Human history: Human history is the story of how modern humans emerged in Africa 300,000 years ago. Initially, they lived as hunter-gatherers and later migrated out of Africa during the Last Glacial Period. By the end of the Ice Age, approximately 12,000 years ago, they had settled across much of the Earth.

History: History is the organized examination and recording of humanity's past events and developments.

Historical method: The historical method is a set of techniques used by historians to study and document past events. It involves analyzing primary and secondary sources, as well as material evidence like archaeology, to construct an accurate and reliable narrative. Historians skillfully identify sources, evaluate their authority, and combine their evidence to create a comprehensive picture of the past.

Civilization: A civilization is a complex society with key features including advanced governance, social hierarchy, urban development, and non-verbal forms of communication.

Archive: An archive is a collection of historical records or materials in any form, housed in a physical facility.

Archaeology: Archaeology is the study of human activity by analyzing material culture like artifacts, architecture, and ecofacts. It is both a social science and a humanities discipline, often classified as part of anthropology, history, or geography.

Archaeological culture: An archaeological culture is a collection of artifacts, buildings, and monuments from a specific time and place that represent the material remains of a past human society. It helps archaeologists understand and interpret ethnic and political groups, although debates about their connections are common. This concept is crucial in culture-historical archaeology.

Archaeological excavation: Archaeological excavation involves uncovering, studying, and documenting ancient artifacts and structures. It takes place at specific excavation sites or "digs" that can vary in size and duration of the project.

Radiocarbon dating: Radiocarbon dating is a technique that uses the behavior of a radioactive form of carbon to determine the age of organic materials.

Chronology: Chronology is the science of organizing events based on their order in time. It involves creating timelines or sequences of events and determining the actual sequence of past events.

Diplomatics: Diplomatics is a scholarly field that analyzes historical documents. It examines the conventions, protocols, and formulae used by document creators to understand how documents are created, information is transmitted, and the relationship between recorded facts and reality.

Epigraphy: Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions, including the identification and interpretation of the symbols used, their historical context, and cultural significance. It excludes the artistic value and historical importance as a document. An epigrapher is responsible for reconstructing, translating, and dating inscriptions. Epigraphy is essential for archaeology and is considered an auxiliary science of history. It can also aid in identifying forgeries.

Genealogy: Genealogy is the study of family lineage and history. It involves tracing lineages using oral interviews, historical records, genetics, and other sources. Genealogists use this information to demonstrate kinship and create pedigrees. The results are often presented in charts or narratives. Beyond genealogy, family history also encompasses community history and biographies.

Heraldry: Heraldry is the study of armorial bearings, including the design and display of coats of arms on shields, as well as related disciplines such as vexillology. Armory is the most well-known branch, focusing on the design and transmission of heraldic achievements which typically include a coat of arms, helmet, crest, and other accompanying symbols like supporters, badges, banners, and mottoes.

Historiography: Historiography is the study of how historians develop history as an academic discipline. It encompasses the body of historical work on a specific subject, examining the sources, techniques, and theoretical approaches used by historians. Historiography is discussed by topic and different approaches, such as political and social history. Since the nineteenth century, there has been a growth in historiographic literature. The influence of historians' own affiliations, like their loyalty to their nation, is a topic of debate.

Conspiracy theory: Conspiracy theory: Explanation for an event that suggests a powerful and secretive group is behind it, often politically motivated. Associated with prejudice, emotional conviction, or lack of evidence. Different from a conspiracy, it opposes mainstream consensus by qualified experts.

Palaeography: Palaeography is the study of historical writing systems and manuscripts. It includes deciphering and dating manuscripts, analyzing handwriting and printed media. The discipline also considers the cultural context of writing and the methods of production. Palaeography helps understand and authenticate historic texts, but precise dating requires interdisciplinary inquiry.

Flag: A flag is a piece of fabric with a distinctive design and colors used as a symbol, signal, or decoration. Flags also serve as graphic tools for basic communication and identification, especially in challenging environments. They are grouped into families based on design. The study of flags is called vexillology.

National flag: A national flag is a symbolic flag representing a nation, flown by both the government and citizens. It is designed with specific meanings for colors and symbols, often used separately as national symbols. The design of a national flag can be changed after significant historical events. Burning or destroying a national flag holds great symbolic significance.

History of art: The history of art explores the creation of objects by humans for various purposes, with a main emphasis on their visual appeal. It encompasses spiritual, narrative, philosophical, symbolic, documentary, decorative, and functional aspects. Art can be categorized into fine arts and applied arts, and it spans various media like architecture, sculpture, painting, film, photography, and graphic arts. Advancements in technology have led to the emergence of video art, computer art, performance art, animation, television, and videogames.

History of architecture: The history of architecture explores changes in buildings across cultures and time periods. It encompasses diverse traditions, stylistic trends, and dates. Architecture began with humans seeking shelter and safety. The term encompasses more than just buildings, including urbanism, civil engineering, naval, military, and landscape architecture.

History of film: The history of film traces the evolution of a visual art form that emerged in the late 19th century, utilizing film technologies.

History of literature: The history of literature refers to the progression of written works in prose or poetry that aim to entertain or educate readers. It also includes the development of literary techniques used to communicate these works. Not all writings are considered literature, as certain recorded materials, like data compilations, are excluded. This summary concentrates on the evolution of the defined works.

History of music: The history of music is a topic of great debate, as its origins are not clearly identified. It is considered a universal cultural practice, present in every known culture. There are varying theories on whether music predates, coexists, or follows the development of language. Many scholars have proposed different ideas, but no consensus has been reached. Different cultures have their own myths and beliefs about the invention of music, often tied to their religion, philosophy, or mythology.

History of opera: Opera, which emerged in 1597 with the creation of the first opera called Dafne by Jacopo Peri, has a relatively short history in the context of music. Since its inception, it has evolved alongside different musical trends, ultimately becoming associated with the contemporary concept of classical music.

History of theatre: The history of theatre is a study of its development over 2,500 years. It involves distinguishing theatre as an art form and entertainment from other performative activities. The focus is on the origin and growth of theatre as an independent activity since ancient Athens. Theatre traditions have thrived globally since the 5th century BC.

History of human sexuality: The impact of human sexuality on cultures since ancient times, encompassing its taboos, regulation, and social and political influence, is explored in the History of human sexuality.

History of philosophy: The history of philosophy is the study of how philosophical thought has evolved over time. It examines rational inquiry and argumentation, while some theories encompass myths, religion, and proverbs.

History of atheism: The history of atheism is rooted in the absence of belief in deities. Atheism asserts that there are no gods and rejects statements suggesting otherwise. Dating back to the sixteenth century, the term "atheist" emerged in English, and atheistic ideas have a significant historical influence.

History of political thought: The history of political thought is the study of chronological and conceptual transformations in human political ideas. It intersects with philosophy, law, history, and political science.

History of religion: The history of religion refers to written records of human religious beliefs. It started with the invention of writing about 5,200 years ago. Before written records, there was the prehistory of religion. A timeline of religion helps study comparative religious chronology. Writing standardized religious texts and made it easier to memorize prayers and rules. The Christian Bible includes oral texts passed down over centuries.

History of Buddhism: Buddhism originated in Ancient India around 5th century BCE, founded by Siddhārtha Gautama. It spread throughout Asia, significantly impacting Central, East, and Southeast regions. The religion's teachings influenced a large part of Asia.

History of Christianity: The history of Christianity is a chronological account of the development and transformation of the Christian religion, spanning from the 1st century to the present day. It encompasses the evolution of beliefs and practices, geographical expansion, and the emergence of diverse global forms.

History of Hinduism: The history of Hinduism includes various religious traditions in India, dating back to prehistoric times. Hinduism is considered the oldest religion, with diverse roots and no singular founder. It emerged as a synthesis of Indian cultures after the Vedic period and flourished during the medieval era. This happened in parallel with the decline of Buddhism in India.

History of Islam: The history of Islam encompasses the growth and influence of the Islamic civilization, covering political, social, economic, military, and cultural aspects. It is believed to have originated in the 7th century CE with Muhammad's mission in Mecca and Medina. Muslims consider Islam a continuation of the faith practiced by previous prophets, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Solomon, and Jesus, emphasizing submission to God's will.

Jewish history: Jewish history encompasses the journey and impact of the Jews throughout time, tracing their nation, religion, and culture as they developed and intertwined with diverse peoples, religions, and cultures.

History of science: The history of science is the study of scientific progress throughout ancient times to today, covering natural, social, and formal branches of science.

History of astronomy: The study of celestial bodies, known as astronomy, has its roots in ancient religious, mythological, and astrological beliefs. It dates back to prehistoric times and influenced various practices, including astrology. Even during the Copernican Revolution in the 16th century, astronomy remained closely intertwined with astrology in Europe. In certain cultures, astronomical data was utilized for making astrological predictions.

History of biology: The history of biology dates back to ancient times, spanning from Ayurveda and ancient Egyptian medicine to the works of Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Galen. It was further developed by Muslim scholars like Avicenna in the Middle Ages. During the European Renaissance, new organisms were discovered and biological thought was revolutionized through empiricism. Prominent figures like Vesalius, Harvey, Linnaeus, and Buffon played a crucial role in classifying life and studying development and behavior. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek's microscopy revealed microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory. Natural theology also influenced the growth of natural history.

History of chemistry: The history of chemistry encompasses ancient times to the present, showcasing the development of different branches. Ancient civilizations made significant technological advancements including fire, metal extraction, pottery, fermentation, and the extraction of chemicals from plants. They also discovered soap, glass making, and alloys like bronze.

History of linguistics: The History of Linguistics is the study of the scientific analysis of language form, meaning, and context. It involves the examination of language's development and evolution over time.

History of physics: The history of physics starts with the scientific revolution in the 17th century and grew rapidly in the 19th. It has made significant discoveries in the 20th century, which have applications in various natural sciences and technology. Physics can be divided into classical and modern physics.

History of geography: The term 'History of geography' refers to the different histories of geography across time and cultures. Geography has evolved into an independent academic discipline. The word 'geography' comes from the Greek word 'geographia', meaning 'Earth-writing', and was first used by Eratosthenes. However, there were recognizable geography practices like map-making before the term was coined.

History of geology: The history of geology is the development of the science studying Earth's origin, history, and structure.

History of technology: The history of technology is the study of the development of tools and techniques throughout time. It encompasses a wide range of advancements, from simple stone tools to complex genetic engineering and information technology. The term technology originates from Greek words meaning art and craft, initially applied to applied arts but now includes advancements that impact our environment.

History of agriculture: The history of agriculture began in various regions worldwide, leading to a significant shift in human lifestyles. Around 12,000 years ago, the development of agriculture resulted in the transition from nomadic hunter-gatherer societies to settled communities dependent on farming.

Green Revolution: The Green Revolution, or Third Agricultural Revolution, was a period of technology transfer that boosted crop yields. It started in developed countries in the early 20th century and later spread worldwide until the late 1980s. Notably, farmers adopted high-yielding varieties of cereals like dwarf wheat and rice, along with chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and controlled irrigation.

History of communication: The history of communication has progressed alongside political and economic changes, reflecting power dynamics. It encompasses various forms of exchange, from subtle interactions to mass communication. Communication dates back to the origin of speech around 100,000 BCE, with technology playing a role in communication since the use of symbols approximately 30,000 years BCE. Examples include cave paintings, petroglyphs, and ideograms. Writing, printing, and telecommunications have been significant innovations, culminating in the internet.

History of writing: The history of writing explores the evolution of language expression through markings, shaping societies and transforming social organization. Writing systems lay the groundwork for literacy and its associated social and psychological impacts.

History of computing hardware: The history of computing hardware traces the evolution of calculators to modern computers, highlighting significant advancements throughout the years.

History of transport: The history of transport involves technological advancements that have allowed for increased travel distances and exploration. From ancient times, tools like foot coverings, skis, and snowshoes expanded travel possibilities. With new inventions, travel time decreased and the capacity for transporting larger loads increased. Ongoing innovation aims to reduce costs and improve transport efficiency.

History of aviation: The history of aviation spans over two millennia, from early experiments with kites and tower jumping to supersonic and hypersonic flight using powered jets.

History of mathematics: The history of mathematics explores the origins and methods of mathematical discoveries. Prior to widespread knowledge, new developments were only found in a few places. From 3000 BC, Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations began using mathematics for practical purposes such as taxation and trade, as well as for understanding patterns in nature, astronomy, and recording time.

History of medicine: The history of medicine includes studying medical practices in past societies, exploring current practices, and is a multidisciplinary field seeking to understand the evolution of medicine throughout history.

History of psychology: The history of psychology is the exploration of the human mind and behavior, dating back to ancient civilizations like Egypt, Persia, Greece, China, and India. It is defined as the scientific study of behavioral and mental processes.

History of sociology: The history of sociology began after the French Revolution, emerging as a science of society influenced by Enlightenment thought. It was shaped by movements in philosophy of science and knowledge, which responded to issues like modernity, capitalism, urbanization, rationalization, secularization, colonization, and imperialism.

History of economic thought: The history of economic thought is the study of the different philosophies and theories in the field of political economy and economics from ancient times to the present. It explores various schools of thought and key thinkers. Aristotle questioned the ownership of property, while Thomas Aquinas emphasized the moral obligation of businesses to sell goods at a fair price.

Legal history: Legal history is the study of how law has evolved and why it has changed. It is closely connected to the development of civilizations and operates within the context of social history. Legal historians record the evolution of laws, explaining how they have changed and seeking to understand the origins of legal concepts. They analyze legal institutions as complex systems that interact with society, shaping and being shaped by it. Through statistical methods and analyzing case outcomes, legal historians gain insights into the practices, procedures, and effects of law on society. This analysis provides a more comprehensive understanding than traditional jurisprudence and case law can offer.

Military history: Military history is the exploration of past armed conflicts and their effects on societies, cultures, economies, and relationships, both local and international.

History of games: The history of games goes back to ancient times and is an important part of all cultures. Games are formalized forms of play that go beyond imagination and physical activity. They feature uncertainty, rules, competition, specific place and time, elements of fiction and chance, goals, and personal enjoyment.

History of sport: The history of sport dates back to 7000 BCE, with early connections to warfare and entertainment.

Prehistory: Prehistory is the period of human history before the invention of writing. It spans from the use of stone tools approximately 3.3 million years ago to the development of writing systems around 5,000 years ago. While symbols and marks were used early on, widespread adoption of writing occurred much later. Prehistory ended at different times in different regions and is less commonly discussed in societies where it ended more recently.

Early human migrations: Early human migrations refer to the initial movements of archaic and modern humans across continents, beginning around 2 million years ago with Homo erectus leaving Africa. Later migrations involved other archaic humans, such as H. heidelbergensis, who likely gave rise to Denisovans, Neanderthals, and modern humans. These early hominids likely crossed now submerged land bridges.

Stone Age: The Stone Age was a prehistoric period lasting around 3.4 million years, in which stone was predominantly used to make tools. It ended between 4,000 BC and 2,000 BC, with the introduction of metalworking, making up almost 99.3% of human history. Although basic metalworking existed during the Stone Age, the melting and smelting of copper marked its end. The Bronze Age followed, characterized by the use of copper alloys in place of stone for tool-making.

Paleolithic: The Paleolithic, also known as the Old Stone Age, was a period in human prehistory characterized by the invention of stone tools. It lasted from around 3.3 million years ago to about 11,650 years ago, marking the majority of human prehistoric technology.

Lower Paleolithic: The Lower Paleolithic refers to the earliest phase of the Paleolithic era, lasting from approximately 3.3 million to 300,000 years ago. It marks the introduction of stone tools by early humans and encompasses the Oldowan and Acheulean lithic industries.

Middle Paleolithic: The Middle Paleolithic is the second period of the Stone Age, spanning from around 300,000 to 30,000 years ago. It is known as the Middle Stone Age in African archeology. Dating varies across regions, but in Great Britain, it is estimated to have occurred from 325,000 to 35,000 years ago. It was followed by the Upper Paleolithic period. The Middle Paleolithic took place during the Chibanian and Late Pleistocene ages.

