for improvisation during the performance.

Circus: A circus is a group of performers who put on entertainment shows with various acts such as clowns, acrobats, trained animals, musicians, and magicians. It is also a field of performance and training with a history of 250 years. Philip Astley, born in Newcastle-under-Lyme, is credited as the father of the modern circus.

Acrobatics: Acrobatics is the performance of balance, agility, and coordination skills. It is used in various art forms, sports, and martial arts. Acro dance, circus, gymnastics, and freerunning are the most common forms. It is also used in ballet, slacklining, and diving. It is related to aerobatics as well.

Clown: A clown is a person who performs comedy and arts while wearing distinctive makeup and costumes. They can be found in circuses, theaters, and folklore, and have played significant roles in various cultures throughout history. Clowns elicit a range of emotions and have evolved alongside changing cultural norms and artistic expressions.

Dance: Dance is an art form that involves body movements with aesthetic and symbolic value, often considered a sport. It can be categorized by choreography, repertoire, historical period, or place of origin. Dance is usually performed with music, sometimes with the dancer also using a musical instrument.

Choreography: Choreography is the art of designing sequences of movements for physical bodies, often associated with dance. It involves specifying motion or form or both. A choreographer is the creator of these sequences, and the process is known as choreographing.

Hip hop dance: Hip hop dance is a collection of street dance styles originating from hip hop culture. It is performed primarily to hip hop music and has evolved from various styles developed in the 1970s. The dance gained widespread recognition through popular television shows and movies in the 1980s.

Ballet: Ballet is an influential and highly technical form of performance dance that originated during the Italian Renaissance. It later developed into a concert dance form in France and Russia, and has since become widespread globally. Ballet is known for its own vocabulary and foundational techniques, which have influenced many other dance genres and cultures. Various schools around the world have incorporated their own cultures, resulting in the evolution of ballet in distinct ways.

Ballroom dance: Ballroom dance refers to a collection of partner dances that originated in Europe. It is popular worldwide, enjoyed socially and competitively due to its entertaining and performance-oriented nature. Additionally, ballroom dancing is widely showcased on stage, in films, and television.

Tango: Tango is a partner dance that originated in the 1880s along the Río de la Plata. It emerged from a blend of Argentine Milonga, Spanish-Cuban Habanera, and Uruguayan Candombe. Initially popular in the impoverished port areas of Argentina and Uruguay, it was often performed in brothels and bars. The dance eventually spread globally and now has many variations.

Waltz: The waltz is a ballroom and folk dance that involves rolling or revolving movements. It is typically performed in closed position and follows a triple rhythm.

Folk dance: A folk dance is a traditional dance reflecting the life of people in a specific country or region. It excludes ritual dances that have religious significance.

Belly dance: Belly dance is a Middle Eastern dance that originated in Egypt. It involves expressive movements of the hips and torso and is one of the oldest forms of dance. It has evolved into various styles and costumes, with Egyptian forms being the most recognized globally due to Egyptian cinema. Belly dancing is popular worldwide, practiced in many schools.

Bharatanatyam: Bharatanatyam is a traditional Indian dance form from Tamil Nadu, expressing religious and spiritual themes mainly from Shaivism and Hinduism. It is one of the nine recognized Indian classical dance forms.

Bolero: Bolero is a genre of song that originated in eastern Cuba in the late 19th century. It is unrelated to the Spanish dance of the same name, but shares its sophisticated lyrics focused on love. Considered the quintessential Latin American romantic song of the 20th century.

Flamenco: Flamenco is a unique art form originating from southern Spain, with influences from the gitano subculture. It encompasses various traditional and contemporary musical styles typical of the region. The Romani people, specifically the gitanos, have played a significant role in its development and professionalization. Both gitano and non-gitano Spaniards have contributed to the distinct Andalusian style of flamenco.

Modern dance: Modern dance is a diverse form of dance that emerged in Europe and the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It combines various dance styles, including ballet, folk, ethnic, religious, and social dancing. Modern dance developed as a rejection of classical ballet and as a means to address social issues such as socioeconomic and cultural factors.

Jazz dance: Jazz dance is a performance dance style that emerged in the USA in the mid-20th century. It encompasses vernacular jazz, Broadway, and dramatic jazz. It draws from African American vernacular dance forms like ragtime, Charleston, Lindy hop, and mambo. Important jazz dance figures include The Whitman Sisters, Florence Mills, Ethel Waters, Al Minns, Leon James, Frankie Manning, Norma Miller, Dawn Hampton, and Katherine Dunham. Jack Cole, Bob Fosse, Eugene Louis Faccuito, and Gus Giordano played significant roles in promoting dramatic jazz dance on stage.

Magic (illusion): Magic, an ancient performing art, includes illusion, stage magic, and close-up magic. It captivates audiences with seemingly impossible tricks and effects using natural methods, distinguishing it from paranormal magic that claims supernatural origins.

Professional wrestling: Professional wrestling is a theater form centered on mock combat in a squared ring. Performers are portrayed as competitive wrestlers engaged in interpersonal conflicts, with good-natured "faces" and villainous "heels." The ring is the main stage, while backstage scenes are filmed for television in a reality TV-like format.

Puppetry: Puppetry is a theatrical performance involving human manipulation of inanimate objects resembling humans or animals. Puppeteers use their hands and arms to control the puppet's body, limbs, and sometimes the mouth and eyes. They may speak as the puppet character or perform to a recorded soundtrack. The script for a puppet performance is called a puppet play.

Theatre: Theatre is a collaborative form of performing art that uses live actors to present real or imagined events before a live audience. It incorporates gesture, speech, song, music, and dance to communicate the experience. It is the oldest form of drama but has now been joined by modern recorded forms. The use of art elements like scenery and stagecraft enhances the physicality and immediacy of the experience. The word "theatre" is derived from the Greek word θέατρον meaning "to see."

Peking opera: Peking opera, also known as Beijing opera, is a dominant form of Chinese opera that emerged in Beijing during the mid-Qing dynasty. It combines music, vocal performance, mime, dance, and acrobatics. Recognized by the mid-19th century, it gained immense popularity in the Qing court and is now considered a cultural treasure of China. Major troupes are based in Beijing, Tianjin, and Shanghai, with the art form also preserved in Taiwan (known as Guójù). Peking opera has also spread to other regions, including the United States and Japan.

Theatre of ancient Greece: The Theatre of Ancient Greece, centered in Athens, emerged around 700 BC and became an integral part of the Dionysia festival dedicated to the god Dionysus. Tragedy, comedy, and the satyr play were the main genres that emerged from this period. Athens exported the festival to its colonies, and modern Western theatre heavily draws from Ancient Greek theatre, including its technical terminology, genre classification, themes, characters, and plots.

Kabuki: Kabuki is a classical Japanese theatre combining dramatic performance and traditional dance. It is characterized by highly stylized performances, exquisite costumes, and the use of elaborate kumadori make-up.

Noh: Noh is a classical Japanese dance-drama that began in the 14th century and continues to be performed today. It is the oldest major theater art still in regular practice. Noh is often grouped with kyōgen under the term nōgaku. Historically, a full nōgaku program consisted of multiple Noh plays with comedic kyōgen pieces interspersed. Nowadays, it is common to have two Noh plays and one kyōgen performance in a program. Additionally, the ritual performance Okina may be included at the beginning of a nōgaku presentation.

Comedy: Comedy is a genre of fiction that aims to be funny and amusing, inducing laughter in various forms of entertainment like theatre, film, stand-up comedy, television, radio, books, etc. It originated in ancient Greece, where political satire in theaters influenced public opinion. Greek comedy typically portrayed conflicts between different groups or generations, with Northrop Frye defining them as the "Society of Youth" versus the "Society of the Old." The essential struggle in comedy is often depicted as a powerless youth facing societal conventions and using clever tactics, resulting in dramatic irony that elicits laughter.

Burlesque: Burlesque is a form of entertainment that uses humor and mockery to satirize serious works. It originated from the Italian word "burla," meaning joke or ridicule. Burlesque can be found in literary, dramatic, and musical works, aiming to provoke laughter through the exaggerated and absurd treatment of their subjects.

Commedia dell'arte: Commedia dell'arte was an early professional Italian theater popular in Europe from the 16th to 18th centuries. It involved masked characters, improvised performances, and scripted comedy sketches. Actresses like Isabella Andreini gained recognition through this style. The plays were a mix of scripted and improvised elements, with entrances and exits being scripted. Commedia dell'arte also featured the use of jokes called "lazzi" and pantomime, mainly performed by the character Harlequin.

Improvisational theatre: Improvisational theatre, also known as improv, is a form of theatre characterized by unplanned and unscripted performances. It is often comedic and involves spontaneous creation by the performers. The dialogue, action, story, and characters are collaboratively developed in real-time without a prewritten script.

Joke: A joke is a humorous narrative structure that aims to make people laugh. It often involves a story with dialogue and ends in a punchline. Jokes can use word play, irony, sarcasm, hyperbole, or other devices to create humor. Linguist Robert Hetzron defines a joke as a short piece of oral literature where the funniness peaks in the final sentence, known as the punchline. There should be no continuation after the punchline to maintain the tension. While jokes may be printed, they are mainly intended for oral transmission and don't require verbatim reproduction.

Parody: Parody is a creative work that imitates and mocks its subject, whether it is an original work, a person, an event, or a movement. It can take various forms in literature, music, theater, television, film, animation, and gaming. Parodies can be satirical or ironic, and they often provide a humorous or critical commentary on the subject being imitated.

Stand-up comedy: Stand-up comedy is a live comedic performance where a comedian engages with the audience from the stage. It involves a comedian delivering jokes and often includes interactions with the crowd.

Drama: Drama is a form of fiction performed in theaters, on radio, or television. It encompasses plays, operas, ballets, and mimes. Dating back to Aristotle, it is considered a distinct genre of poetry, differing from epics and lyrics.

Tragedy: Tragedy is a dramatic genre centered around human suffering and the unfortunate events experienced by the main character. It aims to evoke catharsis, a mingling of pain and pleasure, in the audience. While many cultures have explored this concept, tragedy is often associated with a specific tradition in Western civilization. This tradition is diverse yet has a significant impact on cultural identity and historical continuity, uniting ancient Greeks, Elizabethans, and both Hellenes and Christians.

Musical theatre: Musical theatre is a type of performance combining songs, dialogue, acting, and dance to convey a story and emotions. It integrates words, music, movement, and technical aspects. Music holds equal importance to dialogue and other elements. Known as musicals, these stage works have been popular since the early 20th century.

Broadway theatre: Broadway theatre encompasses theatrical performances in 41 large theaters, with 500+ seats, in New York City's Theater District and Lincoln Center along Broadway. It is considered the pinnacle of commercial live theater, along with London's West End.

West End theatre: West End theatre refers to the top-tier professional theatre performed in the renowned theatres situated in and near London's West End. It is considered the pinnacle of commercial theatre in the English-speaking world, along with Broadway in New York City. Watching a West End show is a popular tourist attraction in London, attracting famous actors from both British and international backgrounds.

Stagecraft: Stagecraft is the technical aspect of theatrical, film, and video production that involves constructing scenery, setting up lighting, designing costumes, managing stages, handling audio engineering, and procuring props. It is the practical implementation of a scenic designer's artistic vision, and is distinct from scenography.

Prehistoric art: Prehistoric art refers to all art created by preliterate cultures before the development of writing or significant contact with literate cultures. It encompasses a wide time span, ending when ancient art begins in older literate civilizations. The term's coverage varies across different regions.

Cave painting: Cave paintings are prehistoric parietal art found on cave walls or ceilings. These paintings were created by Homo sapiens, Denisovans, and Neanderthals, representing the Homo genus. They offer insight into the history and unique abstract thoughts of Homo sapiens. Some interpret these paintings as a display of creativity, spirituality, and sentimental thinking in prehistoric humans.

Rock art: Rock art refers to human-made markings on vertical stone surfaces, often found in caves or partly enclosed rock shelters. Also known as cave art or parietal art, it is a global phenomenon found in culturally diverse regions. The four main types of rock art are cave paintings, petroglyphs (carvings or scratchings), sculpted rock reliefs, and geoglyphs (ground formations).

Ancient Greek art: Ancient Greek art is known for its naturalistic yet idealized portrayals of the human body, particularly of mostly nude male figures. Its rapid stylistic development from 750 to 300 BC is most evident in sculpture. Though paintings are challenging to study due to the absence of high-quality originals, significant advancements occurred in this field as well. Greek art also made notable contributions to painted pottery.

Hellenistic art: Hellenistic art refers to the artistic period between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE and the Roman conquest of the Greek world around 30 BCE. It marked a transition from Classical Greek art to Greco-Roman art. Notable works include famous sculptures like Laocoön and His Sons, Venus de Milo, and the Winged Victory of Samothrace.

Roman art: Roman art encompasses architecture, painting, sculpture, and mosaics, along with metal-work, gem engraving, ivory carvings, and glass. Sculpture was highly regarded, while figure painting held importance too. Surviving from the 1st century BC onward, Roman sculpture is abundant, yet little painting remains.

Gothic art: Gothic art emerged in Northern France during the 12th century, influenced by Romanesque art and Gothic architecture. It spread throughout Europe, coexisting with classical styles in Italy. The International Gothic court style developed in the 14th century and evolved until the late 15th century. Late Gothic art persisted into the 16th century in some areas before being overshadowed by the Renaissance. Key mediums included sculpture, panel painting, stained glass, fresco, and illuminated manuscripts. Gothic art is distinguished by its architectural shifts and unique pace of figurative art development.

Romanesque art: Romanesque art, from around 1000 AD to the 12th century, is characterized by retaining Roman architectural style, like round-headed arches and barrel vaults, while having unique characteristics. It spread throughout Catholic Europe, influenced by Byzantine and Insular art, resulting in a highly innovative and coherent style.

Renaissance art: Renaissance art, emerging in Italy around AD 1400, revolutionized European artistic traditions. It blended the noble art of Classical antiquity with Northern European advancements and applied contemporary scientific knowledge. Alongside Renaissance humanist philosophy, it spread throughout Europe, bringing new techniques and artistic sensibilities to artists and patrons. This period marked Europe's transition from the medieval era to the Early Modern age.

Realism (arts): Realism in the arts aims to represent subject matter truthfully, avoiding artificial and supernatural elements. It is often used interchangeably with naturalism, although they are not the same. Naturalism strives to depict objects with minimal distortion and is linked to the development of perspective and illusionism in Renaissance Europe. Realism, originating in France after the French Revolution, is a specific art movement rejecting idealization and focusing on the everyday and politically conscious themes. Realist painters rejected the dominance of Romanticism and its roots in the late 18th century.

Classicism: Classicism is an aesthetic attitude that seeks to emulate and uphold the standards of ancient Greece and Rome. It emphasizes simplicity, proportion, clarity of structure, and perfection. Classicism values formality and restraint in art, while appealing to the intellect. It encompasses a canon of ideal forms that have long been accepted in the Western tradition.

Mannerism: Mannerism was a European art style that emerged in Italy in the 1520s, lasting until the end of the 16th century. It spread beyond Italy by 1530 and influenced the development of art in Northern Europe until the early 17th century. This style developed during the later years of the Italian High Renaissance and showcased exaggerated poses, complex compositions, and stylized forms. It was later replaced by the Baroque style.

Academic art: Academic art, also known as academicism or academism, refers to the style of painting and sculpture influenced by European art academies in the 19th century. It combined Neoclassicism and Romanticism, with Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres as a key pioneer. Other notable artists who followed this style include William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Thomas Couture, and Hans Makart. Academic art often incorporates elements of eclecticism, historicism, and syncretism. It is closely related to Beaux-Arts architecture, sharing a similar classical ideal.

Baroque: Baroque refers to a Western style of art that thrived from the early 17th century to the 1750s. It encompassed architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture, poetry, and other arts. It emerged after Renaissance art and Mannerism, and preceded the Rococo and Neoclassical styles. The Catholic Church promoted Baroque as a response to the simplicity of Protestant art, while Lutheran Baroque art also emerged in some European regions.

Dutch Golden Age painting: Dutch Golden Age painting refers to the art created in the Netherlands during the 17th century. It flourished after the Eighty Years' War, which led to Dutch independence. This period is known for its remarkable artistic achievements and includes the works of renowned painters like Rembrandt and Vermeer.

Empire style: The Empire style, an early-19th century design movement, was a phase of Neoclassicism. It encompassed architecture, furniture, and decorative arts. Flourishing from 1800 to 1815 during the Consulate and the First French Empire periods, it then extended until the late-1820s. Originating in France, it quickly spread across Europe and the United States.

Rococo: Rococo, also known as Late Baroque, is an ornate and dramatic style of architecture, art, and decoration. It features asymmetry, scrolling curves, gilding, pastel colors, sculpted molding, and trompe-l'œil frescoes. Its key characteristics include surprise, illusion of motion, and a combination of white and pastel colors. Rococo is regarded as the culmination of the Baroque movement.

Modern art: Modern art refers to artistic work produced from the 1860s to the 1970s, characterized by experimentation and breaking away from traditional styles. It involves new ways of seeing, fresh ideas about materials and the purpose of art. Modern artists often moved away from storytelling and towards abstraction. Contemporary and postmodern art are more recent terms to describe artistic production.