Control of fire by early humans: The early humans' control of fire was a crucial technological advancement that brought numerous benefits. Fire offered warmth, lighting, and defense against predators. It also facilitated the development of advanced hunting tools and the cooking of food. These cultural advancements led to human geographic dispersion, cultural innovations, and changes in diet and behavior. Moreover, fire enabled human activity to extend into the evening hours.

Upper Paleolithic: The Upper Paleolithic is the final phase of the Paleolithic period. It spans between 50,000 and 12,000 years ago, marking the emergence of early modern humans with advanced behaviors. This period ends with the onset of the Neolithic Revolution and the introduction of agriculture.

Behavioral modernity: Behavioral modernity refers to the distinct cognitive and behavioral traits that separate Homo sapiens from other human species and primates. This includes abstract thinking, planning, symbolic behavior, music and dance, hunting large game, and advanced tool use. These traits are supported by cognitive and cultural foundations, such as cumulative cultural adaptation, social norms, language, and widespread cooperation among humans.

Mesolithic: The Mesolithic, also known as the Middle Stone Age, is an archaeological period that bridges the gap between the Upper Paleolithic and the Neolithic. It marks the final stage of hunter-gatherer cultures in Europe and the Middle East. The Mesolithic has different time spans in different parts of Eurasia, typically covering 15,000 to 5,000 BP in Europe and 20,000 to 10,000 BP in the Middle East. It is sometimes referred to as Epipaleolithic outside of northern Europe and in regions like the Levant and Caucasus. The term is not widely used beyond Eurasia and North Africa.

Neolithic: The Neolithic, or New Stone Age, was a significant archaeological period marking the end of the Stone Age in Europe, Asia, and Africa. It brought about the Neolithic Revolution, which led to the adoption of farming, domestication of animals, and the transition from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to settled communities. The term 'Neolithic' was coined in 1865 by Sir John Lubbock as part of the three-age system.

Neolithic Revolution: The Neolithic Revolution, or First Agricultural Revolution, was a significant transition in human cultures during the Neolithic period. It involved a shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture and settlement, leading to the rise of larger populations. The development of settled communities allowed humans to study plants and led to the domestication of crops.

Cradle of civilization: A cradle of civilization refers to a place where civilization emerged independently from other locations. Key features include the development of urban settlements, sedentary populations, monumental architecture, social classes, writing systems, and a gradual transition from simpler societies to complex civilizations.

Proto-Indo-Europeans: The Proto-Indo-Europeans were a hypothetical prehistoric group in Eurasia who spoke the reconstructed common ancestor of Indo-European languages, known as Proto-Indo-European.

Prehistoric Egypt: Prehistoric Egypt refers to the time from earliest human settlement to the start of the Early Dynastic Period (around 3100 BC). It marks the reigns of Pharaohs Narmer or Hor-Aha, with Menes possibly also being mentioned as one of these rulers.

Ancient history: Ancient history is the time period spanning from the start of recorded human history to the late antiquity, around 5,000 years. It encompasses all continents and is divided into the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age based on the three-age system. Recorded history is believed to have begun during the Bronze Age, but the start and end of these ages differ across regions.

Bronze Age: The Bronze Age, from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, marked the use of bronze and early urban civilization. It is the second phase of the Metal Ages and part of the three-age system proposed by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen.

Chalcolithic: The Chalcolithic period was characterized by the use of smelted copper, bridging the gap between the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. It occurred at various times across different regions but was absent in Russia. Stone tools remained prevalent during this period.

Iron Age: The Iron Age is the last era of the three Metal Ages. It follows the Copper and Bronze Ages and is considered the final stage of the three-age division that starts with prehistory. Initially describing Iron Age Europe and the Ancient Near East, the concept now includes other regions of the Old World.

Classical antiquity: Classical antiquity refers to the period between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD, also known as the classical era. It was a time when ancient Greece and Rome thrived, exerting significant influence across Europe, North Africa, and West Asia. These civilizations, collectively known as the Greco-Roman World, were centered around the Mediterranean Basin.

Hellenistic period: The Hellenistic period refers to the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece (323 BC-31 BC), marked by the death of Alexander the Great and the emergence of the Roman Empire. It encompasses all ancient territories influenced by Greece, particularly the East after Alexander's conquests. The term "Hellenistic" evolved from the Greek word Hellas, which gradually became recognized as the name for Greece. The Hellenistic period is distinct from the "Hellenic" period, which refers specifically to Greece itself.

Late antiquity: Late antiquity refers to the period between the end of classical antiquity and the Middle Ages, lasting from the late 3rd century to the 7th or 8th century in Europe and surrounding Mediterranean areas. Historians disagree on the exact timeframe, with some proposing 150-750 AD and others suggesting 250 AD to around 700 AD. This era marked the universal end of ancient history across civilizations. The precise boundaries are a subject of ongoing debate, but in the West, the Early Middle Ages typically began in the 6th century or earlier within the Western Roman Empire.

Silk Road: The Silk Road was an ancient network of trade routes spanning over 6,400 kilometers. It operated from the second century BCE to the mid-15th century, connecting the East and West. The Silk Road facilitated economic, cultural, political, and religious exchanges. Some historians now prefer the term Silk Routes to highlight the intricate web of overland and maritime connections across Asia, East Africa, and Southern Europe.

Ancient Greece: Ancient Greece was a civilization in northeastern Mediterranean, lasting from the 12th–9th centuries BC to classical antiquity. It consisted of city-states and territories, briefly united under Alexander the Great. After this, it transitioned into the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine period.

Classical Athens: Classical Athens, located in Attica, Greece, was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece. It led the Delian League against Sparta in the Peloponnesian War and established Athenian democracy in 508 BC. This democratic system lasted for 180 years, reaching its peak during the Age of Pericles in the 440s to 430s BC.

Delian League: The Delian League was formed in 478 BC and was led by Athens. It was an alliance of Greek city-states, with approximately 150 to 330 members. Its main objective was to sustain the fight against the Persian Empire following the Greek triumph in the Battle of Plataea, which marked the end of the Second Persian invasion of Greece.

Greco-Persian Wars: The Greco-Persian Wars were conflicts between the Achaemenid Empire and Greek city-states from 499 BC to 449 BC. Cyrus the Great's conquest of Ionia in 547 BC triggered the clashes. The Persians appointed tyrants to govern the autonomous Greek cities, leading to ongoing trouble for both sides.

Mycenaean Greece: Mycenaean Greece, spanning 1750-1050 BC, was an advanced Bronze Age civilization in mainland Greece. Influenced by Minoan Crete, its distinctively Greek culture included palaces, urban organization, art, and writing. Mycenae, along with sites like Pylos and Athens, were prominent centers of power. Mycenaean settlements extended to Epirus, Macedonia, Aegean islands, Asia Minor, Cyprus, and even influenced the Levant and Italy.

Peloponnesian War: The Peloponnesian War was an ancient conflict between Athens and Sparta for control over Greece. It lasted for a long time and ended with the Persian Empire siding with Sparta, leading to Athens' defeat. Sparta's victory established their dominance over Greece.

Ancient Rome: Ancient Rome refers to the period of Roman civilization from its founding in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the establishment of Rome, the development of the Roman Kingdom, Republic, and Empire.

Roman Kingdom: The Roman Kingdom, or monarchy, was the earliest period in Rome's history when the city and its territory were governed by kings. It started around 753 BC and ended in 509 BC with the establishment of the Roman Republic.

Roman Republic: The Roman Republic was a period of classical Roman civilization from the fall of the Roman Kingdom to the rise of the Roman Empire in 27 BC. It marked Rome's expansion from a city-state to dominating the Mediterranean region.

Gallic Wars: The Gallic Wars were fought between Julius Caesar and various tribes in Gaul from 58 to 50 BC. The Romans emerged victorious after the Battle of Alesia, expanding their control over Gaul. Internal divisions among the Gallic tribes aided Caesar's success. Caesar's stated reasons for the invasion were defensive, but historians believe his primary motives were political and financial. Conquering Gaul allowed Rome to establish a secure border along the Rhine River and protect against attacks from Gallic and Germanic tribes.

Macedonian Wars: The Macedonian Wars were a series of conflicts between the Roman Republic and Greek kingdoms. They resulted in Roman control over Greece and the eastern Mediterranean. The wars included four against Macedonia, one against the Seleucid Empire, and a minor war with the Achaean League. The war with the Seleucid Empire was the most significant and marked the end of both empires' power. The wars against Macedonia gradually dissolved its independence and digested it into the Roman Empire. The outcome of the war with the Seleucid Empire was fatal to it.

Roman Empire: The Roman Empire was the ancient state of Rome, ruled by emperors after Octavian's assumption of sole rule in 31 BC. It covered Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia. The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 marked the end of classical antiquity and the start of the Middle Ages.

Crisis of the Third Century: The Crisis of the Third Century (235-284) was a time of near collapse for the Roman Empire. This period, also known as the Military Anarchy or the Imperial Crisis, was characterized by internal unrest and military instability. It was ultimately resolved by the military successes of Aurelian and the reforms implemented by Diocletian in 284.

Julio-Claudian dynasty: The Julio-Claudian dynasty refers to the first five Roman emperors - Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero.

Nerva–Antonine dynasty: The Nerva-Antonine dynasty was a succession of seven Roman emperors who reigned from 96 to 192 AD. The emperors were Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, and Commodus. The first five of these rulers are often referred to as the "Five Good Emperors."

Western Roman Empire: The Western Roman Empire refers to the western provinces of the Roman Empire during the period when they were governed separately from the eastern provinces. From 395 to 476 AD, there were distinct imperial courts governing the Western and Eastern provinces. Although the Romans saw it as one united entity, modern terms like Western Roman Empire emerged to describe the de facto independent political entities. The Western Empire ultimately collapsed by 476 AD, and the Western imperial court vanished by 554 AD after the Gothic War.

Fall of the Western Roman Empire: The fall of the Western Roman Empire refers to the loss of political control in the western region, resulting in the division of the territory among successor states. Factors contributing to the fall include weakened military, declining population, economic troubles, weak leadership, internal power struggles, religious changes, and invasions by barbarian groups. Environmental changes and diseases also had an impact. The collapse of the Roman Empire is a significant topic in ancient history and its causes remain relevant in discussions about state failures today.

Minoan civilization: The Minoan civilization, based in Crete, was a thriving Bronze Age culture known for its impressive architecture and vibrant art. Considered Europe's first civilization, it left a significant impact on the region.

Dacians: The Dacians were an ancient Indo-European group living in the region of Dacia, near the Carpathian Mountains and west of the Black Sea. They are connected to the Thracians and their territory includes present-day Romania, Moldova, parts of Ukraine, Serbia, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Hungary, and Poland. The Dacians spoke their own language, which is debated to be related to Thracian. Their culture was influenced by the Scythians and Celtic invaders in the 4th century BC.

Etruscan civilization: The Etruscan civilization, developed by the Etruscans in ancient Italy, was a federation of city-states with a shared language and culture. Their territory encompassed present-day Tuscany, western Umbria, northern Lazio, the Po Valley, Emilia-Romagna, south-eastern Lombardy, southern Veneto, and western Campania.

Macedonia (ancient kingdom): Macedonia (ancient kingdom) was founded by the Argead dynasty and later became the dominant state in Hellenistic Greece. It was located on the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, bordered by Epirus, Illyria, Paeonia, Thrace, and Thessaly.

Celts: The Celts were a group of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia, known for their use of Celtic languages and shared cultural traits. They included the Gauls, Celtiberians, Gallaeci, Britons, Gaels, Boii, and Galatians. The relationship between ethnicity, language, and culture among the Celts is debated. In current scholarship, 'Celt' primarily refers to speakers of Celtic languages rather than a single ethnic group.

Saxons: The Saxons were a Germanic people who lived in a large coastal region in northern Germania, now Germany. They were initially known as coastal raiders during the late Roman Empire and later became associated with the Vikings. Their origins are unclear, but they were believed to have settled near the German North Sea coast. The Saxons were in conflict with the Franks and Thuringians and had settlements in what would later become Normandy. Their earliest settlement area was likely Northern Albingia, which is close to the possible homeland of the Angles.

Sarmatians: The Sarmatians were a powerful group of nomadic peoples who controlled the Pontic steppe from the 3rd century BC to the 4th century AD. They were equestrian warriors of Eastern Iranian origin, known for their dominance in classical antiquity.

Scythians: The Scythians, also known as Scyths or Pontic Scythians, were ancient nomadic people. They migrated from Central Asia to modern-day Ukraine and Southern Russia during the 9th to 8th centuries BC. They were equestrian warriors and established their presence in the region from the 7th to the 3rd century BC.

Migration Period: The Migration Period, or Barbarian Invasions, was a significant period in European history when the Western Roman Empire fell and various tribes migrated and settled in its former territories, forming post-Roman kingdoms.

Alans: The Alans were an ancient nomadic people from the North Caucasus region, belonging to the Sarmatians. They may have been related to the Massagetae and the Yancai of Central Asia. The Alans migrated westwards and became dominant among the Sarmatians on the Pontic-Caspian steppe. They settled north of the Black Sea and frequently raided the Parthian and Roman provinces. The Goths weakened their power on the Pontic Steppe from 215 to 250 CE.

Huns: The Huns were nomadic people from Central Asia, living between the 4th and 6th century AD. They initially resided east of the Volga River. The Huns migrated westward alongside the Alans, an Iranian people. They reached the Volga River by 370 AD and eventually established a temporary dominion in Europe by 430 AD. During this period, they conquered the Goths and various Germanic tribes outside of Roman borders, causing many to seek refuge within Roman territory.

Goths: The Goths were Germanic people who had a significant impact on the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the rise of medieval Europe.

Vandals: The Vandals were a Germanic people who lived in southern Poland. In the 5th century, they formed kingdoms in areas including the Iberian Peninsula, Mediterranean islands, and North Africa.

Fertile Crescent: The Fertile Crescent refers to a region in the Middle East that has a crescent-like shape. It includes modern-day Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria, along with parts of Kuwait, Turkey, and Iran. Some sources also include Cyprus and northern Egypt in this region.

Mesopotamia: Mesopotamia, also known as present-day Iraq, is a historical region in West Asia. It was located within the Tigris-Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Besides Iraq, it also encompassed parts of Iran, Kuwait, Syria, and Turkey.

Sumer: Sumer is an ancient civilization that emerged in southern Mesopotamia around 6,000 years ago. It is considered one of the cradles of civilization along with Egypt, the Indus Valley, and Mesoamerica. Sumerians were skilled farmers who lived along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, growing abundant crops that allowed them to form urban settlements. They were also pioneers in writing, with the world's earliest known texts originating from Sumerian cities around 5,000 years ago.

Akkadian Empire: The Akkadian Empire was the first ancient empire in Mesopotamia, succeeding Sumer. It united Akkadian and Sumerian speakers under one rule. The empire was centered around Akkad and influenced regions across Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Anatolia. It conducted military expeditions as far as the Arabian Peninsula.

Amorites: The Amorites were a Bronze Age people from the Levant who spoke Northwest Semitic languages. They emerged around 2500 BC and eventually dominated territories including the Levant, Mesopotamia, and parts of Egypt. Their rule lasted from the 21st century BC to the late 17th century BC.

Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity): The Kingdom of Armenia, also known as Greater Armenia or Armenian Empire, was an ancient kingdom in the Near East from 331 BC to 428 AD. It was ruled by three royal dynasties: Orontid, Artaxiad, and Arsacid.

Assyria: Assyria, an influential Mesopotamian civilization, thrived as a city-state from the 21st century BC, evolving into a territorial state and eventually an empire until the 7th century BC.

Babylonia: Babylonia was an ancient state in central-southern Mesopotamia, centered around the city of Babylon. It emerged as an Akkadian speaking state in 1894 BC. Babylonia was known as "the country of Akkad" due to its connection to the previous Akkadian Empire. It often rivalled Assyria in the north and Elam in Ancient Iran. Under Hammurabi, it briefly became a major power in the region, succeeding other empires. However, it fell apart after his death, reverting to a small kingdom centered on Babylon.

Chaldea: Chaldea was a small country in Mesopotamia that existed from the late 10th or early 9th century BC to the mid-6th century BC. It was Semitic-speaking and located in the marshy southeastern corner of Mesopotamia. Chaldea briefly ruled Babylon and its people were eventually assimilated into the native population. The Hebrew Bible refers to them as כשדים (Kaśdim), translated as Chaldaeans, though it is debated whether this term truly means Chaldean or relates to the Kaldu of south Mesopotamia.

Ebla: Ebla was an early kingdom in Syria, located near Aleppo. It was a significant center in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC, challenging the idea that Egypt and Mesopotamia were the only dominant civilizations in the Near East during the Bronze Age. Ebla's discovery showcased the region as a key ancient civilization, and the first Eblaite kingdom is considered the world's first recorded world power.

History of ancient Israel and Judah: The history of ancient Israel and Judah begins in Southern Levant, Western Asia in the Late Bronze Age. The earliest reference to "Israel" is found in an inscription from ancient Egypt, around 1208 BCE. Ancient Israelites are believed to have developed from the Canaanite civilization. Two Israelite polities, the Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah, emerged during the Iron Age II.

Hittites: The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian Indo-European civilization in Bronze Age West Asia. They settled in modern-day Turkey in the early 2nd millennium BC, forming an empire centered on Hattusa. Known as the Hittite Empire, they reached their peak around the mid-14th century BC under Šuppiluliuma I, ruling over much of Anatolia, northern Levant, and upper Mesopotamia.

Mitanni: Mitanni was an ancient state that existed from roughly 1550 to 1260 BC. It was known by different names in various texts, such as Ḫabigalbat and Hanigalbat. Mitanni was located in northern Syria and southeast Anatolia. It was a Hurrian-speaking state with Indo-Aryan linguistic influences. Limited information is available about Mitanni since no historical records have been discovered in its excavated sites. Our understanding of this state is primarily based on comments made by neighboring powers in their texts.

Lydia: Lydia was an Iron Age kingdom in western Asia Minor. It was situated east of ancient Ionia in modern-day western Turkey. The Lydians were the ethnic group living in Lydia and their language, Lydian, belonged to the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family. The capital city of Lydia was Sardis.

Odrysian kingdom: The Odrysian kingdom was an ancient Thracian state that existed from the 5th century BC to the 1st century BC. It encompassed modern-day Bulgaria, southeastern Romania, northern Greece, and European Turkey. The Odrysians, the dominant tribe, established the first significant political entity in the eastern Balkans. Initially, the kingdom had no fixed capital until the late 4th century when Seuthopolis was founded.

Phoenicia: Phoenicia was an ancient Semitic civilization centered in modern Lebanon. Their territory extended from modern Syria to Israel, covering the entire coast of Lebanon. They were known for their thalassocratic culture and had significant influence through trade and colonization across the Mediterranean, from Cyprus to the Iberian Peninsula.

Phrygia: Phrygia, an ancient kingdom in Anatolia (now Asian Turkey), controlled the region around the Sangarios River. It later became a part of powerful empires during the classical antiquity.

Seleucid Empire: The Seleucid Empire was a Greek power in West Asia from 312 BC to 63 BC, established by Seleucus I Nicator, a Macedonian general after the division of Alexander the Great's empire. It lasted for nearly 250 years until being annexed by the Roman Republic under Pompey.

Sabaeans: The Sabaeans were a group of ancient South Arabians who spoke Sabaic. They established the kingdom of Sabaʾ in modern-day Yemen, believed to be the biblical land of Sheba. This kingdom was considered the oldest and most significant among the South Arabian kingdoms.

Trojan War: The Trojan War was a legendary conflict in Greek mythology around the 12th or 13th century BCE. It was fought by the Greeks against Troy due to Paris taking Helen from Menelaus of Sparta. The war is a crucial event in Greek mythology, recounted in various Greek literature, such as Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. The war lasted ten years, with the Iliad describing a four-day period while the Odyssey follows the journey of Odysseus back home. Other poems and writings explore different aspects of the war. Its tales influenced Greek tragedy and Roman poets like Virgil and Ovid.

Urartu: Urartu was an Iron Age kingdom in the Armenian Highlands, centered around Lake Van. It controlled the Armenian Highlands from the 9th to the 6th century BC, becoming a dominant power in the Near East. It frequently clashed with Assyria and left behind impressive fortresses and metalwork. The kingdom fell to the Medes in the 6th century BC. Urartu's inscriptions in the Urartian language and its role in Armenian nationalism make it significant.

Achaemenid Empire: The Achaemenid Empire, also called the First Persian Empire, was an ancient Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC. It was the largest empire of its time, covering 5.5 million square kilometers. The empire stretched from the Balkans and Egypt in the west to Central and South Asia in the east.

Atropatene: Atropatene, or Media Atropatene, was an ancient Iranian kingdom founded in 323 BC by the Persian satrap Atropates. Located in present-day northern Iran, it remained under the rule of Atropates' descendants until the early 1st century AD when the Parthian Arsacid dynasty took over. The region was conquered by the Sasanians in 226 and became a province governed by a marzban. Notably, Atropatene was the only Iranian territory to maintain uninterrupted Zoroastrian authority from the Achaemenid era to the Arab conquest, despite a brief period of Macedonian rule under Alexander the Great.

Bactria: Bactria was an ancient Iranian civilization in Central Asia, located in modern-day Afghanistan. It thrived in an area south of the Oxus River, protected by mountains on three sides: the Pamir to the north, the Hindu Kush to the south, and the Karakoram ranges to the east.

Caucasian Albania: Caucasian Albania refers to a former state in the Caucasus, now mainly part of Azerbaijan. The local Udi people identify themselves as descendants of the inhabitants. The original name of this state remains unknown.

Kingdom of Iberia: The Kingdom of Iberia was a significant monarchy in the Caucasus during Classical Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. It was known as Kartli in the Georgian kingdom and was either an independent state or under the control of larger empires like the Sassanid and Roman empires. Iberia was located in present-day Eastern Georgia and bordered Colchis in the west, Caucasian Albania in the east, and Armenia in the south.

Elam: Elam was an ancient civilization in modern-day Iran and southern Iraq. It was a prominent political force in the Ancient Near East. The name Elam comes from the Sumerian transliteration elam(a) and the Elamite haltamti. Its capital was Susa, and it was also known as Susiana in classical literature.

Medes: The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in an area called Media. They occupied parts of northwestern Iran and regions of Mesopotamia around 11th century BC. Their dominance in Iran happened in the 8th century BC. During the 7th century BC, they ruled over western Iran, but the exact extent of their territory is unclear.

Parthian Empire: The Parthian Empire, or Arsacid Empire, was a major political and cultural power in ancient Iran (247 BC - 224 AD). It was founded by Arsaces I, who conquered Parthia from the Seleucid Empire. Mithridates I expanded the empire by seizing Media and Mesopotamia. At its peak, it spanned from Turkey to Afghanistan and Pakistan. The empire thrived as a trade hub on the Silk Road, connecting the Roman Empire and the Han dynasty of China.

Roman–Persian Wars: The Roman-Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between the Greco-Roman world and the Parthian and Sasanian empires of Iran. Starting in 54 BC, these wars involved vassal kingdoms and nomadic allies. The conflicts spanned the Roman Republic, Roman Empire, and Sasanian Empire. Ultimately, the wars ended with the rise of the Muslim conquests, leading to the downfall of the Sasanian Empire and significant territorial losses for the Byzantine Empire.

Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian Empire, also known as the Second Persian Empire, was the last Iranian empire before it was conquered by Muslim forces in the 7th–8th centuries AD. It existed from 224 to 651 AD and was the second longest-lived Persian imperial dynasty. The empire succeeded the Parthian Empire and re-established Persia as a major power alongside the Roman Empire. It ultimately fell to the Arab conquest of Iran.

Sogdia: Sogdia, an ancient East Iranian civilization, existed between the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya rivers, encompassing present-day Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. It was initially a province of the Achaemenid Empire and later conquered by Alexander the Great in 328 BC. Sogdia saw various rulers throughout its history, including the Seleucid Empire, Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, Kushan Empire, Sasanian Empire, Hephthalite Empire, Western Turkic Khaganate, and ultimately fell to the Muslim conquest of Transoxiana.

Tocharians: The Tocharians were speakers of Indo-European Tocharian languages. They left behind about 7,600 documents from 400 to 1200 AD in the Tarim Basin. Although they were mistakenly identified with the Tókharoi of ancient Greek sources, Tocharian remains the common term for their languages. Their actual ethnic name is unknown, but they may have referred to themselves as Agni, Kuči, and Krorän.

Gupta Empire: The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire that existed from the 4th to 6th century CE. It covered a significant portion of the Indian subcontinent from 319 to 467 CE. Consideredby some as the Golden Age of India, it had notable rulers like Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II, and Skandagupta. The Guptas conquered several kingdoms, including those outside India, such as the Parasikas, Hunas, Kambojas, Kinnaras, and Kiratas.

Indus Valley Civilisation: The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization in South Asia from around 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE. It was one of the earliest civilizations in the Near East and South Asia, alongside ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. The IVC was the most widespread of these civilizations, with sites spanning from Pakistan to Afghanistan and India. It flourished in the alluvial plain of the Indus River and along monsoon-fed rivers in northwest India and eastern Pakistan.

Chola dynasty: The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty from southern India that ruled over the Chola Empire, a vast maritime empire. It traces its origins back to the 3rd century BCE and achieved imperialism under the Medieval Cholas in the mid-9th century CE. As one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, it governed territories until the 13th century CE.

Indo-Greek Kingdom: The Indo-Greek Kingdom, also known as the Yavana Kingdom, was a Greek kingdom that existed from c. 200 BC to c. 10 AD. It covered regions in present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northwestern India. It belonged to the Hellenistic era and marked the influence of Greek culture in the region during that time.

Indo-Scythians: The Indo-Scythians were nomadic Iranian people of Scythian origin who migrated from Central Asia to the northwestern Indian subcontinent (modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northern India) between the 2nd century BCE and 4th century CE.

Kushan Empire: The Kushan Empire was a syncretic dynasty established by the Yuezhi in the Bactrian territories in the early 1st century. It expanded to cover present-day Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Northern India. The empire's reach extended up to Saketa and Sarnath near Varanasi, where inscriptions from the time of the Kushan emperor Kanishka the Great have been discovered.

Magadha: Magadha, also known as the Kingdom of Magadha or the Magadha Empire, was a powerful ancient kingdom in southern Bihar, India. It was one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas and played a significant role in the Second Urbanization period. Ruled by various dynasties including the Mauryas, Magadha expanded to become a pan-Indian empire, encompassing parts of Afghanistan and the Indian subcontinent. However, it eventually lost much of its territories and became a small principality centered around Pataliputra after a defeat by the Satavahanas in 28 BC.

Maurya Empire: The Maurya Empire was a powerful Iron Age kingdom in South Asia, founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE. It was centered in Magadha with its capital at Pataliputra. The empire's control extended over the Indo-Gangetic Plain, but it relied on the loyalty of military commanders for its territorial reach. Under Ashoka's rule, the empire briefly held control over major cities and trade routes in the Indian subcontinent. However, it declined after Ashoka's reign and eventually dissolved in 185 BCE with the assassination of Brihadratha and the rise of the Shunga dynasty in Magadha.

Satavahana dynasty: The Satavahana dynasty was an ancient Indian ruling family based in the Deccan region. They began ruling in the late 2nd century BCE and lasted until the early 3rd century CE. Their kingdom covered present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharashtra, and parts of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka. The capital cities changed over time and included Pratishthana and Amaravati.

Vedic period: The Vedic period in India was a time when the Vedas, important religious texts, were written. It occurred between the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization and the rise of a new urbanization around 600 BCE. The Vedas provide insights into the historical and cultural developments of this period, particularly in the Kuru Kingdom, where the influential Brahmanical ideology emerged. Combining archaeological evidence with the Vedas allows us to understand the evolution of Indo-Aryan and Vedic culture.

Xia dynasty: The Xia dynasty is the first legendary dynasty in Chinese history, established by Yu the Great. It succeeded the Five Emperors and was later followed by the Shang dynasty.

Shang dynasty: The Shang dynasty, also called the Yin dynasty, was an ancient Chinese royal dynasty ruling in the Yellow River valley during the 2nd millennium BC. It succeeded the Xia dynasty and preceded the Western Zhou dynasty. Key historical accounts come from texts like the Book of Documents, Bamboo Annals, and Records of the Grand Historian. Modern scholars generally agree that the dynasty lasted from the 16th to the 11th centuries BC, with more certainty about its end date.

Mandate of Heaven: The Mandate of Heaven is a Chinese political ideology used in ancient and imperial China to legitimize the rule of the King or Emperor. It states that heaven grants the mandate to a virtuous ruler, known as the Son of Heaven, who holds supreme authority over Tianxia. If a ruler is overthrown, it signifies their loss of the mandate, often due to perceived unworthiness or displeasure from heaven expressed through natural disasters.

Zhou dynasty: The Zhou dynasty was a royal dynasty in China that lasted for 789 years, making it the longest in Chinese history. The royal house, known as Ji, held military control from 1046 until 771 BC during the Western Zhou period, and their political influence remained for another 500 years into the Eastern Zhou period. The establishment date is disputed, with some sources supporting 1046 BC and others favoring 1045 BC.

Spring and Autumn period: The Spring and Autumn period (770-481 BCE) in Chinese history, also known as Chunqiu, saw declining royal control and increasing political autonomy among regional lords. It was marked by conflicts, alliances, and the erosion of central authority. The end of the period is associated with the Partition of Jin, signaling the start of the Warring States period.

Warring States period: The Warring States period was a time in ancient China known for intense warfare, as well as reforms and consolidation. It succeeded the Spring and Autumn period and ended with the Qin state's victory in 221 BC, resulting in the first unified Chinese empire under the Qin dynasty.

Qin dynasty: The Qin dynasty was the first Imperial Chinese dynasty, originating from the state of Qin. It lasted from 221 BC to 206 BC and was established after the conquest of rival states. The Qin dynasty was led by Ying Zheng, who declared himself the first emperor, known as Shi Huangdi.

Han dynasty: The Han dynasty was an important imperial dynasty in China, established by Liu Bang. It followed the short-lived Qin dynasty and a period of conflict called the Chu-Han contention, and it was succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period. The dynasty was interrupted by the Xin dynasty, but is generally divided into the Western Han and Eastern Han periods. Spanning over four centuries, the Han dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history and has had a lasting impact on Chinese civilization. The Han people, the majority ethnic group in modern China, identify themselves as Han Chinese. The spoken language and written characters are known respectively as the Han language and Han characters.

Xiongnu: The Xiongnu were a nomadic tribal confederation in the Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu led them and established the Xiongnu Empire.

Three Kingdoms: The Three Kingdoms era (220-280 AD) was a period in China characterized by the division of the country into three dynastic states: Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. It followed the Eastern Han dynasty and was succeeded by the Western Jin dynasty. Additionally, the short-lived state of Yan on the Liaodong Peninsula is sometimes considered as a "4th kingdom."

Jin dynasty (266–420): The Jin dynasty of China (266–420) was founded by Sima Yan and lasted for 154 years. It emerged after the Three Kingdoms period and was followed by the Sixteen Kingdoms in the north and the Liu Song dynasty in the south. Sima Yan, son of Sima Zhao, established the dynasty and was previously known as the King of Jin.

Sixteen Kingdoms: The Sixteen Kingdoms, also known as the Sixteen States, was a chaotic period in Chinese history from AD 304 to 439. It was a time when northern China divided into short-lived dynastic states, founded by both non-Han and Han people. These states fought among themselves and against the Eastern Jin dynasty. The period ended with the unification of northern China in 439 by the Xianbei Tuoba clan's Northern Wei dynasty. This marked the beginning of the Northern and Southern dynasties era.