Abstract art: Abstract art is a form of visual expression using shapes, colors, lines, and forms to create compositions that may not rely on real-world references.

Cubism: Cubism, an early-20th-century art movement, revolutionized European painting and sculpture. It inspired related movements in music, literature, and architecture. In Cubist works, subjects are analyzed, broken up, and reassembled in an abstract form, using multiple perspectives to depict a greater context. Considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century, Cubism encompassed a variety of artworks produced in Paris or near Paris during the 1910s and 1920s.

Futurism: Futurism was an artistic and social movement from Italy in the early 20th century. It emphasized speed, technology, youth, violence, and modern objects like cars and airplanes. Key figures included Marinetti, Boccioni, and Balla. It aimed to free Italy from its past and celebrated modernity. Prominent works include Marinetti's manifesto, Boccioni's sculpture, Balla's painting, and Russolo's exploration of noise in art.

Abstract expressionism: Abstract expressionism emerged in the US after World War II, replacing social realism influenced by the Great Depression. It gained mainstream acceptance in the 1950s and was first named by art critic Robert Coates in 1946. Key figures of the movement, centered in New York, included Jackson Pollock, Franz Kline, Mark Rothko, and Willem de Kooning.

Art Deco: Art Deco, or Arts Décoratifs, is a visual arts and design style that emerged in Paris in the 1910s and thrived in the 1920s-1930s. It influenced various aspects of life, including architecture, product design, and fashion. The style's distinctive traits can be seen in the exterior and interior of structures, as well as everyday objects such as furniture, radios, and vacuum cleaners. Art Deco's impact spread across Europe and the United States, shaping bridges, buildings, ships, cars, and other transportation modes.

Art Nouveau: Art Nouveau is a global art movement that spanned from 1890 to 1910. It encompassed various art forms, including architecture and decorative arts. Inspired by nature, it incorporated organic shapes like curves of plants and flowers. Key features included dynamic designs, asymmetry, and the use of modern materials such as iron, glass, ceramics, and concrete. Art Nouveau emerged as a reaction against academicism, eclecticism, and historicism prevalent in the 19th century.

Arts and Crafts movement: The Arts and Crafts movement was a worldwide trend in decorative and fine arts, originating in the British Isles and expanding to Europe, America, and the British Empire.

Avant-garde: Avant-garde refers to groundbreaking art and literature that is innovative and often controversial. It challenges established artistic norms and is often initially rejected by traditional art circles. These avant-garde artists and writers push the boundaries of style, form, and subject matter, paving the way for new genres like anti-novels and Surrealism.

Dada: Dada was an early 20th-century European avant-garde art movement, with origins in Zürich and Berlin in 1917. It later thrived in New York City and Paris. Dadaists aimed to challenge conventional art by embracing absurdity, randomness, and anti-establishment ideas. This movement, founded by Hugo Ball and his companion Emmy Hennings, lasted until the mid-1920s.

Expressionism: Expressionism is a modernist movement in art and literature, originating in Northern Europe in the early 20th century. It distorts reality to evoke emotions and ideas, presenting the world from a subjective perspective. Artists prioritize expressing emotional experiences rather than depicting physical reality.

Impressionism: Impressionism was a 19th-century art movement known for its small, visible brush strokes, open composition, and emphasis on depicting light accurately. It featured ordinary subject matter, unique visual angles, and incorporated movement as a crucial element. Originating in Paris, the movement gained prominence in the 1870s and 1880s through independent exhibitions.

Modernism: Modernism is a movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, driven by transformations in Western society. It aimed to create new art, philosophy, and social structures that reflected the modern industrial world, incorporating urbanization, architecture, technology, and war. Artists sought to break free from traditional and outdated forms of art. The motto "Make it New" by poet Ezra Pound encapsulated their approach.

Neoclassicism: Neoclassicism was a cultural movement in Western art, literature, music, and architecture that took inspiration from classical antiquity. It originated in Rome during the rediscovery of ancient ruins and was popularized across Europe by art students returning from Italy. Influenced by the Age of Enlightenment, Neoclassicism competed with Romanticism and lasted until the early 19th century. The architectural style of Neoclassicism persisted throughout the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries.

Post-Impressionism: Post-Impressionism was a French art movement that emerged between 1886 and 1905. It reacted against Impressionists' focus on naturalistic light and color, instead emphasizing abstract qualities and symbolic content. It encompassed various styles like Les Nabis, Neo-Impressionism, Symbolism, Cloisonnism, the Pont-Aven School, and Synthetism. Key artists include Cézanne, Gauguin, van Gogh, and Seurat.

Postmodernism: Postmodernism is an intellectual stance that rejects reason and questions established beliefs. It challenges the certainty of knowledge and acknowledges the influence of ideology in politics. Postmodernism dismisses objective claims and emphasizes the conditional nature of knowledge. It embraces self-reference, moral and epistemological relativism, pluralism, irony, irreverence, and eclecticism. Postmodernism opposes binary oppositions, stable identity, hierarchy, and categorization.

Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood: The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was a group of English painters, poets, and art critics founded in 1848. Led by William Holman Hunt, John Everett Millais, and Dante Gabriel Rossetti, the Brotherhood aimed to revive the detailed and vibrant art of the early Renaissance, rejecting the conventional style of the time. They were inspired by the Nazarene movement and shared their principles with other artists like Ford Madox Brown and Arthur Hughes. Later artists, such as Edward Burne-Jones, William Morris, and John William Waterhouse, also followed the Brotherhood's principles.

Romanticism: Romanticism, an artistic and intellectual movement in Europe during the late 18th to mid-19th centuries, emphasized emotion, individualism, and admiration for the past and nature, favoring medieval over classical influences. Reacting against the Industrial Revolution and Enlightenment ideals, it strongly influenced visual arts, music, and literature, and also had significant impact on historiography, education, social sciences, and the natural sciences. Romantic thinking influenced various political ideologies, including conservatism, liberalism, radicalism, and nationalism.

Surrealism: Surrealism is a cultural movement that emerged in Europe after World War I. Artists created unsettling and nonsensical scenes, using techniques to express the unconscious mind. André Breton, the movement's leader, aimed to reconcile dreams and reality into a new, heightened reality called surreality. Surrealism produced various works in painting, writing, theatre, filmmaking, photography, and other media.

Symbolism (arts): Symbolism was a 19th-century art movement that originated in France and Belgium. It aimed to represent absolute truths through symbolic language and metaphorical images. It emerged as a response to naturalism and realism.

Contemporary art: Contemporary art, produced since the mid-20th century, encompasses diverse materials, methods, and subjects. It challenges boundaries and lacks a uniform principle or ideology. Spanning personal and cultural contexts, it engages with identity, community, and nationality.

Conceptual art: Conceptual art, also known as conceptualism, prioritizes the concept or idea over traditional artistic concerns. It emphasizes planning and decision-making beforehand, often resulting in works that can be created by anyone following written instructions. The idea or concept is considered the most important aspect, and the execution is seen as secondary. This approach to art was notably defined by American artist Sol LeWitt, who described it as turning the idea into a machine that produces art.

Land art: Land art, also called Earth art, is an art movement that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s. It originated in the UK and US but has examples from many countries. This trend pushed artistic boundaries through unique materials and remote locations. Artists used local natural elements like soil, rocks, vegetation, and water for their creations. These works were often located far from cities but were documented through photographs in urban art galleries.

Minimalism: Minimalism is an art movement that emerged after World War II, particularly in American visual arts during the 1960s and early 1970s. Prominent artists like Donald Judd, Agnes Martin, and Frank Stella were associated with this movement. Minimalism can be seen as a response to abstract expressionism and modernism. It laid the foundation for contemporary postminimal art practices by emphasizing simplicity and essentialism.

Outsider art: Outsider art is created by self-taught artists who have little or no connection to the art establishment. Their work is often discovered posthumously and often portrays unique mental states, unconventional concepts, or intricate imaginary realms.

Pop art: Pop art is an art movement that emerged in the UK and US in the mid- to late-1950s. It challenges traditional fine art by incorporating imagery from popular culture, like advertising, comic books, and everyday objects. Its aim is to emphasize the ordinary or kitschy elements of any culture, often through irony. Pop artists use mechanical reproduction techniques and may isolate or combine unrelated materials to create meaning.

African art: African art encompasses a diverse range of paintings, sculptures, installations, and other visual culture from native Africans and the African continent. It also includes art from African diasporas, such as African-American and Caribbean, as well as African-inspired art in South American societies. Despite its diversity, African art showcases shared artistic themes across the continent.