Northern and Southern dynasties: The Northern and Southern Dynasties were a period of political division in China from 420 to 589 AD. It followed the Sixteen Kingdoms and Eastern Jin dynasty, and is part of the longer Six Dynasties era (220–589). Despite civil war, this time saw thriving arts, technological advancements, and the spread of Mahayana Buddhism and Daoism. Many Han people migrated south of the Yangtze River. The period ended when Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty unified China proper.

Gojoseon: Gojoseon, also known as Joseon, was the first kingdom in Korea, established by the legendary king Dangun. It had an advanced culture and played a crucial role in the development of later centralized states. The term "Go" was added to distinguish it from the Joseon dynasty founded in 1392 CE.

Three Kingdoms of Korea: The Three Kingdoms of Korea, also known as Samhan, were ancient states that vied for dominance over the Korean Peninsula. Eventually, only three kingdoms remained on the peninsula: Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla. These kingdoms played a crucial role in shaping Korea's identity, and their peoples became the Korean people.

Jōmon period: The Jōmon period in Japanese history (c. 14,000 - 300 BC) was a time of cultural complexity and sedentism. It was characterized by a diverse population practicing hunting, gathering, and early agriculture. The term "Jōmon" comes from the pottery style found during this period, where wet clay was decorated with impressed cords. This pottery is considered to be among the oldest in the world.

Yayoi period: The Yayoi period in Japan marked the transition from Neolithic to Iron Age, spanning from late Neolithic to Bronze Age.

Hồng Bàng dynasty: The Hồng Bàng dynasty refers to a legendary ancient period in Vietnamese history known as the Hồng Bàng period. It started in 2879 BC with Kinh Dương Vương ruling over the kingdom of Văn Lang and lasted until the state was conquered by An Dương Vương in 258 BC.

Nanyue: Nanyue, an ancient Chinese kingdom, was founded by General Zhao Tuo and ruled by his family until 111 BC. It encompassed Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Hong Kong, Macau, southern Fujian, and parts of northern Vietnam. Established in 204 BC after the fall of the Qin dynasty, Nanyue initially comprised the Nanhai, Guilin, and Xiang commanderies.

Pyu city-states: The Pyu city-states were a group of ancient city-states in present-day Upper Myanmar. Founded by the Pyu people, they existed from the 2nd century BCE to the mid-11th century. This thousand-year period, known as the Pyu millennium, marked the transition from the Bronze Age to the emergence of the Pagan Kingdom in the late 9th century.

Ancient Egypt: Ancient Egypt was a civilization in Northeast Africa, centered around the Nile River and now modern-day Egypt. It emerged around 3100 BC with the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. The history of Ancient Egypt was marked by stable kingdoms and intermittent periods of instability called Intermediate Periods. Key periods include the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom.

Old Kingdom of Egypt: The Old Kingdom of Egypt, from around 2700-2200 BC, was an era known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders". It was characterized by the reigns of pyramid-builders like King Sneferu and the construction of the pyramids at Giza by the kings Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure. This period marked Egypt's first sustained peak of civilization and was the first of three significant "Kingdom" periods in the lower Nile Valley.

Middle Kingdom of Egypt: The Middle Kingdom of Egypt was a period of ancient Egyptian history that followed a time of political division known as the First Intermediate Period. It lasted from around 2040 to 1782 BC and saw the reunification of Egypt under the rule of Mentuhotep II. The Eleventh Dynasty ruled from Thebes, while the Twelfth Dynasty ruled from el-Lisht.

New Kingdom of Egypt: The New Kingdom of Egypt, or the Egyptian Empire, was a powerful nation from the 16th to the 11th century BC. It included the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Dynasties. Radiocarbon dating places its establishment between 1570 BC and 1544 BC. The New Kingdom followed a turbulent period and was succeeded by another challenging era. It was a prosperous time for Egypt and marked the pinnacle of its power.

Ptolemaic Kingdom: The Ptolemaic Kingdom was an Ancient Greek state in Egypt from 305 BC to 30 BC. Founded by Ptolemy I Soter, a general of Alexander the Great, it was ruled by the Ptolemaic dynasty for around 300 years. This dynasty marked a new era for a unique blend of Greek and Egyptian culture, and it ended with the death of Cleopatra VII.

Pharaoh: The term "Pharaoh" refers to the ancient Egyptian monarchs who ruled from the First Dynasty until Egypt's annexation by the Roman Empire in 30 BCE. While "king" was the more commonly used term during the New Kingdom, "pharaoh" began to be used during the reign of Akhenaten or Thutmose III.

Valley of the Kings: The Valley of the Kings in Egypt is an ancient burial site where pharaohs and powerful nobles were buried in rock-cut tombs during the New Kingdom period of ancient Egypt. This valley, also known as the Valley of the Gates of the Kings, was used for nearly 500 years between the Eighteenth and Twentieth Dynasties.

Kingdom of Aksum: The Kingdom of Aksum, also known as Axum or the Aksumite Empire, was a powerful kingdom in East Africa and South Arabia from ancient times to the Middle Ages. It was based in present-day Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, extending into Djibouti and Sudan. The kingdom reached its peak during the reign of King Kaleb, expanding into Southern Arabia.

Bantu expansion: The Bantu expansion is a theory explaining the migration of the Proto-Bantu-speaking people from Central Africa. During their migration, they displaced, absorbed, or eliminated other groups they encountered, including hunter-gatherers and pastoralists.

Ancient Carthage: Ancient Carthage was a powerful civilization in North Africa, first established as a settlement in present-day Tunisia by the Phoenicians in the ninth century BC. It grew into a prosperous city-state and later an empire, reaching its peak in the fourth century BC. Carthage was the center of the Carthaginian Empire, led by the Punic people who dominated the western and central Mediterranean. However, following the Punic Wars, Carthage was destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC, only to be rebuilt by them later on.

Punic Wars: The Punic Wars were a series of three conflicts between Rome and Carthage that lasted from 264 to 146 BC. These wars were fought on land and sea in the western Mediterranean region and lasted for a total of forty-three years. The wars resulted in significant material and human losses for both sides. Additionally, the four-year-long revolt against Carthage in 241 BC is also considered part of the Punic Wars.

Nok culture: The Nok culture refers to a population in Nigeria whose artifacts, named after the village of Nok, were discovered in 1928. They are believed to have migrated from the Central Sahara, bringing along millet and pottery. The Nok people settled in the regions of Gajiganna and Nok, potentially migrating from the West African Sahel. The culture emerged around 1500 BCE and lasted until 1 BCE.

Nubia: Nubia is a region along the Nile river known for its early civilization, the Kerma culture, lasting from 2500 BC to 1500 BC. It was conquered by the New Kingdom of Egypt and ruled by its successors for 400 years. The region is famous for the Kingdom of Kush, which conquered Egypt in the 8th century BC and ruled as the 25th Dynasty.

Kingdom of Kush: The Kingdom of Kush, also called the Kushite Empire or simply Kush, was an ancient kingdom in Nubia. It was located along the Nile Valley in present-day northern Sudan and southern Egypt.

Land of Punt: The Land of Punt was an ancient kingdom that traded with Ancient Egypt, known for exporting gold, aromatic resins, blackwood, ebony, ivory, and wild animals. Recent evidence suggests it was located in northwestern Eritrea and may correspond to Opone in Somalia. Some Biblical scholars identify it with the biblical land of Put or Havilah.

Ancestral Puebloans: The Ancestral Puebloans, also called the Anasazi, were an ancient Native American culture in the United States, residing in present-day southeastern Utah, northeastern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, and southwestern Colorado. Their origins can be traced back to the Oshara tradition and Picosa culture. The term "Anasazi" means "ancient enemies," given by the Navajo, but some contemporary Puebloans find it derogatory and object to its use.

Andean civilizations: The Andean civilizations were sophisticated societies in South America, spanning from Colombia to Argentina. They emerged on the Pacific coast and the oldest known civilization is the Caral in Peru. These civilizations developed independently and are considered one of the world's six "pristine" civilizations.

Chavín culture: The Chavín culture was a pre-Columbian civilization that existed from 900 BCE to 250 BCE in the northern Andean highlands of Peru. They influenced other civilizations along the Peruvian coast and resided in the Mosna Valley. The Chavín culture was characterized by a strong religious cult, advanced ceramics, improved agricultural techniques, and advancements in metallurgy and textiles.

Caral–Supe civilization: The Caral-Supe civilization was an advanced society in ancient Peru, with around 30 major cities. It thrived from 3500 BC to 1800 BC, and the oldest city, Huaricanga, was established around 3500 BC. This civilization is considered the oldest known in the Americas and one of six places where civilization originated independently in ancient times.

Mesoamerica: Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in central and southern Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. It is known for its indigenous cultures and the shared development of cultural traits.

Maya civilization: The Maya civilization was an ancient Mesoamerican culture known for its advanced temples, intricate glyphs, and sophisticated writing system. They were highly skilled in art, architecture, mathematics, and had a complex calendar and astronomical system.

Olmecs: The Olmecs were an early Mesoamerican civilization. They lived in the tropical lowlands of modern-day Veracruz and Tabasco in Mexico. They may have had connections with the Mokaya and Mixe-Zoque cultures.

Zapotec civilization: The Zapotec civilization thrived in the Valley of Oaxaca in Mesoamerica for over 2,500 years. They established the impressive city of Monte Albán, which featured monumental buildings, ball courts, and intricate tombs with valuable gold jewelry. This city served as the heart of their powerful state, which controlled most of present-day Oaxaca, Mexico.

Paleo-Indians: Paleo-Indians were the earliest inhabitants of the Americas during the late Pleistocene period. They entered the continent during the final glacial episodes. The term refers to the ancient period in the Western Hemisphere and is different from the Paleolithic era.

Clovis culture: The Clovis culture, a prehistoric Paleoamerican archaeological culture, existed from around 11,500 to 10,800 BCE at the end of the Last Glacial Period. It is known for distinct stone and bone tools found with Pleistocene fauna, including mammoths, at Blackwater Locality No. 1 in New Mexico. These artifacts were first discovered in the 1920s but gained prominence after a significant find in 1936.

Peopling of the Americas: The Peopling of the Americas refers to the migration of Paleo-Indians from the Mammoth steppe in North Asia to North America via the Beringia land bridge during the Last Glacial Maximum. These populations quickly spread southward, occupying both North and South America around 12,000 to 14,000 years ago. The Paleo-Indians are the earliest known populations in the Americas. Linguistic factors, blood type distribution, and genetic composition link indigenous peoples of the Americas to Siberian populations.

Post-classical history: Post-classical history, from 500 CE to 1500 CE, denotes the expansion of civilizations and trade networks. It is also known as the medieval era, post-antiquity era, or pre-modern era.

Early Muslim conquests: The Early Muslim conquests, also known as the Arab conquests, were initiated by Muhammad in the 7th century. Under the Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphate, a new unified polity in Arabia rapidly expanded, establishing Muslim rule on three continents within a century. The conquests matched the speed and extent of Alexander the Great's and had long-lasting consequences.

Feudalism: Feudalism was a medieval system in Europe (9th-15th centuries) that structured society through land ownership in exchange for service and labor. It encompassed legal, economic, military, cultural, and political customs.

Serfdom: Serfdom refers to the status of peasants under feudalism in Europe. It involved debt bondage, indentured servitude, and similarities to slavery. This system developed during Late Antiquity and lasted until the mid-19th century in some countries.

Guild: A guild is a group of artisans and merchants who oversee their craft or trade in a specific area. They originated as professional associations and often relied on grants of letters patent from rulers to regulate trade and retain control over tools and materials. Local governments also regulated most guilds. Members who cheated the public faced fines or expulsion. Guildhalls, used as meeting places, are a lasting legacy.

Mongol Empire: The Mongol Empire was the largest empire in history from the 13th to 14th centuries. It originated in present-day Mongolia and stretched from Eastern Europe to parts of the Arctic. The empire also extended into the Indian subcontinent, attempted invasions of Southeast Asia, and conquered the Iranian Plateau. Additionally, it reached as far west as the Levant and the Carpathian Mountains.

Mongol invasions and conquests: The Mongol invasions and conquests occurred from the 13th to 14th centuries, leading to the establishment of the vast Mongol Empire (1206-1368) that covered a significant portion of Eurasia. This period is recognized as one of the most destructive in history, and scholars believe that the Mongols may have inadvertently spread the bubonic plague, contributing to the devastating Black Death in the 14th century.

Nobility: Nobility is a social class below royalty and often associated with aristocracy. It holds exclusive functions and advantages over non-nobles, varying by country and era. Membership is typically hereditary and passed through paternal lineage.

Boyar: Boyar refers to the highest nobility in Eastern European states, such as Bulgaria, Kievan Rus', Moldavia, Wallachia, Lithuania, and Baltic Germans. They ranked just below the ruling princes, grand princes, or tsars, and held significant power from the 10th to the 17th centuries.

Knight: A knight is an individual honored with knighthood for their service to the monarch, church, or country, often in a military role. This institution originates from ancient Greek and Roman traditions.

Chivalry: Chivalry is a code of conduct that developed in Europe between 1170 and 1220. It was associated with medieval Christian knighthood and governed the behavior of knights and gentlemen. The ideals of chivalry were widely popularized through medieval literature, such as the Matter of France and the Matter of Britain, which featured legendary figures like Charlemagne and King Arthur and his knights.

Samurai: Samurai were Japan's hereditary military nobility from the 12th century until the late 1870s. Serving as well-paid retainers of the daimyo (feudal landholders), they held high prestige, special privileges, and were abolished during the Meiji era.

Middle Ages: The Middle Ages, also known as the medieval period, spanned from around 500 AD to 1500. It was the middle era between antiquity and modern times. The medieval period is further divided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages. The early medieval period is sometimes called the Dark Ages.

Black Death: The Black Death was a devastating bubonic plague pandemic that occurred in Western Eurasia and North Africa from 1346 to 1353. It is the deadliest known pandemic in human history, resulting in the deaths of approximately 40% to 60% of Europe's population. The plague was caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, primarily spread through fleas. However, during this epidemic, it likely also spread through person-to-person contact, leading to a more contagious form known as pneumonic plague.

East–West Schism: The East-West Schism, also known as the Great Schism or Schism of 1054, refers to the ongoing separation between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches since 1054. The split resulted from a series of theological disputes, including disagreements regarding the procession of the Holy Spirit, the use of leavened or unleavened bread in the Eucharist, the Pope's claim to universal authority, and the position of the See of Constantinople within the pentarchy. Initially, the majority of Christians worldwide were Eastern Christians, with Western Christians making up the remaining portion.

House of Habsburg: The House of Habsburg, also called House of Austria, is a significant European dynasty known for its prominence throughout history.

House of Medici: The House of Medici was an influential Italian banking family and political dynasty that gained power in the Republic of Florence in the 15th century. They originated in Tuscany and established the prosperous Medici Bank, the largest in Europe at the time. Their financial success contributed to their rise to political prominence, although they were not officially monarchs until the 16th century.

Normans: The Normans were a medieval population that emerged in Normandy, resulting from the mixing of Norse Viking settlers, indigenous West Franks, and Gallo-Romans. They later migrated and conquered territories like England and Sicily. The Norse settlements in West Francia were established after raids from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The legitimacy of these settlements came after Rollo, a Viking leader, pledged allegiance to King Charles III of West Francia in 911. Over time, Normandy developed a distinct Norman identity that evolved throughout the centuries.

Franks: The Franks were a Germanic people living near the Lower Rhine during the Roman Empire. They expanded their influence in the Middle Ages, becoming the rulers of western Europe, particularly in and near France. Through their joint efforts during the crusades, they greatly influenced the region. The Franks initially ruled the area between the rivers Loire and Rhine, and later extended their power over other post-Roman kingdoms.

Hanseatic League: The Hanseatic League was a medieval alliance of merchant guilds and market towns in Central and Northern Europe. It began in the late 12th century with a few North German towns and expanded to include nearly 200 settlements across seven countries. It served as both a commercial and defensive confederation, facilitating trade and protecting its members. The League's influence stretched from Estonia to England, and from Poland to Denmark and Norway.

Holy Roman Empire: The Holy Roman Empire was a polity in Europe headed by the Holy Roman emperor. It existed for nearly 1000 years from the Early Middle Ages until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars.

Inquisition: The Inquisition was a Catholic Church institution aimed at combating heresy through trials of suspected heretics. It began in 12th-century France and primarily targeted religious deviation among groups like Cathars and Waldensians. The Inquisition mostly resulted in penances, but unrepentant heretics were handed over to secular courts for execution or life imprisonment. The Medieval Inquisition, lasting until the mid-15th century, included investigations of other groups such as the Spiritual Franciscans, Hussites, and Beguines. Inquisitors were typically members of the Dominican Order, replacing local clergy as judges from the 1250s onward.

Investiture Controversy: The Investiture Controversy was a conflict in medieval Europe between the Church and the state over the appointment of bishops, abbots, and even the pope. It resulted in a power struggle between the Holy Roman Emperor and other European monarchies, leading to almost 50 years of conflict.

Kingdom of Germany: The Kingdom of Germany, formed in 843 by the Treaty of Verdun, was a primarily Germanic-speaking kingdom. It transitioned to the Ottonian dynasty in 919 and saw the king being elected by the stem duchies' rulers. In 962, Otto I became emperor, integrating East Francia into the Holy Roman Empire, alongside the Kingdom of Italy and, later, the Kingdom of Burgundy.

Knights Templar: The Knights Templar, also known as the Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, were a Catholic military order. Founded in 1119, they were based in Jerusalem and became one of the wealthiest and most influential orders in Western Christianity. The Knights Templar existed for around two centuries during the Middle Ages.

Northern Crusades: The Northern Crusades were military campaigns led by Catholic Christian orders and kingdoms to colonize and convert pagan Baltic, Finnic, and West Slavic peoples in the Baltic Sea region. These campaigns were conducted against both Orthodox Christian Slavs and non-Christian populations.

Ostsiedlung: Ostsiedlung refers to the medieval migration of ethnic Germans into Eastern Francia, East Francia, and the Holy Roman Empire and beyond. It resulted in the development of settlements and changes in social structures in areas previously inhabited by Slavic, Baltic, and Finnic peoples. Germania Slavica was the most settled region, but other areas were also affected. The Ostsiedlung covered regions such as Germany, Lower Austria, Styria, Livonia, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, and Transylvania.

House of Plantagenet: The House of Plantagenet, originating in Anjou, consists of four distinct royal houses identified by the name. This includes the Angevins and the main line of Plantagenets after losing Anjou, as well as the cadet branches of Lancaster and York. They ruled England from 1154, with Henry II, until 1485, when Richard III passed away.

Viking Age: The Viking Age (793–1066 CE) was a time during the Middle Ages when Norsemen known as Vikings conducted mass raiding, colonization, conquest, and trade across Europe, even reaching North America. It followed the Migration Period and the Germanic Iron Age, encompassing not only Scandinavia but also settlements by Scandinavians in various places. The term "Vikings" is commonly used to refer to the Scandinavians of this era, although most of them were not pirates.

Vikings: The Vikings were seafaring people from Scandinavia who raided, traded, and settled across Europe from the late 8th to the late 11th centuries. They explored as far as the Mediterranean, North Africa, the Middle East, Greenland, and Vinland. The Viking Age, as this period is known, had a significant influence on the early medieval history of Scandinavia, the British Isles, France, Estonia, and Kievan Rus'.

Wends: The term 'Wends' historically referred to Slavs living in northeastern Germany, encompassing diverse peoples and tribes. Today, Wendish communities are found in Slovenia, Austria, Lusatia, the United States, and Australia.

Anglo-Saxons: The Anglo-Saxons were a cultural group in Early Middle Ages England, speaking Old English. They originated from Germanic settlers who came to Britain in the 5th century. They developed their culture by interacting with the existing Romano-British culture. Most people in southern, central, northern, and eastern England identified as Anglo-Saxon and spoke Old English. Danish and Norman invasions later brought changes, but Anglo-Saxon language and political structures were the basis for the medieval Kingdom of England and Middle English. Old English heavily influenced modern English, accounting for around 26% of its words.

Battle of Hastings: The Battle of Hastings in 1066 marked the start of the Norman Conquest of England. Norman-French forces, led by William, Duke of Normandy, defeated the Anglo-Saxon army led by King Harold Godwinson. The battle took place near present-day Battle, East Sussex and resulted in a decisive victory for the Normans.

Kingdom of England: The Kingdom of England was a powerful sovereign state on Great Britain from the 10th century until 1707 when it combined with Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. It emerged from several Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and was a prominent European state in the medieval and early modern colonial eras.

Norman Conquest: The Norman Conquest was an invasion and occupation of England in the 11th century. Led by the Duke of Normandy, William the Conqueror, a diverse army of Norman, French, Flemish, and Breton soldiers conquered England.

Wars of the Roses: The Wars of the Roses were a series of civil wars fought in England between 1455 and 1487. These wars were fought between supporters of two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: Lancaster and York. The wars led to the extinction of the House of Lancaster in 1471 and the House of York in 1485. The conflicts ended with a politically arranged marriage that united the Houses of Lancaster and York, creating a new dynasty known as the Tudors. This new dynasty resolved the conflict by inheriting the claims of both factions.

Carolingian Empire: The Carolingian Empire was a dominant empire in western and central Europe during the Early Middle Ages. It was ruled by the Carolingian dynasty, starting in 751 as kings of the Franks and later kings of the Lombards in Italy from 774. In 800, Charlemagne, the Frankish king, became emperor in Rome, marking an attempt to transfer the Roman Empire to Western Europe. The Carolingian Empire is seen as the initial phase of the Holy Roman Empire's history.

Capetian dynasty: The Capetian dynasty, also known as the "House of France," is one of Europe's largest and oldest royal houses. It started with Hugh Capet in 987 and continued uninterrupted until 1792, ruling France. After that, different branches such as Valois and Bourbon took over until the French Revolution in 1792. The Bourbons saw a brief restoration from 1814 to 1830 before being replaced by the last Capetian monarch, Louis Philippe I. Cadet branches of the Capetian House, the Bourbons, still reign in Spain and Luxembourg.

Merovingian dynasty: The Merovingian dynasty ruled the Franks from the 5th century to 751. They united the Franks and Gallo-Romans, conquered Gaul, defeated the Visigoths and Burgundians, expanded into Raetia, and gained lordship over the Alemanni, Bavarii, and Saxons. Their realm became the largest and most powerful in Western Europe after the decline of Theodoric the Great's empire.

Duchy of Burgundy: The Duchy of Burgundy was established in the 9th century as a successor of the ancient Kingdom of the Burgundians. It became part of the Frankish Empire after its conquest in 532. In the 9th century, the French portion of the Burgundian kingdom became a duchy under King Robert II of France in 1004. The duchy was later passed down to King Henry I of France, who gave it to his younger brother Robert in 1032.

Kingdom of France: The Kingdom of France was a powerful European state during the medieval and early modern period. It had colonies in Asia, Africa, and North America, with New France being the largest.

Hundred Years' War: The Hundred Years' War was a series of conflicts between England and France in the Late Middle Ages. It started because of English claims to the French throne and involved other European powers. Lasting 116 years, the war had intermittent truces.

Francia: Francia, also known as the Kingdom of the Franks or the Frankish Empire, was a powerful barbarian kingdom in Western Europe. It was ruled by the Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties during the Early Middle Ages. Francia was the largest surviving Germanic kingdom from the Migration Period era.

Gothic War (535–554): The Gothic War (535–554) was a conflict between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy. It took place in various regions including Italy, Dalmatia, Sardinia, Sicily, and Corsica. This war was part of the ongoing Gothic Wars against the Roman Empire. Emperor Justinian I sought to regain the provinces lost by the Western Roman Empire during the Migration Period.

Guelphs and Ghibellines: The Guelphs and Ghibellines were opposing factions in medieval Italy. The Guelphs supported the Pope, while the Ghibellines supported the Holy Roman Emperor. They existed in the city-states of Central and Northern Italy and were active during the Middle Ages.

Kingdom of Sicily: The Kingdom of Sicily was a state located in southern Italy and Ifriqiya from 1130 to 1816. It was established by Roger II and succeeded the County of Sicily. The island was divided into three regions: Val di Mazara, Val Demone, and Val di Noto.

Lombards: The Lombards, a Germanic people, ruled over the majority of the Italian Peninsula from 568 to 774.

Republic of Genoa: The Republic of Genoa was a maritime republic in Liguria, Italy from 1099 to 1797. It was a dominant commercial power in the Mediterranean and Black Seas and a significant financial center in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries.

Republic of Venice: The Republic of Venice, also known as La Serenissima, was a sovereign state and maritime republic in Italy that lasted for over 1,100 years (697-1797). It was centered around the prosperous city of Venice and had overseas territories in Croatia, Slovenia, Montenegro, Greece, Albania, and Cyprus. Venice became a major trading power during the Middle Ages and further strengthened its position during the Renaissance. The majority of its citizens spoke Venetian, but the use of Italian, Latin, and Medieval Greek also became prevalent.

Papal States: The Papal States were territories in Italy ruled directly by the Pope from 756 to 1870. They were prominent in Italy from the 8th century until Italy's unification in 1870.

Al-Andalus: Al-Andalus refers to the Muslim-ruled region in the Iberian Peninsula. It encompasses modern Spain, Portugal, and France. The term describes the various Islamic states that controlled these territories from 711 to 1492. Al-Andalus reached its largest extent under Umayyad rule, covering most of the peninsula and part of southern France. However, it experienced constant boundary changes due to the Reconquista, eventually contracting to the south and becoming the Emirate of Granada.

Caliphate of Córdoba: The Caliphate of Córdoba was an Arab Islamic state ruled by the Umayyad dynasty from 929 to 1031. Its territory included Iberia and parts of North Africa, with its capital in Córdoba. It followed the Emirate of Córdoba and was proclaimed as a caliphate by Abd ar-Rahman III in 929. This period was known for its thriving trade, cultural expansion, and the creation of remarkable architecture in al-Andalus.

Reconquista: The Reconquista was a series of Christian military campaigns against Muslim kingdoms in al-Andalus, following the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. It started with the Battle of Covadonga, marking the first Christian victory over the Umayyad Caliphate. The Reconquista concluded in 1492 when the Catholic Monarchs conquered the Nasrid kingdom of Granada.

Kingdom of Aragon: The Kingdom of Aragon was a medieval and early modern kingdom in Spain. It corresponds to the modern-day autonomous community of Aragon. It should not be confused with the larger Crown of Aragon, which included other territories administered separately.

Kingdom of Castile: The Kingdom of Castile was a medieval polity in the Iberian Peninsula. It originated from the County of Castile and gained autonomy in the 10th century. In 1065, it became an independent kingdom. It was united with León multiple times but permanently joined after 1230. Castilian kings conquered lands from Islamic principalities in southern Iberia. Castile and León, along with their southern acquisitions, formed the Crown of Castile. This term also included their overseas expansion.

Visigothic Kingdom: The Visigothic Kingdom was a Germanic successor state to the Western Roman Empire, lasting from the 5th to 8th centuries. It encompassed present-day southwestern France and the Iberian Peninsula. Originally established by the Visigoths under King Wallia in Gaul, it expanded through conquest to control all of Hispania. The Kingdom maintained independence from the Byzantine Empire, which made limited and short-lived attempts to regain Roman authority in Hispania.

Pannonian Avars: The Pannonian Avars were a nomadic alliance from Eurasia. They established the Avar Khaganate, which covered the Pannonian Basin and parts of Central and Eastern Europe from the 6th to the 9th century. Also known as Obri, Abaroi/Varchonitai/Pseudo-Avars, or Apar to the Göktürks.

Kingdom of Bohemia: The Kingdom of Bohemia, also known as the Czech Kingdom, was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Central Europe. It served as the forerunner to the present-day Czech Republic.

First Bulgarian Empire: The First Bulgarian Empire, founded in the 7th century, was a medieval state in Southeastern Europe. It expanded its territory from the Danube Bend to the Black Sea, becoming a significant power in the region. This empire competed with the Byzantine Empire and became a major cultural and spiritual center in South Slavic Europe during the Middle Ages.

Second Bulgarian Empire: The Second Bulgarian Empire was a medieval state (1185-1422) that succeeded the First Bulgarian Empire. It thrived under Tsars Kaloyan and Ivan Asen II until the Ottomans gradually conquered it in the 15th century.

Byzantine Empire: The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centered in Constantinople. It survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire and remained a powerful force in the Mediterranean world until its ultimate collapse in 1453. The empire was known for its economic, cultural, and military dominance. While its citizens referred to themselves as Romans, the term "Byzantine Empire" was coined after its demise. The empire distinguished itself from its earlier Roman counterpart through its relocation to Byzantium, adoption of state Christianity, and the predominance of Greek over Latin.

Arab–Byzantine wars: The Arab-Byzantine wars were a series of conflicts between Muslim Arab dynasties and the Byzantine Empire from the 7th to the 11th century. It began during the Muslim conquests in the 7th century and continued until the mid-11th century.

Byzantine–Bulgarian wars: The Byzantine-Bulgarian wars were a series of conflicts between the Byzantine Empire and Bulgaria that began in 680 AD. The two empires continued to fight for about a century, with the Bulgarians, led by Krum, achieving significant victories. After Krum's death, his son Omurtag negotiated a thirty-year peace treaty. Simeon I of Bulgaria had successful campaigns against the Byzantines during his rule from 893 to 927. His son Peter I negotiated another long-lasting peace treaty. However, the Bulgarian state later experienced a period of decline.

Byzantine–Ottoman wars: The Byzantine-Ottoman wars were a series of conflicts between the Byzantine Greeks and Ottoman Turks, resulting in the downfall of the Byzantine Empire and the rise of the Ottoman Empire. The weakened Byzantines, unable to recover under the Palaiologos dynasty, suffered devastating defeats at the hands of the Ottomans. The wars concluded with the loss of Constantinople in 1453, marking the end of the conflicts.

Fall of Constantinople: The Fall of Constantinople refers to the capture of the Byzantine Empire's capital by the Ottoman Empire on May 29, 1453, after a 53-day siege. This event marked the end of the Byzantine Empire and was a significant turning point in history.

Cumans: The Cumans, also known as Kumans, were Turkic nomads from Central Asia. They belonged to the Cuman-Kipchak confederation and spoke the Cuman language. Known as Polovtsy in Rus', Cumans in the West, and Kipchaks in the East.

Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia: The Kingdom of Galicia-Volhynia, also known as the Kingdom of Ruthenia, existed from 1199 to 1349. It was a medieval state in Eastern Europe, with its territory primarily in present-day Ukraine. It played a crucial role in the aftermath of the collapse of Kievan Rus' alongside Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal. The main language spoken was Old East Slavic, and Eastern Orthodoxy was the official religion.

Grand Duchy of Lithuania: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state from the 13th to the late 18th century, encompassing present-day Lithuania, Belarus, and parts of Poland, Ukraine, and Russia. Founded by Lithuanians, it emerged from united Baltic tribes and embraced polytheism. Eventually partitioned in 1795, its territory was divided among the Russian Empire, Kingdom of Prussia, and Habsburg Empire.

Principality of Moscow: The Principality of Moscow, also known as Muscovy, was a medieval principality centered on Moscow. It later became the Tsardom of Russia. The rulers of Moscow were descendants of the first prince, Daniel, from the Rurikid dynasty.

Kingdom of Hungary: The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe for almost 1000 years. It emerged as a Christian kingdom in 1000 AD under King Stephen I. The monarchy was led by his family for 300 years. By the 12th century, Hungary became a significant power in Europe.