Chinese art: Chinese art refers to visual art originating in China, Greater China, or created by Chinese artists, including those outside of China drawing on Chinese culture. Dating back to 10,000 BC, early Chinese art consisted of pottery and sculptures. It often aligns with the succession of ruling dynasties, lasting for centuries. Notable collections of Chinese art can be found at the Palace Museum in Beijing and the National Palace Museum in Taipei.

Indian art: Indian art encompasses a diverse range of art forms like painting, sculpture, pottery, and textiles. It encompasses the Indian subcontinent, including present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and sometimes eastern Afghanistan. Indian art showcases a strong emphasis on design, both in traditional and contemporary works.

Islamic art: Islamic art refers to visual arts created by people living in Muslim societies since the 7th century CE. It encompasses various traditions, periods, and genres. Public Islamic art is typically non-representational, featuring plant forms and calligraphy in geometric patterns. It is found in diverse media, from small objects to large decorative schemes in buildings like mosques. Islamic art also includes miniature painting, glass and pottery artifacts, and textile arts such as carpets and embroidery.

Japanese art: Japanese art spans a diverse range of styles and mediums, including pottery, sculpture, ink painting, calligraphy, ukiyo-e paintings, ceramics, origami, bonsai, manga, and anime. Its rich history dates back to ancient times, and continues to thrive today.

Ukiyo-e: Ukiyo-e is a popular genre of Japanese art from the 17th-19th centuries, known for its woodblock prints and paintings. It depicts various subjects like beautiful women, actors, wrestlers, historical tales, landscapes, animals, and even erotica. The term ukiyo-e translates as 'picture[s] of the floating world.'

Persian art: Persian art refers to the rich artistic heritage of Iran, encompassing various forms such as architecture, painting, weaving, pottery, calligraphy, metalworking, and sculpture. Influenced by neighboring civilizations, Persian art has also contributed to and been inspired by Islamic art. This article specifically covers Persian art until 1925, with emphasis on the art of the Qajar dynasty. For later art periods, Iranian modern and contemporary art is explored, while traditional crafts are discussed under arts of Iran. Iran's rock art represents its oldest surviving art form, while Iranian architecture is analyzed separately.

Visual arts of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas: The Indigenous art of the Americas refers to visual artistic practices from ancient times to the present by native peoples in North, Central, and South America, including Greenland. This art also encompasses the Siberian Yupiit, who share significant cultural ties with Native Alaskan Yupiit.

Visual arts: Visual arts encompass various forms of artistic expression, including painting, sculpture, photography, filmmaking, and architecture. It also includes applied arts like industrial design and graphic design. Other disciplines, such as performing arts and textile arts, may feature visual elements.

Wood carving: Wood carving is a type of woodworking that involves using a knife or chisel to shape wood into figures or ornamentation. It can be done with one hand or two, using a chisel and mallet. The term can also refer to the final product, including sculptures and hand-carved details on wooden objects.

Decorative arts: Decorative arts encompass the design and creation of aesthetically pleasing and practical objects. This field includes arts and crafts involved in interior design and objects found within buildings. It excludes architecture but includes ceramics, metalwork, furniture, jewelry, fashion, textiles, and glassware.

Drawing: Drawing is a visual art where marks are made on a two-dimensional surface using instruments like pencils, pens, brushes, or computer styluses.

Folk art: Folk art encompasses various visual art forms created within folk culture. It differs from fine art as it serves practical purposes rather than being purely decorative. Folk artists are usually trained in popular traditions, which sets them apart from the fine art tradition. While there may be some overlap with naive art, the term "folk art" does not apply to traditional societies that produce ethnographic art.

Handicraft: Handicraft refers to a wide range of handmade objects created using simple tools. It encompasses various creative activities involving textiles, materials, clay, etc. The oldest known handicraft is Dhokra, a type of metal casting from India. In Iranian Baluchistan, women make red ware pottery following a tradition dating back 5,000 years. Handicrafts are both practical and aesthetic, representing traditional techniques. These crafts are created locally to fulfill people's needs without the use of machines.

Illustration: Illustration refers to a visual depiction or clarification of a text or idea, often created by an illustrator. It is used in print and digital media like posters, magazines, animations, and video games. Digital illustrations can enhance user experience on websites and apps. Additionally, illustration can serve as a means of providing examples in writing or through pictures.

Mosaic: A mosaic is a decorative pattern or image consisting of small colored stones, glass or ceramic pieces held together by plaster or mortar. It is commonly used to adorn walls and floors, and was highly favored in Ancient Rome.

Mural: A mural is a graphic artwork painted on walls or other surfaces. It can be created using fresco, mosaic, graffiti, or marouflage techniques.

Optical illusion: An optical illusion is a visual perception that appears different from reality. It can be classified into physical, physiological, and cognitive illusions, each with various kinds such as ambiguities, distortions, paradoxes, and fictions. Examples include the bending of a stick in water (physical distortion), motion aftereffect (physiological paradox), afterimage (physiological fiction), and Ponzo, Poggendorff, and Müller-Lyer illusions (cognitive distortions). Physical illusions result from the environment, physiological illusions arise in the eye or visual pathway, and cognitive illusions stem from unconscious inferences.

Perspective (graphical): Perspective (graphical) is a method used in the graphic arts to represent a three-dimensional scene on a flat surface. It creates an approximate image as seen by the eye. This technique, also known as perspective drawing, is commonly used on paper to create a sense of depth and realism in two-dimensional mediums.

Portrait: A portrait is an artistic representation of a person, typically showing their face and expressions. It aims to depict their likeness, personality, and mood. Unlike snapshots, portraits are composed images of a person in a still position. The subject often looks directly at the painter or photographer to engage the viewer effectively.

Printmaking: Printmaking is the art of creating images on various surfaces by printing, typically on paper but also on fabric, wood, metal, and more. It involves manual techniques rather than digital reproduction. However, there is some overlap between traditional and digital methods, such as the use of risograph.

Engraving: Engraving is the process of cutting grooves onto a hard surface to create a design. This can be done on materials like silver, gold, steel, or glass, resulting in a decorated object or an intaglio printing plate. Engraving is a significant and ancient printmaking technique.

Religious art: Religious art encompasses visual representations of religious beliefs and their connection to humans. It is closely associated with sacred art, which serves for worship and religious rituals. While art inspired by religion but not regarded as sacred falls under the term of religious art, it is distinct from sacred art.

Fashion: Fashion encompasses the creation of clothing, accessories, cosmetics, and jewelry that represent diverse cultural aesthetics. It involves combining these elements to create unique outfits, reflecting social status, self-expression, and group affiliation. Fashion is a dynamic industry that encompasses styles, aesthetics, and trends.

Taxidermy: Taxidermy is the practice of preserving animals by mounting or stuffing them for display or study. It involves creating lifelike representations of animals, and the term is used to describe both the process of preservation and the resulting mounts or displays.

Textile arts: Textile arts involve using fibers, whether from plants, animals, or synthetics, to create both functional and ornamental objects.

Ceramic art: Ceramic art is artwork made from clay and other ceramic materials. It encompasses various forms including pottery, tableware, tiles, figurines, and sculptures. Ceramic art is a visual art form and can be considered both fine art and decorative art. It can be created by individuals or groups, in pottery studios or ceramic factories.

Comics: Comics is a visual medium that combines images with text or other information. It uses panels to convey ideas and can include speech balloons, captions, and onomatopoeia for dialogue and sound effects. There is no agreed definition, with some emphasizing the combination of images and text, while others focus on sequentiality or historical aspects. It often involves cartooning and illustration, but can also incorporate photographic images. Common forms of comics include comic strips, cartoons, and comic books. In recent years, bound volumes like graphic novels and webcomics have gained popularity.

Manga: Manga, originating from Japan, are comics or graphic novels with a distinct style dating back to the late 19th century. In Japan, the term encompasses both comics and cartooning, while outside of Japan, it refers to comics initially published in the country.

Painting: Painting is a visual art that involves applying paint or other mediums to a solid surface. It commonly uses a brush but can include other tools like knives, sponges, or airbrushes.

Landscape painting: Landscape painting, or landscape art, is the depiction of natural scenery, showcasing wide views with various elements like mountains, valleys, trees, rivers, and forests. It often includes the sky and incorporates weather. While landscape backgrounds can enhance figure paintings, detailed landscapes emerge in artistic traditions with a foundation in representing diverse subjects.

Oil painting: Oil painting is a technique using pigments mixed with drying oil as a binder. It has been widely used for centuries and allows for greater flexibility, rich colors, layering, and a wide range of tones. However, it is a slower process with the need to let each layer dry before applying another.

Watercolor painting: Watercolor painting is a technique using water-based pigments for creating artwork. It is known as both the medium and the resulting artwork. Aquarelles painted with water-soluble colored ink are referred to as aquarellum atramento, although this term is no longer widely used.