Hussite Wars: The Hussite Wars, also known as the Bohemian Wars or the Hussite Revolution, were a series of civil conflicts from 1419 to 1434. They involved the Hussites, a religious group, fighting against the combined forces of the Holy Roman Emperor, the Papacy, and European monarchs loyal to the Catholic Church. The Utraquists, a faction within the Hussites, eventually switched sides to support the Catholics.

Khazars: The Khazars were a Turkic nomadic people who established a powerful commercial empire in modern-day Russia, Ukraine, Crimea, and Kazakhstan in the late 6th century CE. They controlled a strategically significant region along the Silk Road, acting as a vital trading hub between China, the Middle East, and Kievan Rus'. For around 300 years, they dominated a vast territory from the Volga-Don steppes to the eastern Crimea and the northern Caucasus.

Kievan Rus': Kievan Rus' was a state in Eastern and Northern Europe from the 9th to the 13th century. It was ruled by the Rurik dynasty and comprised various peoples such as East Slavic, Norse, and Finnic. The modern nations of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine consider Kievan Rus' their cultural ancestor, with its name derived from present-day Ukraine's capital. At its height, Kievan Rus' stretched from the White Sea to the Black Sea and from the Vistula River to the Taman Peninsula, uniting East Slavic tribes.

Great Moravia: Great Moravia, also known as Moravia, was the initial significant state predominantly inhabited by West Slavs in Central Europe. It potentially encompassed areas now within the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Austria, Germany, Poland, Romania, Croatia, Serbia, and Ukraine. Preceding formations in these lands were the tribal union of Samo and the Pannonian Avar state.

Novgorod Republic: The Novgorod Republic was a medieval state in northern Russia from the 12th to 15th centuries, with Novgorod as its capital. It stretched from the Gulf of Finland to the northern Ural Mountains. The republic thrived as an influential trading post of the Hanseatic League, and its people were heavily influenced by Byzantine culture.

Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War: The Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War (1409-1411) was a conflict between the Teutonic Knights and the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. It started with a Teutonic invasion of Poland, sparked by a Samogitian uprising. A nine-month truce was brokered by Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia due to both sides' lack of readiness for a full-scale war.

Rurikids: The Rurik dynasty, or Rurikids, was a noble lineage founded by Prince Rurik, who supposedly settled in Novgorod in 862. They ruled Kievan Rus' and its principalities after its disintegration.

Teutonic Order: The Teutonic Order, founded around 1190 in Acre, supported Christian pilgrims and established hospitals in the Holy Land. Also known as the Teutonic Knights, they were a Catholic crusading military order, promoting Catholic rule in the Holy Land and the Baltics. Additionally, they provided military protection for Catholics in Eastern Europe.

Vladimir-Suzdal: Vladimir-Suzdal, also known as the Principality of Vladimir-Suzdal, was a major principality in Russia from 1157 to 1331. It succeeded Kievan Rus' and was centered in Vladimir-on-Klyazma. After being conquered by the Mongol Empire, it became a self-governed state under its own nobility. The principality later divided into smaller principalities, and a jarlig from the Golden Horde mandated a governorship by a Rurikid sovereign.

Volga Bulgaria: Volga Bulgaria was a historical Bulgar state in European Russia from the 7th to 13th centuries. It was located at the confluence of the Volga and Kama rivers. The state was multi-ethnic, with Bulgars, Volga Finns, Varangians, and East Slavs. Volga Bulgaria had a strategic position that allowed it to establish a trade monopoly with Norse, Cumans, and Pannonian Avars.

Ajuran Sultanate: The Ajuran Sultanate, also known as Ajuuraan, was an influential Somali Empire in the Middle Ages. It controlled trade in the northern Indian Ocean and ruled over large parts of the Horn of Africa. The empire successfully defended itself against Oromo and Portuguese invasions, and re-established ancient maritime trading routes. The coastal provinces experienced a flourishing trade with various kingdoms and empires from Asia, Europe, and Africa.

Almoravid dynasty: The Almoravid dynasty was an imperial Muslim dynasty centered in present-day Morocco that ruled from the 11th to the 12th century. They formed a coalition of nomadic Berber tribes and built an empire stretching across the western Maghreb and Al-Andalus. Marrakesh was established as their capital city. Eventually, they were overthrown by the Almohads in 1147.

Fatimid Caliphate: The Fatimid Caliphate was a Shi'a dynasty ruling from the 10th to the 12th centuries. Descending from Prophet Muhammad's daughter, Fatima, they were acknowledged as the true imams by various Isma'ili communities. Originally part of the Abbasid Caliphate, the Fatimids conquered Ifriqiya, established al-Mahdiyya, and later made Egypt their capital. Spanning North Africa and West Asia, their rule extended from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea, including parts of Maghreb, Sicily, the Levant, and the Hejaz.

Ghana Empire: The Ghana Empire, also known as Ghana, Ghanata, or Wagadou, was a West African classical to post-classical era empire located in present-day Mauritania and Mali. It existed from around the 4th century B.C.E to the 1300s C.E. After the collapse of the Dhar Tichitt culture, the empire emerged between the 1st and 3rd centuries C.E. It was an influential state in the region until its eventual dissolution in the 1300s.

Kanem–Bornu Empire: The Kanem–Bornu Empire was a historical realm in present-day Nigeria, Niger, Cameroon, Libya, and Chad. Referred to as the Kanem Empire by Arab geographers since the 8th century AD, it later became the independent kingdom of Bornu, which lasted until 1900.

Mali Empire: The Mali Empire was a prominent West African empire (1226-1670) founded by Sundiata Keita. It was known for its incredibly wealthy rulers, notably Mansa Musa. Mali reached its height as the largest empire in West Africa, spreading its language, laws, and customs, profoundly influencing the region's culture.

Songhai Empire: The Songhai Empire was a powerful African state in the 15th-16th centuries, known for its size and influence. It was ruled by the Songhai people, with Gao as its capital. Timbuktu and Djenné were important trade cities that were later conquered. The empire was initially led by the Sonni dynasty and later replaced by the Askia dynasty.

Trans-Saharan trade: The Trans-Saharan trade is the exchange of goods between sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa, involving travel across the Sahara desert. This trade flourished from the 8th century to the early 17th century. The Sahara was once a different environment, with pastoralism, settlements, and pottery in Libya and Algeria since 7000 BC. Cattle were introduced to the Central Sahara around 4000-3500 BC. Notably, ancient rock paintings in currently arid regions depict plants and animals that no longer exist in the modern desert.

Aztecs: The Aztecs were a Mesoamerican culture that thrived in central Mexico from 1300 to 1521. They were a diverse group of people who spoke the Nahuatl language and controlled parts of Mesoamerica for centuries. They had city-states that sometimes formed alliances or empires, and the most notable of these was the Aztec Empire, which consisted of three city-states. The term "Aztecs" is used to refer to Mexica of Tenochtitlan and other Nahua groups in both the prehispanic and Spanish colonial eras. The meaning of "Aztec" has been debated by scholars since the 19th century.

Inca Empire: The Inca Empire, known as Tawantinsuyu, was the largest pre-Columbian empire in the Americas. Its capital was Cusco in Peru. Emerging in the 13th century, it encompassed a vast territory. However, it was conquered by the Spanish, and by 1572, the empire was completely subdued.

Chimor: Chimor was a political group of the Chimú culture, which emerged around 900 CE after the decline of the Moche culture. It was conquered by the Inca emperor Topa Inca Yupanqui in 1470 and spanned a vast coastline of 1,000 kilometers during the Late Intermediate Period.

Mississippian culture: The Mississippian culture was a Native American civilization that thrived from 800 to 1600 in the Midwest, East, and Southeastern United States. They built large earthen mounds and had urban settlements linked by trade networks. Cahokia, the largest city and religious center, was located in southern Illinois.

Moche culture: The Moche culture thrived in northern Peru from around 100 to 700 AD. They were not a centralized empire, but instead a collection of autonomous polities sharing a common culture. They left behind remarkable iconography and monumental architecture.

Pre-Columbian era: The Pre-Columbian era refers to the time before European colonization in the Americas. It starts with the first inhabitation of the Americas and ends when Indigenous cultures were significantly affected by Europeans. This era covers a wide range of Indigenous history until Christopher Columbus's voyage in 1492, and sometimes even beyond.

Wari culture: The Wari culture refers to an ancient civilization that thrived in modern-day Peru from 500 to 1000 AD. They were located in the south-central Andes region as well as the coastal area.

Islamic Golden Age: The Islamic Golden Age, from the 8th to the 13th century, marked an outstanding era of scientific, economic, and cultural prosperity in Islamic history.

Crusades: The Crusades were a series of religious wars led by the Christian Latin Church in the Middle Ages. They aimed to reconquer Jerusalem and surrounding areas from Muslim rule. The First Crusade was successful in conquering Jerusalem in 1099, leading to numerous subsequent military campaigns. The Crusades played a pivotal role in European history for centuries but declined after the 15th century.

Crusader states: Crusader states were Catholic polities established in the Levant from 1098 to 1291. These states were created following the First Crusade to reclaim the Holy Land. The four states were the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem. They covered regions in modern-day Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, and Jordan. The term "Outremer" is often used as a synonym for Crusader states.

Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire, also called the Turkish Empire, was a vast empire that governed Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to the early 20th centuries. It extended its control over parts of southeastern Central Europe from the 16th to the 18th century.

Abbasid Caliphate: The Abbasid Caliphate, founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, ruled from Baghdad in modern-day Iraq after overthrowing the Umayyad Caliphate in 750 CE. The revolution began in Khorasan and later moved to Baghdad, which became a center of learning and cultural exchange known as the "Centre of Learning."

Sultanate of Rum: The Sultanate of Rum was a Turco-Persian Sunni Muslim state that emerged after the Seljuk Turks conquered Byzantine territories and peoples in Anatolia. The name "Rum" was used to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire and its people, derived from ancient Aramaic, Parthian, and Greek names for Rome.

Umayyad Caliphate: The Umayyad Caliphate, also known as the Umayyad Empire, was the second caliphate after Muhammad's death. It was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty, with Muawiya as the first caliph. Syria was their main power base with Damascus as the capital.

Mamluk: The Mamluks were enslaved soldiers and mercenaries who held influential positions in the military and administration of Arab and Ottoman dynasties in the Muslim world. They were ethnically diverse and originated from non-Arab backgrounds, later gaining freedom in certain cases.

Aq Qoyunlu: The Aq Qoyunlu, also known as the White Sheep Turkomans, were a Sunni Turkoman tribal confederation in the Diyarbakir region. They ruled eastern Turkey from 1378 to 1503, expanding their empire to include Armenia, Azerbaijan, parts of Iran, Iraq, and Oman. The Aq Qoyunlu empire thrived under Uzun Hasan.

Göktürks: The Göktürks, also known as the Türks or Blue Turks, were a nomadic confederation of Turkic peoples in medieval Inner Asia. They succeeded the Rouran Khaganate and established the First Turkic Khaganate, shaping the future geolocation, culture, and beliefs of Turkic peoples.

Golden Horde: The Golden Horde was a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century. It originated as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire and became a separate khanate after the division of the empire in 1259. Also known as the Kipchak Khanate or Ulus of Jochi, it replaced the earlier Cuman-Kipchak confederation.

Qara Qoyunlu: The Qara Qoyunlu, also called the Black Sheep Turkomans, were Persian-influenced Muslim Turkoman rulers who controlled the region now known as Azerbaijan, Armenia, Iran, Turkey, and Iraq from 1374 to 1468.

Muslim conquest of Persia: The Muslim conquest of Persia was a military campaign led by the Rashidun Caliphate from 632 to 654, resulting in the downfall of the Sasanian Empire and the decline of the Zoroastrian religion in Iran.

Khwarazmian Empire: The Khwarazmian Empire was a Persianate, Sunni Muslim empire of Turkic mamluk origin. It ruled over regions of Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Iran from 1077 to 1231. Initially, it was a vassal of other empires but later became independent rulers. The empire was eventually conquered by the Mongols in 1219-1221.

Seljuk Empire: The Seljuk Empire, a prominent medieval empire, was founded and governed by the Qïnïq branch of Oghuz Turks. It stretched from Anatolia and the Levant to the Hindu Kush, and from Central Asia to the Persian Gulf, covering 3.9 million square kilometers. It embodied a blend of Turkic and Persian cultural influences.

Uyghur Khaganate: The Uyghur Khaganate was a Turkic empire in the mid-8th to 9th centuries, governed by the Orkhon Uyghur nobility. It functioned as a tribal confederation called Jiu Xing in Chinese, and Toquz Oghuz or Toquz Tughluq in the native language.

Delhi Sultanate: The Delhi Sultanate was a medieval empire centered in Delhi that spanned over the Indian subcontinent for 320 years (1206-1526). After the Ghurid invasion, it was ruled successively by five dynasties: Mamluk, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodi. The Sultanate covered vast territories in present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and parts of southern Nepal.

Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent: The Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent occurred from the 13th to the 18th centuries. Earlier invasions took place in the northwestern region, including the Umayyad campaigns in the 8th century, and faced resistance from the Rajputs.

Vijayanagara Empire: The Vijayanagara Empire was a medieval Indian empire that covered much of Southern India. It was established in 1336 by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, and grew by defeating southern dynasties and resisting Muslim invasions. At its peak, it conquered most of Southern India and expanded to regions near the Krishna River.

Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period: The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period was a time of political turmoil in Imperial China from 907 to 979. Numerous dynastic states emerged in the Central Plain and South China, leading to a prolonged period of political division in Chinese history.

Goryeo: Goryeo was a Korean state from 918 to 1392, which unified the Korean Peninsula and incorporated ruling class from the northern kingdom of Balhae. The name "Korea" is derived from Goryeo and it played a crucial role in merging the identities of Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla. Goryeo was the successor state to Later Goguryeo and Goguryeo.

Heian period: The Heian period (794-1185) is the last division of classical Japanese history. It signifies a time of cultural growth and declining Chinese influence. The imperial court flourished, showcasing notable art, particularly poetry and literature. This era witnessed the emergence of katakana and hiragana, unique Japanese scripts that led to the creation of renowned vernacular literature, often composed by court women.

Jin dynasty (1115–1234): The Jin dynasty, also known as the Great Jin or Jurchen Jin, was an imperial dynasty in China (1115-1234). It is often written as Kin, Jinn, or Chin in English to distinguish it from an earlier Jin dynasty. Ruled by the Wanyan clan, who were of Jurchen descent.

Liao dynasty: The Liao dynasty, or Khitan Empire, was an imperial dynasty in China from 916 to 1125. It was ruled by the Yelü clan of the Khitan people and emerged after the fall of the Tang dynasty. The Liao dynasty controlled Northeast China, the Mongolian Plateau, northern Korea, parts of the Russian Far East, and the northern tip of the North China Plain.

Ninja: Ninjas, also known as shinobi, were covert agents in feudal Japan trained in martial arts, including ninjutsu. They excelled in siege, infiltration, ambush, reconnaissance, espionage, deception, and bodyguarding. Despite their remarkable skills, their irregular warfare tactics were considered dishonorable compared to the samurai. The origins of ninjas can be traced back to at least the 12th century, with their prominence emerging in the 15th century during the Sengoku period.

Song dynasty: The Song dynasty was a Chinese imperial dynasty from 960 to 1279. It was founded by Emperor Taizu, who overthrew the Later Zhou dynasty and united the Ten Kingdoms. The Song often clashed with the Liao, Western Xia, and Jin dynasties in the north. After retreating from the Jin dynasty's attacks, the Song was eventually conquered by the Yuan dynasty led by the Mongols.

Sui dynasty: The Sui dynasty was a short-lived Chinese imperial dynasty from 581 to 618. It reunified China and ended a period of political division. The Sui rebuilt the country, reformed imperial institutions, and laid the foundation for the prosperous Tang dynasty.

Tang dynasty: The Tang dynasty was an imperial dynasty in China from 618 to 907. It was a high point in Chinese civilization and known for its cosmopolitan culture. The Tang rulers expanded their territory through military campaigns, rivaling the Han dynasty in size.

An Lushan rebellion: The An Lushan rebellion was an eight-year civil war in the Tang dynasty caused by a commandery rebellion. It aimed to overthrow the Imperial Government and establish the Yan dynasty. It was led by An Lushan and later by his son An Qingxu before being taken over by Shi Siming and then Shi Chaoyi. The rebellion was ultimately crushed by Tang loyalists. It is also known as the An-Shi rebellion or Tianbao Chaos in Chinese history.

Tibetan Empire: The Tibetan Empire was a powerful empire on the Tibetan Plateau, founded in the 7th century. It expanded under the reign of Songtsen Gampo, Trisong Detsen, and Rapalchen. In its peak, it stretched from Chang'an to modern India and the Bay of Bengal.

Yuan dynasty: The Yuan dynasty, also known as the Great Yuan, was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty in China that lasted from 1271 to 1368. Kublai Khan, the fifth khagan-emperor of the Mongol Empire, established this dynasty after the division of the empire. It succeeded the Song dynasty and was followed by the Ming dynasty in Chinese history.

Champa: Champa was a collection of Cham polities in central and southern Vietnam from the 2nd century AD until 1832. It emerged after a rebellion against Chinese rule and lasted until it was annexed by the Vietnamese Nguyen dynasty. Champa was known by different names in different languages and had significant influence in the region.

Khmer Empire: The Khmer Empire, also known as Kambuja, was a Hindu-Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia centered around hydraulic cities in modern-day northern Cambodia. Lasting from 802 to 1431, it emerged from the previous Chenla civilization and is referred to as the Angkor period in Cambodian history. The empire's capital, Angkor, gave it its name. The Khmer Empire controlled or influenced most of mainland Southeast Asia and even reached into southern China, making it larger than the Byzantine Empire at its height.

Majapahit: Majapahit, also called Wilwatikta, was a dominant Hindu-Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia (1293-1527), centered on Java. Led by Hayam Wuruk and his wise prime minister, Gajah Mada, it thrived from 1350 to 1389 and expanded vast conquests throughout the region. The Nagarakretagama (1365) mentioned Majapahit as an empire with 98 tributaries, encompassing present-day Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei, southern Thailand, Timor Leste, and southwestern Philippines, yet discussions persist about the empire's exact reach and influence over its vassals.

Malacca Sultanate: The Malacca Sultanate was a Malay dynasty centered in present-day Malacca, Malaysia. It was established around 1400 by King Parameswara, also known as Iskandar Shah. The sultanate became a major port and controlled vast territories including the Malay Peninsula, Riau Islands, and part of Sumatra.

Pagan Kingdom: The Pagan Kingdom was the first Burmese kingdom, which unified the areas that now make up Myanmar. Its 250-year rule established Burmese language and culture, expanded Bamar ethnicity in Upper Myanmar, and promoted the growth of Theravada Buddhism in Myanmar and mainland Southeast Asia.

Srivijaya: Srivijaya was a Buddhist empire based on Sumatra that greatly influenced Southeast Asia from the 7th to the 11th century AD. It was the first power to dominate western Maritime Southeast Asia and expanded Buddhism in the region. Due to its strategic location, Srivijaya developed advanced maritime technology and had a thriving economy driven by trade, which made it a prestigious center for luxury goods.

Trần dynasty: The Trần dynasty was a Vietnamese dynasty that ruled from 1225 to 1400. It was founded by Emperor Trần Thái Tông after the overthrow of the Lý dynasty. The Trần dynasty successfully fought off three Mongol invasions, most notably at the Battle of Bạch Đằng River in 1288. The dynasty ended when the final emperor, Thiếu Đế, was forced to abdicate in 1400 at the age of five, in favor of his maternal grandfather, Hồ Quý Ly.

Modern era: The modern era refers to the time following the post-classical era, from around 1500 AD until today. It is primarily used in European and Western history to describe this period.

Early modern period: The early modern period is a historical era in Europe, spanning from the 16th to the 19th centuries. It follows the Middle Ages and precedes modernity. The timeline may vary depending on the area studied. It is considered a part of the broader concept of modernity and is often used globally, even in the absence of a corresponding medieval period.

Age of Discovery: The Age of Discovery, also known as the Age of Exploration, was a period from the 15th to the 17th century. European seafarers explored and conquered regions around the world. This period experienced extensive overseas exploration and colonization, led by the Spanish, Portuguese, and later the Dutch, English, and French. It marked the rise of colonialism as a government policy in several European states and is often associated with the first wave of European colonization.

Magellan expedition: The Magellan expedition, led by Ferdinand Magellan, was a Spanish voyage in the 16th century to reach the Moluccas. It began in 1519 and was completed in 1522 by Juan Sebastián Elcano after Magellan's death. The expedition achieved the first-ever circumnavigation of the world, crossing the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans.

Little Ice Age: The Little Ice Age (LIA) was a regional cooling period, mainly affecting the North Atlantic region. It was not a global ice age but had significant impacts. Francois E. Matthes introduced the term in 1939. Generally defined from the 16th to the 19th centuries, it is sometimes referred to as spanning from around 1300 to 1850.

Renaissance: The Renaissance was a historical period and cultural movement in the 15th and 16th centuries. It aimed to revive and surpass classical antiquity, bringing great social change in various fields like art, architecture, literature, exploration, and science. Some argue that the Renaissance was a break from the past, while others see it as an extension of the Middle Ages. The period overlaps with the Late Middle Ages and shows similarities to both eras.

Scientific Revolution: The Scientific Revolution was a transformative period in early modern Europe marked by breakthroughs in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry. These advancements revolutionized society's understanding of nature. It began with Nicolaus Copernicus' 1543 publication, "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium," which challenged traditional views of the cosmos.

Seven Years' War: The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) was a global conflict involving major European powers in Europe, the Americas, and Asia-Pacific. It included concurrent conflicts like the French and Indian War, Carnatic Wars, and Anglo-Spanish War. Great Britain and France led opposing alliances, vying for global dominance. The war involved extensive land and naval battles, with Prussia seeking territorial expansion and Austria aiming to regain Silesia. In North America and the West Indies, Britain clashed with France and Spain due to colonial rivalries. The war had significant consequences and shaped the balance of power.

Treaty of Tordesillas: The Treaty of Tordesillas was signed in 1494, dividing newly discovered lands between Portugal and the Crown of Castile. The division was made along a meridian line, 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands. This line was halfway between the Cape Verde islands and the islands visited by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage, known as Cipangu and Antillia. It aimed to prevent conflicts between Spain and Portugal over their colonial claims.

British Empire: The British Empire was a vast collection of territories ruled by the United Kingdom and its predecessors. It originated from England's overseas possessions and trading posts established in the 16th and 17th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire ever, holding influence over 412 million people and covering 24% of the Earth's land area. Its power and global dominance lasted for a century, earning it the title of "the empire on which the sun never sets." Today, the influence of the British Empire can still be seen in its constitutional, legal, linguistic, and cultural legacy.

French colonial empire: The French colonial empire referred to the colonies, protectorates, and mandate territories ruled by France from the 16th century onward. It can be divided into two distinct periods: the "First French colonial empire" until 1814, and the "Second French colonial empire" starting in 1830 with the conquest of Algiers. By the beginning of World War I, France's colonial empire was the second-largest globally, comprising roughly one third of the size and twelve per cent of the population of the British Empire.

Portuguese Empire: The Portuguese Empire, also known as the Portuguese Overseas or the Portuguese Colonial Empire, was a long-lasting colonial empire governed by Portugal. It lasted for almost six centuries, from 1415 to 1999, and had colonies, factories, and territories across Africa, the Americas, Asia, and Oceania. It began in the 15th century with the conquest of Ceuta and expanded globally in the 16th century.

Spanish Empire: The Spanish Empire, also called the Hispanic Monarchy or the Catholic Monarchy, was a major colonial empire governed by Spain from 1492 to 1976. Alongside the Portuguese Empire, it initiated the European Age of Discovery and had a global reach, controlling vast territories in the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. Renowned as "the empire on which the sun never sets," it was one of the most powerful empires of the early modern era and at its peak in the late 1700s-early 1800s, it encompassed over 13 million square kilometers, ranking among the largest empires in history.

Columbian exchange: The Columbian exchange refers to the widespread transfer of plants, animals, diseases, technology, and ideas between the New World and the Old World following Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyage. It greatly impacted both hemispheres, with European colonists and African slaves replacing Indigenous populations in the Americas. Communicable diseases from the Old World led to a significant decrease in Indigenous peoples. The exchange was a mix of purposeful and accidental transfers and led to major cultural and demographic shifts across the globe.

Age of Enlightenment: The Age of Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. It emphasized the value of human happiness, the pursuit of knowledge through reason and senses, and ideals like natural law, liberty, progress, toleration, constitutional government, and separation of church and state. It had global influences and aimed to advance society's understanding and improve the human condition.

Reformation: The Reformation, a 16th-century movement in Western Christianity, challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and the papacy. It paved the way for Protestantism and coincided with the Renaissance era.

Peace of Westphalia: The Peace of Westphalia, signed in 1648 in Osnabrück and Münster, ended the devastating Thirty Years' War and restored peace to the Holy Roman Empire. It marked the involvement of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III, France, Sweden, and other imperial princes. This historic event concluded a tragic period in European history with an estimated death toll of eight million people.

Thirty Years' War: The Thirty Years' War was a devastating conflict in European history, lasting from 1618 to 1648. It caused widespread destruction and death, with estimates ranging from 4.5 to 8 million casualties. The war mainly took place in Central Europe and led to significant population decline in parts of modern Germany. It was associated with other conflicts such as the Eighty Years' War, the War of the Mantuan Succession, the Franco-Spanish War, the Torstenson War, the Dutch-Portuguese War, and the Portuguese Restoration War.

Counter-Reformation: The Counter-Reformation, or Catholic Revival, was a response to the Protestant Reformations. It started with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and ended after the European wars of religion (1648). The term Catholic Reformation can also refer to reforms before the Protestant movement or Trent.

1755 Lisbon earthquake: The 1755 Lisbon earthquake, also called the Great Lisbon earthquake, devastated Portugal, the Iberian Peninsula, and Northwest Africa. It occurred on November 1st, with a magnitude of 7.7 or greater. The earthquake, along with subsequent fires and a tsunami, caused widespread destruction, almost completely wiping out Lisbon and nearby areas. The epicenter was located about 200 km west-southwest of Cape St. Vincent in the Atlantic Ocean, and roughly 290 km southwest of Lisbon.

Anglo-Dutch Wars: The Anglo-Dutch Wars were conflicts between the Dutch Republic and England in the 17th and 18th century. These wars primarily revolved around trade, overseas colonies, and were marked by numerous naval battles.

Enclosure: Enclosure is the act of converting common land into privately owned land, thus restricting access for commoners. This could occur through formal or informal agreements. The process involved creating smaller fields for individual owners, enclosing entire parishes through collective ownership, or enacting enclosure laws through Parliament.

Eighty Years' War: The Eighty Years' War, also known as the Dutch Revolt, was a conflict between rebels and the Spanish government in the Habsburg Netherlands. It was sparked by various factors, including the Reformation, centralization, high taxation, and disputes regarding the rights and privileges of Dutch nobility and cities.

English Civil War: The English Civil War was a series of civil wars and political conflicts between Royalists and Parliamentarians in England from 1642 to 1651. It included the First, Second, and Third English Civil Wars, which were part of the broader Wars of the Three Kingdoms from 1639 to 1653. The Third Civil War is also called the Anglo-Scottish war.

French Revolution: The French Revolution (1789-1799) was a transformative period in France marked by political and societal change. It began with the Estates General and ended with the coup of 18 Brumaire and the French Consulate. It introduced fundamental principles of liberal democracy and its values and institutions continue to shape modern French politics.

French Revolutionary Wars: The French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802) were a series of global military conflicts resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted France against Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and other monarchies, consisting of the War of the First Coalition (1792-1797) and War of the Second Coalition (1798-1802). Gradually expanding beyond Europe, France successfully conquered territories in the Italian Peninsula, the Low Countries, and the Rhineland, spreading revolutionary principles throughout much of Europe.

French Wars of Religion: The French Wars of Religion (1562-1598) were a series of brutal civil wars between French Catholics and Protestants, resulting in between 2 and 4 million deaths. The conflict weakened the French monarchy significantly. The infamous St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in 1572 was a major incident during this period. The wars concluded with a compromise in 1598, when Henry of Navarre became King Henry IV of France and issued the Edict of Nantes, granting rights to Protestants. However, Catholic opposition and Henry's assassination in 1610 sparked further Huguenot rebellions in the 1620s.

Huguenots: Huguenots were French Protestants who followed the Reformed tradition of Protestantism. Their name comes from a Swiss leader named Besançon Hugues. The term was commonly used from the 16th century. Huguenots referred specifically to Reformed Church members in France, while Lutherans were more prominent in Eastern France.

Italian Wars: The Italian Wars were a series of conflicts fought between 1494 and 1559 across Italy, Flanders, the Rhineland, and the Mediterranean Sea. The main belligerents were the French Valois kings, the Habsburgs from the Holy Roman Empire and Spain. Multiple Italian states were involved, some on both sides, with limited participation from England and the Ottoman Empire.

Prussia: Prussia was a German state that existed from 1701 to 1947. It played a significant role in shaping German history and was ruled by the House of Hohenzollern. With its capital in Königsberg and later Berlin, Prussia expanded its territory through the Prussian Army. It united the German states to form the German Empire in 1871. Prussia's power was dissolved in 1932 and officially ended in 1947 through decrees.

Puritans: The Puritans were 16th and 17th century English Protestants who aimed to eliminate Roman Catholic practices from the Church of England. They believed the church still needed further reformation and should embrace Protestant ideals. Puritanism had a major impact on English and early American history, particularly during the Protectorate.

Spanish Inquisition: The Spanish Inquisition, established in 1478 by King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella I, aimed to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in Spain and its colonies. It replaced the Medieval Inquisition and was the most significant among the Catholic Inquisitions. Operating in Spain and its territories, it prosecuted around 150,000 people over three centuries, with 3,000 to 5,000 executions. However, the Inquisition didn't have jurisdiction over indigenous people, focusing on old Christians and their descendants as directed by the King of Spain.

War of the Austrian Succession: The War of the Austrian Succession, lasting from 1740 to 1748, was a European conflict. It primarily took place in Central Europe, the Austrian Netherlands, Italy, the Atlantic Ocean, and Mediterranean Sea. It is associated with wars like King George's War, the War of Jenkins' Ear, the First Carnatic War, and the First and Second Silesian Wars.

War of the Spanish Succession: The War of the Spanish Succession was a European conflict from 1701 to 1714. It was triggered by the death of Charles II of Spain, causing a power struggle over control of the Spanish Empire. The main contenders were Philip of Anjou, supported by France and Spain, and Archduke Charles of Austria, backed by the Holy Roman Empire, the Dutch Republic, and Great Britain. Notable related conflicts included the Great Northern War and Queen Anne's War in North America.

Cossacks: The Cossacks are predominantly East Slavic Orthodox Christian people from eastern Ukraine and southern Russia. They were semi-nomadic and semi-militarized, granted self-governance in exchange for military service. Most Cossacks were East Slavic-speaking Orthodox Christians. They had special privileges from Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Russian Empire in return for military duty. Cossacks were organized into large autonomous groups called hosts, with territories consisting of affiliated villages called stanitsas.

Cossack Hetmanate: The Cossack Hetmanate, also known as Zaporozhian Host, was a Ukrainian Cossack state in central Ukraine from 1649 to 1764. Its administrative system lasted until 1782.

Crimean Khanate: The Crimean Khanate was a Crimean Tatar state that existed from 1441 to 1783. It was considered the longest-lasting Turkic khanate after the Golden Horde. Established by Hacı I Giray, it claimed to be the direct successor of the Golden Horde and Desht-i-Kipchak. In European historiography, it was known as Little Tartary.