Calligraphy: Calligraphy is a visual art centered on writing, involving the skilled creation and ornamentation of letters using writing instruments like pens and brushes. The modern practice of calligraphy is defined as the artistic expression of signs through a harmonious and skillful approach.

Collage: Collage is an art technique involving the combining of various forms to create a new whole, used predominantly in visual arts but also in music.

Origami: Origami is the Japanese art of paper folding that aims to transform a flat sheet into a sculpture without cuts, glue, or markings. It is now used as a general term for folding practices worldwide. Designs involving cuts are referred to as kirigami.

Sculpture: Sculpture is a three-dimensional art form that includes works presented in height, width, and depth. It is a branch of visual arts, specifically belonging to the plastic arts. Historically, sculptures were created through processes like carving and modeling using materials like stone, metal, ceramics, wood, etc. However, in the modern era, artists enjoy freedom in materials and techniques. Sculptures can be made by removing materials through carving, welding or assembling them, molding, or casting. Various materials can be used for sculpting.

Graffiti: Graffiti is unauthorized public art involving writing, painting, or drawing on surfaces like walls. It encompasses both simple words and intricate wall paintings, and has been practiced since ancient times in various civilizations such as Egypt, Greece, and the Roman Empire.

Along the River During the Qingming Festival: 'Along the River During the Qingming Festival' is a famous handscroll painting by Zhang Zeduan. It depicts the daily life and landscape of Bianjing during the Northern Song dynasty. The painting showcases the festive atmosphere and bustling scenes of the Qingming Festival. It offers a detailed portrayal of society, economy, clothing, and architecture of that time. Considered the most renowned Chinese painting, it has been compared to the Mona Lisa.

Arnolfini Portrait: The Arnolfini Portrait, painted by Jan van Eyck in 1434, is a famous oil painting on oak panel. It is believed to be a double portrait depicting an Italian merchant, Giovanni di Nicolao Arnolfini, and his wife. The couple is shown in what is thought to be their home in Bruges, a city in Flanders.

The Birth of Venus: 'The Birth of Venus' is a renowned painting by Sandro Botticelli, created in the mid-1480s. Depicting the goddess Venus emerging fully-grown from the sea, it is housed in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy.

The Garden of Earthly Delights: The Garden of Earthly Delights is a triptych oil painting by Hieronymus Bosch, dating from 1490 to 1510. The painting is currently housed in the Museo del Prado in Madrid, Spain. Bosch was between 40 and 60 years old when he painted this masterpiece.

The Last Supper(Leonardo): The Last Supper is a famous mural painting by Leonardo da Vinci, created between 1495 and 1498. It depicts Jesus sharing a meal with his disciples just after he reveals that one of them will betray him. Leonardo's use of space, perspective, motion, and emotional expression make it a renowned work of the High Renaissance. The painting is widely recognized and considered a significant artwork that marked the start of the High Renaissance period.

Las Meninas: 'Las Meninas' is a renowned painting by Diego Velázquez from 1656, displayed in Madrid's Museo del Prado. As a leading artist of the Spanish Baroque, Velázquez beautifully crafted this composition, capturing the viewer's attention for its enigmatic and complex arrangement. Through its portrayal, 'Las Meninas' raises intriguing questions about reality versus illusion and establishes an uncertain relationship between the figures depicted and the observer.

Mona Lisa: The Mona Lisa is a famous portrait painted by Leonardo da Vinci during the Italian Renaissance. It is widely regarded as a masterpiece and is known for its enigmatic expression, composition, subtle modeling, and atmospheric illusion.

The Night Watch: 'The Night Watch' is a famous Dutch Golden Age painting by Rembrandt van Rijn. It portrays a militia company led by Captain Frans Banninck Cocq and is prominently displayed in the Rijksmuseum. The painting is known for its dramatic use of light and shadow and is not actually set at night, despite its title.

Sistine Chapel: The Sistine Chapel is a chapel in Vatican City, originally named the Cappella Magna. It was built by Pope Sixtus IV between 1473 and 1481, and serves as the location for papal activities and the papal conclave. The chapel is famous for its frescoes by Michelangelo, including the Sistine Chapel ceiling and The Last Judgment.

Les Demoiselles d'Avignon: 'Les Demoiselles d'Avignon' is a 1907 oil painting by Pablo Picasso, depicting five nude female prostitutes in a Barcelona brothel. The figures have angular and disjointed body shapes, with one showing Egyptian or southern Asian features, while the others display Iberian and African mask-like characteristics. The painting's confrontational style and ethnic primitivism were intended to create a savage and powerful artistic expression, liberating Picasso's unique artistic approach. It is currently housed in the Museum of Modern Art in New York.

Guernica(Picasso): Guernica is a renowned 1937 oil painting by Pablo Picasso, considered an influential anti-war masterpiece. It is housed at the Museo Reina Sofía in Madrid and is widely acclaimed for its emotional impact and as a poignant symbol against violence and conflict.

The Persistence of Memory: "The Persistence of Memory" is a famous surrealistic painting created by Salvador Dalí in 1931. It is widely known for its melting clocks and is considered one of the most recognizable works of Surrealism. The painting has been part of the Museum of Modern Art's collection since 1934. Often referenced in popular culture, it has alternative titles like "Melting Clocks" or "The Soft Watches."

The Scream: 'The Scream' is a famous artwork created by Edvard Munch in 1893. It is known by its Norwegian title, Skrik (Scream), and was initially exhibited with the German name Der Schrei der Natur. The painting portrays an anguished face and has become an iconic representation of human anxiety. It heavily influenced the Expressionist movement.

The Starry Night: 'The Starry Night' is a renowned oil painting by Vincent van Gogh. Created in 1889, it showcases the view from his asylum room in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence before dawn, including an imaginary village. The piece is a part of the Museum of Modern Art's collection in New York City since 1941. Regarded as Van Gogh's greatest work, 'The Starry Night' is highly recognizable and holds a significant place in Western art history.

A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte: 'A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte', painted by Georges Seurat from 1884 to 1886, is a renowned example of the pointillist technique. This large canvas masterpiece is considered a significant work of the neo-impressionist movement. The composition depicts Parisians enjoying a park by the River Seine. The artwork is currently housed in the collection of the Art Institute of Chicago.

Water Lilies(Monet series): The Water Lilies series by Claude Monet is a collection of about 250 oil paintings. Monet painted these works in his flower garden at his home in Giverny, France. These paintings were a major focus for him during the final three decades of his life. Notably, many of the artworks were created while Monet battled cataracts.

Campbell's Soup Cans: 'Campbell's Soup Cans' is a famous artwork by Andy Warhol created from November 1961 to June 1962. It consists of 32 canvases depicting hand-painted versions of Campbell's Soup cans, representing all the soup varieties available at that time. This artwork is a significant example of the pop art movement, showcasing Warhol's interest in commercial products and popular culture.

David(Michelangelo): David(Michelangelo) is a renowned Italian Renaissance sculpture made from 1501-1504. It is a colossal marble statue that stands at 5.17 meters, serving as a precedent for future art. Originally intended for Florence Cathedral's east end, it was instead placed in a public square in front of Palazzo della Signoria in Florence. This iconic masterpiece now resides in the Galleria dell'Accademia, while a replica stands at the original location since 1910.

Fountain(Duchamp): Fountain is a famous artwork by Marcel Duchamp, created in 1917. It is a readymade sculpture consisting of a signed porcelain urinal. Duchamp submitted it for an exhibition but it was never displayed. However, it gained recognition through a photograph published in a Dada journal. The original piece has been lost.

Olmec colossal heads: The Olmec colossal heads are stone representations of human heads sculpted from large basalt boulders. They date from at least 900 BC and are a distinctive feature of the Olmec civilization. The heads range in height from 1.17 to 3.4 meters and all depict mature individuals with fleshy cheeks, flat noses, and slightly-crossed eyes. The monuments are thought to represent portraits of powerful Olmec rulers and were likely transported over long distances, indicating significant human effort and resources. Each head has a unique headdress and they were arranged in lines or groups at major Olmec centers. One theory suggests that the distinctive headgear could have been used as protective helmets during warfare or ceremonial Mesoamerican ballgames.

Pietà(Michelangelo): "The Pietà by Michelangelo is a renowned marble sculpture in Saint Peter's Basilica, Vatican City. Depicting Jesus and Mary at Mount Golgotha, it represents the 'Sixth Sorrow' of the Virgin Mary. Considered a significant piece of Italian Renaissance sculpture, it marks the beginning of the High Renaissance era."

Terracotta Army: The Terracotta Army is a collection of sculptures buried with the first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang, in 210–209 BCE. It depicts his armies and serves as a form of funerary art to protect him in the afterlife.

The Thinker: The Thinker is a famous bronze sculpture by Auguste Rodin, depicting a nude male figure sitting on a rock. The sculpture showcases deep thought and contemplation and is often associated with philosophy.

Venus de Milo: The Venus de Milo, also known as Aphrodite of Melos, is a well-known Greek marble sculpture from the Hellenistic period. Discovered in 1820 on the island of Milos, Greece, it has been displayed at the Louvre Museum since 1821. This statue is considered one of the most renowned ancient Greek sculptures globally.

Venus of Willendorf: The Venus of Willendorf is a small ancient figurine believed to have been created 25,000-30,000 years ago. It was discovered in 1908 during an archaeological dig near Willendorf, Austria. The figurine is made of non-local limestone and is tinted with red ochre. It is currently housed in the Natural History Museum in Vienna.

Bayeux Tapestry: The Bayeux Tapestry is a long embroidered cloth that showcases the events leading to the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. It measures around 70 meters in length and 50 centimeters in height. Created in the 11th century, shortly after the Battle of Hastings, it depicts the rise of William, Duke of Normandy against Harold II, King of England. The tapestry, believed to have been made in England, serves as a gift for William and presents the perspective of the victorious Normans. It has been well-preserved in Normandy for many centuries.

Book of Kells: The Book of Kells is a famous illuminated manuscript from around 800 AD. It contains the four Gospels in Latin, along with other texts and tables. It was made in a monastery in Ireland or Scotland and may have had contributions from various other monastic institutions. The text is mainly from the Vulgate but also includes passages from the Vetus Latina. It is considered a masterpiece of Western calligraphy and Insular illumination. The manuscript gets its name from the Abbey of Kells in County Meath, where it was kept for many years.

The Great Wave off Kanagawa: 'The Great Wave off Kanagawa' is a famous woodblock print by Japanese artist Hokusai, made in 1831 during the Edo period. It portrays three boats navigating a stormy sea, with a towering, spiraling wave at the center and Mount Fuji in the background.

Design: Design is the intentional creation of an object, process, or system. It involves developing a concept and considering various factors such as aesthetics, functionality, and societal impact. Designs have purposes within specific contexts and must fulfill certain goals and constraints. They can be expressed through drawings, diagrams, patterns, or models.

Graphic design: Graphic design is a profession that uses visual communication to convey messages to social groups. It utilizes creativity and innovation using both manual and digital tools, incorporating text and graphics to visually communicate. It is an interdisciplinary branch of design and fine arts.

Typography: Typography is the art of arranging type for legibility and appealing display. It involves selecting fonts, sizes, spacing, and alignment. Type design is a related craft. It can be used decoratively or to communicate information.

Interior design: Interior design is the art of improving building interiors for a healthier and visually pleasing atmosphere. Interior designers coordinate and manage projects involving planning, research, site inspections, programming, and construction management. It is a diverse profession that includes conceptual development and execution of designs, emphasizing effective communication with stakeholders.

Industrial design: Industrial design is the creative process of shaping and defining the appearance and attributes of a product before it is manufactured on a large scale. This involves the design of form and features, which is distinct from the individualized approach of crafts-based design. Industrial design is crucial for efficient and standardized replication, often using automation, in the manufacturing process.

Web design: Web design refers to the creation and maintenance of websites, involving various skills and disciplines. It includes web graphic design, user interface design, coding, user experience design, and search engine optimization. Teamwork is common, though some designers handle all aspects. The term covers front-end design and overlaps with web engineering. Web designers should be knowledgeable about usability and adhere to web accessibility guidelines.

Digital art: Digital art is artistic work that involves the use of digital technology. This can include using digital technology in the creative or presentation process. It can also involve computational art that engages with digital media.

Computer graphics: Computer graphics is the creation of images and artwork using computers. It is widely used in digital photography, film, video games, digital art, and displays in cell phones and computers. Specialized hardware and software have been developed for this field, driving the displays of most devices. The term was coined in 1960 by researchers Verne Hudson and William Fetter. It is often abbreviated as CG or referred to as computer-generated imagery (CGI) in film. It is a recent and extensive area of computer science, encompassing both artistic and non-artistic aspects.

Film: Film is a visual art that utilizes moving images to communicate ideas, stories, and emotions. It is also referred to as cinema and involves the use of sound and occasionally other sensory stimulations.

Animation: Animation is a filmmaking technique that uses still images to create moving images. Traditional animation involves hand-drawn images on transparent sheets to be photographed and shown on film. It is recognized as an artistic medium, commonly used in entertainment. Computer-generated imagery (CGI) is widely used in many animations, while stop motion animation, like claymation, coexists with these forms.

Anime: Anime is Japanese animation that can be hand-drawn or computer-generated. In English, it refers to animation made in Japan, but in Japan, it encompasses all animated works. Similar styles can be found in animation produced outside of Japan, and some video games also have "anime" themes and artstyles.

Film industry: The film industry includes film production companies, studios, cinematography, animation, screenwriting, film festivals, distribution, and actors. Over time, independent film production has grown due to affordable equipment and increased investment opportunities outside the industry.

Silent film: A silent film is a movie without recorded sound. It uses visual storytelling to convey narrative and emotion. If needed, important dialogue or plot points are shown on inter-title cards.

Filmmaking: Filmmaking is the process of producing a motion picture, starting from an initial concept or commission. It involves stages such as screenwriting, casting, shooting, sound recording, and post-production. The director shoots scenes out of order and combines them through editing. Filmmaking is influenced by diverse contexts worldwide and employs various technologies and techniques to create theatrical films, TV shows, music videos, and educational films.

Cinematography: Cinematography is the artistic technique of capturing motion picture images, and it involves the visual aspects of film production.

Special effect: Special effects are visual tricks used in various industries such as theatre, film, TV, video games, amusement parks, and simulators. These illusions create simulations of imagined events within a story or virtual world.

Studio system: The studio system refers to a method of filmmaking where a few major movie studios dominate the production and distribution of films. This was prominent during Hollywood's Golden Age from 1927 to 1948. Studios produced films on their own lots with long-term contracts for creative personnel and controlled exhibition through vertical integration. This involved owning or controlling distributors and exhibition, using techniques like block booking to ensure additional sales of films.

Cinema of Nigeria: The Cinema of Nigeria, known as Nollywood, involves films produced in Nigeria since the late 19th century, including during the colonial era. Its development can be classified into four main eras: Colonial, Golden Age, Video film, and New Nigerian cinema.

Cinema of China: The Cinema of China refers to the film industry in mainland China under the People's Republic of China. It is one of three significant branches of Chinese-language cinema, alongside Hong Kong and Taiwan.

Cinema of India: The cinema of India, composed of films produced by the Indian film industry, has had a significant global impact since the late 20th century. It encompasses various film industries, with Bollywood being one of the largest, producing Hindi language movies. Key film production hubs in India are Mumbai, Hyderabad, Chennai, Kolkata, Kochi, Bangalore, Bhubaneswar-Cuttack, and Guwahati. Indian cinema has consistently ranked first in annual film output worldwide and in 2022, it grossed ₹15,000 crore at the box office.

Hindi cinema: Hindi cinema, also known as Bollywood, is the Mumbai-based film industry that produces movies in the Hindi language. It is a significant part of Indian cinema, encompassing South Indian cinema and smaller film industries. The term Bollywood combines "Bombay" (former name for Mumbai) and "Hollywood" to symbolize its popularity and influence.

Cinema of France: French cinema refers to the film industry and its productions, both within France and by French production companies abroad. It is the oldest and largest precursor to European national cinemas and has had a significant impact on the development of Asian cinemas as well.

Cinema of Japan: The cinema of Japan, also known as hōga, has a rich history of over a century. It is one of the world's oldest and largest film industries, currently ranking as the fourth largest by number of feature films produced. In 2011, Japan produced 411 feature films, earning over half of the box office revenue which amounted to US$2.338 billion. Filmmaking in Japan commenced in 1897 when the first foreign cameramen arrived.

Cinema of the Soviet Union: The cinema of the Soviet Union comprised films from its constituent republics, showcasing their culture, language, and history, under the regulation of the central government in Moscow. Notably, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, and Moldavia produced prolific films. The nationalized film industry adhered to the ideology and laws of the Soviet Communist Party, which introduced socialist realism as a new cinematic approach.

Cinema of the United States: The cinema of the United States has had a significant impact on the global film industry since the early 20th century. American cinema is dominated by classical Hollywood style, which originated from 1910 to 1962 and continues to be prevalent today. It is one of the largest film-producing nations, with over 600 English-language films released annually. Hollywood is considered a transnational cinema, producing movies in multiple languages and often outsourcing production to other countries. Major film studios in Hollywood are known for creating commercially successful and highly popular movies worldwide.

Film festival: A film festival is an organized event where films are presented in one or more cinemas or screening venues. They are usually held in a city or region and can include both new and international films. Some festivals focus on specific filmmakers, genres, or subjects. Short films are also showcased at certain festivals. Film festivals are typically held annually, although they are not considered official film releases by some historians.

Cannes Film Festival: The Cannes Film Festival, originally called the International Film Festival, is an exclusive event held in Cannes, France. It showcases new films of various genres, including documentaries, from around the globe. Founded in 1946, it takes place annually at the Palais des Festivals et des Congrès. The festival gained formal accreditation from the FIAPF in 1951.

Academy Awards: The Academy Awards, also known as the Oscars, are prestigious annual awards presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. They recognize excellence in the film industry and are highly regarded worldwide. The awards ceremony takes place in Beverly Hills, California. The Oscar statuette symbolizes a knight in the Art Deco style.

Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs(1937 film): Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film) is the first Disney feature film, based on the German fairy tale by the Brothers Grimm. It is a musical fantasy film, animated in full-color cel animation. Supervised by David Hand, the film's sequences were directed by Perce Pearce, William Cottrell, Larry Morey, Wilfred Jackson, and Ben Sharpsteen. It was produced by Walt Disney Productions and released by RKO Radio Pictures.

Mirror(film): 'Mirror' is a 1975 Soviet drama film directed by Andrei Tarkovsky. It is loosely based on the director's life, featuring poems by his father and incorporating unconventional storytelling. The film stars Margarita Terekhova, Ignat Daniltsev, and other notable actors, with voiceover by Innokenty Smoktunovsky and music by Eduard Artemyev.

City Lights: 'City Lights' is a classic silent film from 1931, written, produced, directed, and starred by Charlie Chaplin. The story revolves around the Tramp, as he navigates the challenges of a new romance with a blind girl and forms an unpredictable bond with a wealthy alcoholic man.

Dr. Strangelove: "Dr. Strangelove" is a 1964 political satire film directed by Stanley Kubrick, starring Peter Sellers in multiple roles. It humorously explores the Cold War tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States, with a focus on the fear of nuclear conflict. Loosely based on the novel "Red Alert," the film provides a black comedy take on the potential consequences of such tensions.

The Godfather: 'The Godfather' is a 1972 epic crime film directed by Francis Ford Coppola, based on Mario Puzo's best-selling novel. It stars Marlon Brando, Al Pacino, and James Caan, and is the first film in The Godfather trilogy. The story follows the Corleone family, led by Vito Corleone, as they navigate the mafia world from 1945 to 1955. The film primarily focuses on the transformation of Vito's youngest son, Michael Corleone, from an outsider to a powerful mafia boss.

Triumph of the Will: 'Triumph of the Will' is a 1935 Nazi propaganda film directed by Leni Riefenstahl. Adolf Hitler commissioned it to showcase the 1934 Nazi Party Congress in Nuremberg, attended by over 700,000 supporters. The film includes speeches by Nazi leaders like Hitler, Hess, and Streicher, along with footage of massive SA and SS troops and public response. It emphasizes Germany's resurgence under Hitler's leadership. Produced after the Night of the Long Knives, notable SA members are missing.

8½: '8½' is a 1963 Italian avant-garde surrealist comedy-drama film directed and co-written by Federico Fellini. It follows the story of Guido Anselmi, a renowned Italian film director struggling with creative block as he tries to make a science fiction movie. The film stars Marcello Mastroianni as Guido, and also features Claudia Cardinale, Anouk Aimée, Sandra Milo, Rossella Falk, Barbara Steele, and Eddra Gale as the women in Guido's life. Shot in black and white, it showcases the cinematography of Gianni Di Venanzo and includes a soundtrack by Nino Rota, along with costume and set designs by Piero Gherardi.

Bicycle Thieves: 'Bicycle Thieves' is a 1948 Italian neorealist drama film directed by Vittorio De Sica. It depicts a poor father's desperate search for his stolen bicycle in post-World War II Rome. Without it, he would lose his job, endangering the future of his young family.

Breathless(1960 film): Breathless (1960 film) is a French New Wave crime drama directed by Jean-Luc Godard. It follows Michel, a criminal, and his American girlfriend Patricia. The film is notable as Godard's debut feature and marked Jean-Paul Belmondo's rise to fame as an actor.

Children of Paradise: 'Children of Paradise' is a French romantic drama film shot during World War II, depicting the lives of a courtesan and four men who adore her in different ways. Set in 1830s Paris, the movie chronicles the intertwined stories of a mime, an actor, a criminal, and an aristocrat, all consumed by their love for her.

Citizen Kane: Citizen Kane, a 1941 American drama film, was directed, produced, and starred in by Orson Welles. It was his first feature film. Considered the greatest film ever made, it held the number 1 spot in the British Film Institute's poll of critics for 50 years and topped the American Film Institute's 100 Years...100 Movies list. The film won an Academy Award for Best Writing and is praised for its innovative cinematography, editing, music, and narrative structure.

L'Atalante: 'L'Atalante' is a renowned 1934 French film by Jean Vigo, featuring Jean Dasté, Dita Parlo, and Michel Simon, and also released under the title 'Le Chaland qui passe'. It is a story written and directed by Vigo, encompassing key elements of love, adventure, and human connection.

La Dolce Vita: "La Dolce Vita" is a 1960 satirical comedy-drama film directed by Federico Fellini, starring Marcello Mastroianni as a journalist searching for love and happiness in the "sweet life" of Rome. The screenplay is organized into a prologue, seven major episodes with an intermezzo, and an epilogue.

The Rules of the Game: "The Rules of the Game" is a notable 1939 satirical comedy-drama film by Jean Renoir, featuring an ensemble cast including Nora Gregor, Marcel Dalio, and Paulette Dubost. It is regarded as a pioneering work in French cinema, known for its witty critique of the bourgeois class and intricate social dynamics.

Tokyo Story: 'Tokyo Story' is a 1953 Japanese drama film directed by Yasujirō Ozu. It revolves around an elderly couple who journey to Tokyo to see their adult children. Starring Chishū Ryū and Chieko Higashiyama, the film explores themes of aging, family dynamics, and the generation gap.

The Apu Trilogy: The Apu Trilogy is a set of three Indian Bengali-language drama films directed by Satyajit Ray: Pather Panchali (1955), Aparajito (1956) and The World of Apu (1959). The films feature original music by Ravi Shankar.

Battleship Potemkin: 'Battleship Potemkin' is a 1925 Soviet silent drama film produced by Mosfilm, directed and co-written by Sergei Eisenstein. It depicts the mutiny in 1905 where the crew of the Russian battleship Potemkin rebelled against their officers.

The Birth of a Nation: 'The Birth of a Nation' is a 1915 American silent film directed by D. W. Griffith and starring Lillian Gish. It was originally titled 'The Clansman' and is based on a novel and play by Thomas Dixon Jr. Griffith co-wrote the screenplay with Frank E. Woods and produced the film with Harry Aitken.

Lawrence of Arabia(film): 'Lawrence of Arabia' is a 1962 epic biographical adventure drama film directed by David Lean and based on the life of T.E. Lawrence, portrayed by Peter O'Toole. It explores Lawrence's experiences in the Arabian Peninsula during World War I and his relationships with key historical figures such as Prince Faisal, played by Alec Guinness. The film was produced by Sam Spiegel, features a star-studded cast including Jack Hawkins, Omar Sharif, and Claude Rains, and has a screenplay by Robert Bolt and Michael Wilson.

Seven Samurai: The film 'Seven Samurai' is a 1954 Japanese epic directed by Akira Kurosawa. Set in 1586 during the Sengoku period, it tells the tale of desperate farmers hiring rōnin to defend against bandits stealing their crops after the harvest.

The Seventh Seal: 'The Seventh Seal' is a 1957 Swedish fantasy film by Ingmar Bergman, set during the Black Death. It follows a knight who plays a game of chess with Death. The title comes from the Book of Revelation, symbolizing the "silence of God."

Psycho(1960 film): Psycho (1960 film) is a renowned American horror movie directed by Alfred Hitchcock. Based on a novel by Robert Bloch, the film stars Anthony Perkins, Janet Leigh, Vera Miles, John Gavin and Martin Balsam. The plot revolves around an encounter between Marion Crane, an embezzler on the run, and Norman Bates, a timid motel owner, and the subsequent investigation led by a private detective, Marion's lover, and her sister.

Vertigo(film): 'Vertigo' is a 1958 American psychological thriller film by Alfred Hitchcock, based on the novel 'D'entre les morts'. It stars James Stewart as retired detective John "Scottie" Ferguson, who suffers from acrophobia and vertigo. Hired as a private investigator, Scottie follows a mysterious woman named Madeleine, leading to a twisted and suspenseful plot.

The Jazz Singer: "The Jazz Singer" is a 1927 American part-talkie musical drama film, directed by Alan Crosland and produced by Warner Bros. It is the first feature-length motion picture to include synchronized recorded music and lip-synchronous singing and speech. Its release marked the rise of sound films and the end of the silent film era. Featuring Al Jolson, the film showcases six songs and is based on a play by Samson Raphaelson. Adapted from his short story, the film's plot revolves around "The Day of Atonement."

Singin' in the Rain: 'Singin' in the Rain' is a classic American musical film directed by Gene Kelly and Stanley Donen. It stars Kelly, Donald O'Connor, and Debbie Reynolds, with a supporting cast including Jean Hagen, Millard Mitchell, and Cyd Charisse. The film portrays Hollywood in the late 1920s, showcasing the challenges faced by actors during the transition from silent films to "talkies".

The Sound of Music(film): The Sound of Music is a 1965 American musical drama film directed by Robert Wise. It stars Julie Andrews and Christopher Plummer and is based on the 1959 stage musical by Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II. The film tells the story of Maria von Trapp, a governess who marries Captain von Trapp and their escape from Austria during the Anschluss in 1938.

Casablanca(film): Casablanca is a 1942 romantic drama film set during World War II, directed by Michael Curtiz. The story revolves around an American expatriate who faces a difficult decision: to choose between his love for a woman and helping her resistance leader husband escape from Casablanca. The film is based on the unproduced stage play Everybody Comes to Rick's. It stars Humphrey Bogart, Ingrid Bergman, and Paul Henreid, with notable performances by Claude Rains, Conrad Veidt, Sydney Greenstreet, Peter Lorre, and Dooley Wilson.

Gone With the Wind(film): 'Gone With the Wind' is a 1939 American epic historical romance film based on Margaret Mitchell's novel. Produced by David O. Selznick and directed by Victor Fleming, it is set in the American South during the Civil War and Reconstruction era. The film follows Scarlett O'Hara, a determined daughter of a Georgia plantation owner, in her pursuit of Ashley Wilkes and subsequent marriage to Rhett Butler.

2001: A Space Odyssey: '2001: A Space Odyssey' is a 1968 science fiction film directed by Stanley Kubrick. It was inspired by Arthur C. Clarke's short story "The Sentinel" and explores a voyage to Jupiter by a crew of astronauts and their interaction with a sentient supercomputer named HAL. The film delves into themes of human evolution, artificial intelligence, and encounters with extraterrestrial life.

Metropolis(1927 film): Metropolis is a 1927 German expressionist science-fiction silent film directed by Fritz Lang. It is based on the 1925 novel of the same name by Thea von Harbou. The film stars Gustav Fröhlich, Alfred Abel, Rudolf Klein-Rogge, and Brigitte Helm. Produced by Erich Pommer, it is considered one of the first feature-length science-fiction films. Filming for Metropolis took place over 17 months in 1925-1926 at a cost of over five million Reichsmarks.

Star Wars: Star Wars is a popular American epic space opera franchise created by George Lucas in 1977. It has expanded into a wide range of films, television series, video games, novels, and more. The franchise's fictional universe is incredibly vast and has become a global pop culture phenomenon. Star Wars is also one of the highest-grossing media franchises ever.

The Wizard of Oz(1939 film): The Wizard of Oz (1939 film) is an American musical fantasy movie based on L. Frank Baum's children's novel of the same name. It was directed by Victor Fleming and stars Judy Garland, Frank Morgan, Ray Bolger, Bert Lahr, Jack Haley, Billie Burke, and Margaret Hamilton. The film was produced by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) and features a screenplay by Noel Langley, Florence Ryerson, and Edgar Allan Woolf. The music, composed by Harold Arlen and with lyrics by Edgar "Yip" Harburg, received acclaim.

Stagecoach(1939 film): Stagecoach (1939 film) is a classic American Western directed by John Ford, starring Claire Trevor and John Wayne. It is based on a short story by Ernest Haycox and depicts a group of strangers traveling on a stagecoach through perilous Apache territory.

King Arthur: King Arthur, a legendary British king, is a prominent figure in medieval literature called the Matter of Britain.

Baba Yaga: Baba Yaga is an enigmatic character from Slavic folklore with opposite roles. She can be depicted as a frightening old woman who eats children or a helpful figure. Often associated with forest wildlife, she flies in a mortar, wields a pestle, and lives in a hut on chicken legs deep in the forest.

Santa Claus: Santa Claus is a legendary figure in Western Christian culture. He is also known as Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, Saint Nick, Kris Kringle, or simply Santa. He brings gifts on Christmas Eve with the help of Christmas elves who make toys in his workshop and flying reindeer who pull his sleigh through the air.

Faust: Faust, a character from a German legend, is based on the real historical figure Johann Georg Faust.

Robin Hood: Robin Hood is a legendary outlaw from English folklore renowned for his archery and swordsmanship skills. He has been depicted as a nobleman or yeoman, and in modern versions, a returning crusader whose lands are confiscated by the Sheriff. Dressed in Lincoln green, he is famous for his acts of robbing the rich to help the poor.

Hua Mulan: Hua Mulan, a renowned figure in Chinese history, is a legendary folk heroine from the Northern and Southern dynasties. Though considered fictional by scholars, her story is depicted in the Wu Shuang Pu by Jin Guliang.

James Bond (literary character): James Bond is a character created by Ian Fleming in 1953, featured as the main protagonist in a series of novels, films, comics, and video games. Fleming wrote a total of twelve Bond novels and two short story collections, with his final two books being published after his death.

Sherlock Holmes: Sherlock Holmes, created by Arthur Conan Doyle, is a fictional British detective known as a "consulting detective." He is highly skilled in observation, deduction, forensic science, and logical reasoning. Holmes uses these talents to investigate cases for various clients, including Scotland Yard.

Peter Pan: Peter Pan is a Scottish-created fictional character who is a spirited and mischievous young boy that can fly and never ages. He leads the Lost Boys on the mythical island of Neverland, where he interacts with fairies, pirates, mermaids, Native Americans, and ordinary children from the outside world.

Tarzan: Tarzan is a mythical character who grows up in the African jungle, raised by great apes known as the Mangani. Despite encountering civilization, he chooses to reject it and becomes a heroic adventurer by returning to the wild.

Winnie-the-Pooh: Winnie-the-Pooh is a beloved fictional teddy bear created by A. A. Milne and E. H. Shepard. His name was first mentioned in a story published in 1925 by London's Evening News. The character is inspired by a toy owned by Milne's son Christopher Robin, purchased from Harrods department store.

Donald Duck: Donald Duck is a beloved cartoon character created by The Walt Disney Company. He is a white duck with a yellow-orange bill, legs, and feet, often seen wearing a sailor shirt and cap with a bow tie. Known for his mischievous and temperamental personality, Donald's speech is sometimes hard to understand. He is considered one of the greatest cartoon characters of all time and even has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Additionally, he holds the record for appearing in more films than any other Disney character.

Mickey Mouse: Mickey Mouse, created in 1928 by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks, is an iconic American cartoon character who represents the Walt Disney Company. He is an adorable, anthropomorphic mouse known for his red shorts, yellow shoes, and white gloves. Mickey embodies the spirit of a determined underdog, drawing inspiration from silent film stars like Charlie Chaplin. Despite his small size, he overcomes challenges through clever thinking. With his high-pitched voice, originally provided by Disney, Mickey has become one of the most beloved and recognizable fictional characters worldwide.

Mario: Mario is a popular character created by Japanese game designer Shigeru Miyamoto. He is the mascot of Nintendo and the protagonist of the Mario franchise. Mario is an Italian plumber living in the Mushroom Kingdom with his twin brother, Luigi. Their main goal is to save Princess Peach from the antagonist Bowser, utilizing various power-ups for added abilities.

Batman: Batman is a superhero from DC Comics, created by Bob Kane and Bill Finger. He is Bruce Wayne, a wealthy playboy who seeks justice for Gotham City after the murder of his parents. He trains himself physically and intellectually, taking on a bat persona to fight crime. Batman is aided by allies like Robin and Batgirl, and faces villains such as the Joker, Penguin, and Two-Face.

Spider-Man: Spider-Man is a popular Marvel superhero created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko, who made his debut in Amazing Fantasy #15. He has appeared in various forms of media such as comic books, TV shows, movies, video games, novels, and plays.

Superman: Superman is a popular superhero featured in American comic books by DC Comics. He was created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster and first appeared in Action Comics #1. Superman has been widely adapted across various forms of media, including radio, novels, films, television, theater, and video games.

Wonder Woman: Wonder Woman is a superheroine created in 1941 by William Moulton Marston and Harry G. Peter for DC Comics. Inspired by Marston's wife and life partner, the character's appearance embodies strength and femininity.