Great Northern War: The Great Northern War (1700-1721) was a conflict between Russia and Sweden over control of Northern, Central, and Eastern Europe. The Russian-led coalition, including Denmark-Norway and Saxony-Poland-Lithuania, initially suffered defeats but regained strength after the Battle of Poltava. The alliance later expanded to include Great Britain, Hanover, and Brandenburg-Prussia.

Great Turkish War: The Great Turkish War, known as the Wars of the Holy League, was a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League comprising the Holy Roman Empire, Poland-Lithuania, Venice, Russia, and the Kingdom of Hungary. Lasting from 1683 to 1699, the Ottoman Empire suffered a major defeat, losing substantial territories in Hungary, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and parts of the western Balkans. Notably, this war marked Russia's first alliance with Western Europe. It concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Karlowitz.

Battle of Vienna: The Battle of Vienna occurred on 12 September 1683 near the city after a two-month Ottoman siege. It involved the Holy Roman Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, led by King John III Sobieski, against the Ottomans and their vassal states. This was the first joint military effort between the Commonwealth and Holy Roman Empire against the Ottomans and resulted in a significant defeat for the Ottomans. The battle is considered a turning point in halting Ottoman expansion into Europe, with no further territorial gains. As a result of the subsequent war, the Ottomans conceded most of Ottoman Hungary to the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I.

House of Romanov: The House of Romanov was the ruling family in Russia from 1613 until 1917. They gained power through Anastasia Romanovna's marriage to Ivan the Terrible, the first tsar of Russia. In 1918, Nicholas II and his family were executed, but there are still living Romanov descendants today.

Khanate of Kazan: The Khanate of Kazan was a Tatar Turkic state in medieval times from 1438 to 1552. It encompassed lands of former Volga Bulgaria, including present-day Tatarstan, Mari El, Chuvashia, Mordovia, Udmurtia, and Bashkortostan. Kazan served as its capital. As a successor state of the Golden Horde, the khanate was conquered by the Tsardom of Russia, leading to its demise.

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a bi-confederal state in Europe, ruled by a common monarch, who was both King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. It was known for its large territory and population, covering almost 1 million km2 and 12 million people in the 16th-17th centuries. The official languages were Polish and Latin.

Partitions of Poland: The Partitions of Poland were three territorial divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the late 18th century. Conducted by the Habsburg monarchy, Prussia, and the Russian Empire, these partitions eliminated the sovereign states of Poland and Lithuania for 123 years. The Commonwealth lands were progressively seized and annexed by the three powers, marking the end of the Polish-Lithuanian state.

Livonian War: The Livonian War (1558–1583) was a conflict over Old Livonia. Russia faced a coalition consisting of Denmark-Norway, Sweden, Lithuania, and Poland.

Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars: The Muscovite-Lithuanian Wars were a series of conflicts between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (allied with the Kingdom of Poland) and the Grand Duchy of Moscow. The Lithuanians suffered defeats from Ivan III and Vasily III, prompting reliance on Polish aid. Eventually, this alliance led to the creation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The wars resulted in the Muscovites expanding westwards, gaining control over multiple principalities.

Ottoman wars in Europe: The Ottoman wars in Europe were a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and various European states that occurred from the Late Middle Ages to the early 20th century. Starting with the Byzantine-Ottoman wars, the conflicts spread into Europe in the 14th century with the Bulgarian and Serbian-Ottoman wars. Ottoman expansion into the Balkans was a prominent feature, and their territory in Europe reached its peak in the 15th and 16th centuries.

Cretan War (1645–1669): The Cretan War (1645–1669) was a conflict between Venice and the Ottoman Empire and their allies, fought primarily over the island of Crete. Lasting for 24 years, the war centered around the city of Candia and saw numerous naval skirmishes across the Aegean Sea. Additionally, Dalmatia served as a secondary battleground.

Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618): The Polish-Muscovite War, also called the Polish-Russian War or the Dimitriads, took place from 1605 to 1618. It was a conflict between the Tsardom of Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, supported by the Zaporozhian Cossacks.

Tsardom of Russia: The Tsardom of Russia, or Tsardom of Muscovy, was a centralized Russian state from 1547 to 1721. It began when Ivan IV became the first tsar and ended with the establishment of the Russian Empire by Peter the Great.

American Revolution: The American Revolution was an ideological and political revolution in British America in the late 18th century. It led to the American Revolutionary War, where the Thirteen Colonies gained independence from Britain and established the United States as the first nation based on Enlightenment principles of consent of the governed, constitutionalism, and liberal democracy.

American Revolutionary War: The American Revolutionary War, also called the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was a military conflict during the American Revolution. American Patriots, led by George Washington, defeated the British, resulting in the Treaty of Paris in 1783, which recognized US independence. The war took place in North America, the Caribbean, and the Atlantic. France, Spain, and German Hessian soldiers supported both sides.

European colonization of the Americas: European colonization of the Americas took place between the late 15th century and early 19th century. While the Norse had explored and briefly settled the region earlier, the colonization by European powers in North and South America is more well-known due to its long duration and significance during the Age of Discovery.

British colonization of the Americas: The British colonization of the Americas refers to England and Scotland's establishment of control, settlement, and colonization in the Americas, later continued by Great Britain. Starting in the late 16th century, England made unsuccessful attempts to establish permanent colonies in the North. The first successful English colony was Jamestown, Virginia, founded in 1607, where around 30,000 Algonquian people resided. British colonies were established in North America, Central America, South America, and the Caribbean. While most colonies gained independence, some remain British Overseas Territories.

Spanish colonization of the Americas: The Spanish colonization of the Americas started in 1493 on Hispaniola after Columbus' voyage. These territories were governed by the Crown of Castile until 1898. Spaniards saw indigenous populations as an economic resource. Religion was crucial in incorporating indigenous peoples into the Catholic Church. The crown established structures to govern the vast territory. Spanish colonists settled where there were dense indigenous populations and valuable resources.

Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire: The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was a pivotal event in the colonization of the Americas. It involved Spanish conquerors, indigenous allies, and enemies of the Aztecs who joined forces to defeat the Mexica of Tenochtitlan over two years (1519-1521). This coalition marked the end of the Aztec Empire and was part of Spain's larger project of colonizing the New World, following several decades of Spanish settlement and exploration in the Caribbean.

Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire: The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, or Conquest of Peru, was a major campaign in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. In 1532, Spanish soldiers led by Francisco Pizarro captured the Inca leader Atahualpa, marking the beginning of a lengthy conflict. The conquest ended in Spanish victory in 1572, leading to the colonization of the region as the Viceroyalty of Peru. This conquest also sparked expeditions into present-day Chile, Colombia, and the Amazon Basin.

French and Indian War: The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was part of the Seven Years' War. It involved the British colonies in North America against the French, with support from Native American tribes. The British had a significant population advantage. The French heavily relied on their Native American allies.

Haitian Revolution: The Haitian Revolution was a successful uprising by slaves against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue (now Haiti). It lasted from 1791 to 1804 and resulted in the independence of Haiti. Participants included black, biracial, and European individuals, led by Toussaint Louverture. It was the only slave rebellion to establish a non-white-led state free from slavery. The revolution had a profound impact on the Atlantic World, inspiring anti-slavery movements across the Americas. After achieving independence, the former slaves defended their freedoms with the help of free people of color.

Slavery in Africa: Slavery in Africa has been widespread throughout history. This system of servitude was common in ancient times, similar to other parts of the world. With the arrival of trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean, and Atlantic slave trades, local African slave systems started providing captives for external slave markets. Remarkably, contemporary Africa still witnesses the illegal practice of slavery.

Atlantic slave trade: The Atlantic slave trade was the transportation of enslaved African people by slave traders to the Americas from the 16th to the 19th centuries. European slave ships used the triangular trade route and Middle Passage. Enslaved Africans, sold by West African slave traders, were gathered at forts on the African coast and brought to the Americas by Portuguese, British, Spanish, Dutch, and French slave traders. Europeans generally did not participate in raids in Africa due to low life expectancy.

Ashanti Empire: The Ashanti Empire, also known as the Asante Empire, was an Akan state that existed from 1701 to 1901 in modern-day Ghana. It extended from the Ashanti Region to encompass most of Ghana, parts of Ivory Coast, and Togo. Known for its military power, wealth, impressive architecture, hierarchical society, and rich culture, the Ashanti Empire has been extensively researched by European, primarily British, authors, making it one of the most documented indigenous cultures in sub-Saharan Africa.

Hausa Kingdoms: The Hausa Kingdoms, also called Hausa Kingdom or Hausaland, were a group of states established by the Hausa people in the region between the Niger River and Lake Chad. This region emerged as a political and cultural area in the first millennium CE due to the westward migration of the Hausa people. They settled in Hausaland as the landscape transitioned from woodlands to savannah, and developed a thriving society with a common language, laws, and customs. The Hausa were skilled in fishing, hunting, agriculture, salt-mining, and blacksmithing, contributing to their economic and cultural prosperity.

Funj Sultanate: The Funj Sultanate, also called Funjistan or Sultanate of Sennar, was a monarchy in present-day Sudan, northwestern Eritrea, and western Ethiopia. Founded by the Funj people in 1504, it embraced Islam, albeit in name only. The state flourished in the late 17th century before declining and eventually disintegrating in the 18th and 19th centuries. In 1821, the weakened sultan surrendered to the Ottoman Egyptian invasion without resistance.

Kingdom of Kongo: The Kingdom of Kongo was a central African kingdom that existed in present-day northern Angola, the western Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo. It stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the Kwango River and from the Congo River to the Kwanza River. Ruled by the Manikongo, it had influence over neighboring kingdoms.

Kingdom of Mutapa: The Kingdom of Mutapa, also known as the Mutapa Empire or Mwenemutapa, was an African kingdom that existed in Zimbabwe and later expanded into modern-day Mozambique.

Oyo Empire: The Oyo Empire was a powerful Yoruba empire in present-day southern Benin and western Nigeria. It became the largest Yoruba-speaking state through the efforts of the Yoruba people, trade, and military cavalry. From the mid-17th to late 18th century, it was politically significant in West Africa, ruling over other Yoruba kingdoms and nearby African states, including Dahomey in Benin.

Western imperialism in Asia: Western imperialism in Asia refers to the dominance and control exerted by Western European powers and associated states over Asian territories during the colonial period, starting in the 16th century. This influence peaked during the Age of Sail, bringing about colonization, the introduction of modern warfare, and the expansion of the spice trade. European-style colonial empires operated in Asia for six centuries until the Portuguese Empire's last colony, Macau, gained independence in 1999. This imperialism introduced Western concepts of nation and the multinational state, shaping the development of the Western concept of the nation state.

Dutch East India Company: The Dutch East India Company, established in 1602, was the world's first joint-stock company, with a 21-year monopoly for trade in Asia. It allowed residents of the United Provinces to buy and sell shares in open-air markets. Considered the first multinational corporation, it possessed extensive powers such as waging war, imprisoning and executing convicts, negotiating treaties, minting coins, and establishing colonies.

East India Company: The East India Company (EIC) was an influential English/British joint-stock company from 1600 to 1874. It traded in the Indian Ocean region and gradually expanded to the East Indies and East Asia. It controlled significant portions of India, colonized Southeast Asia and Hong Kong. At its height, it was the world's largest corporation, boasting a massive army of around 260,000 soldiers, twice the size of the British army.

Dzungar Khanate: The Dzungar Khanate was an Inner Asian khanate of Oirat Mongol origin. It covered a vast territory from southern Siberia to present-day Kyrgyzstan and from the Great Wall of China to present-day Kazakhstan. Its core area is now part of northern Xinjiang, known as Dzungaria.

Kazakh Khanate: The Kazakh Khanate was a Central Asian state that existed from the 15th to the 19th century. It succeeded the Golden Horde and was centered in the eastern parts of the Desht-i Qipchaq. It was also known as Ulus of the Kazakhs, Ulus of Jochi, and Yurt of Urus in various sources.

Khanate of Bukhara: The Khanate of Bukhara was a powerful Uzbek state in Central Asia, existing from 1501 to 1785. It was founded by the Abu'l-Khayrid dynasty and briefly had Bukhara as its capital from 1533 to 1540. The Khanate experienced its height of influence and territorial expansion under ruler Abdullah Khan II, known for his scholarly pursuits.

Khanate of Sibir: The Khanate of Sibir was a Tatar Khanate in western Siberia, founded in the late 15th century after the Golden Horde's breakup. It was contested between the Shaybanid and Taibugid dynasties, both descended from Genghis Khan. The Khanate's territory was once part of the Mongol Empire and later controlled by the White Horde and Golden Horde.

Safavid dynasty: The Safavid dynasty, ruling from 1501 to 1736, was an influential Iranian ruling dynasty that marked the beginning of modern Iranian history. They established the Twelver denomination of Shīʿa Islam as the official religion of the Persian Empire, transforming the course of Islam. Originating from the Safavid order of Sufism in Ardabil, they married into diverse ethnic groups, yet maintained their Turkic-speaking identity. With their base in Ardabil, they gained control over parts of Greater Iran, reviving the Iranian identity and establishing a national state known as Iran, succeeding the Sasanian Empire.

1556 Shaanxi earthquake: The 1556 Shaanxi earthquake, also called the Jiajing Great Earthquake or Hua County Earthquake, happened on January 23, 1556 in Huaxian, Shaanxi in China. It occurred during the Ming dynasty and is one of the most devastating earthquakes in history.

Ayutthaya Kingdom: The Ayutthaya Kingdom, also known as the Empire of Ayutthaya, was a powerful Siamese kingdom in Southeast Asia from 1351 to 1767. It was centered around Ayutthaya, the capital city of Siam (now Thailand). European travellers recognized Ayutthaya as one of the three major Asian powers in the early 16th century. Considered a precursor of modern Thailand, the Ayutthaya Kingdom's historical developments hold significant importance in Thai history.

Edo period: The Edo period (1603-1868) in Japan was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and regional daimyo. It brought economic growth, social order, isolationist policies, stability, peace, and flourishing arts and culture. Also known as Ōedo.

Tokugawa shogunate: The Tokugawa shogunate was the military rule in Japan from 1603 to 1868, known as the Edo period. It was a time of peace and stability, with the ruling Tokugawa family based in Edo (now Tokyo). The shogunate exercised centralized authority, isolated Japan from the rest of the world, and imposed strict social order through a rigid caste system. It promoted economic growth through agricultural reforms, urbanization, and fostering of arts and culture. The shogunate's power declined due to internal conflicts and pressure from Western powers, leading to the Meiji Restoration in 1868.

Joseon: Joseon, the last dynasty of Korea, existed for over 500 years from 1392 to 1897. Founded by Yi Seong-gye, it replaced the Goryeo dynasty. The kingdom was renamed and its capital was moved to Seoul. Its territory expanded northward through the subjugation of the Jurchens, reaching the natural borders of the Amrok and Tuman rivers.

Lan Xang: Lan Xang, also known as Lancang, was a major Lao kingdom lasting from 1353 to 1707. It encompassed present-day Laos and emerged as one of Southeast Asia's prominent kingdoms for over 350 years. Lan Xang's influence continues to shape Laos's national heritage, symbolizing its historical and cultural identity.

Lê dynasty: The Lê dynasty, also known as Later Lê, was the longest-ruling Vietnamese dynasty from 1428 to 1789. It was divided into two periods: the Innitial Lê dynasty and the Revival Lê dynasty. The Revival Lê dynasty experienced two major civil wars: the Lê–Mạc War (1533–1592) and the Trịnh–Nguyễn Wars.

Ming dynasty: The Ming dynasty was an imperial dynasty in China (1368-1644) ruled by the Han Chinese people. It followed the collapse of the Yuan dynasty and was the last imperial dynasty of China. Despite the fall of Beijing in 1644, remnants of the Ming imperial family formed various Southern Ming regimes that survived until 1662.

Qing dynasty: The Qing dynasty was the last imperial dynasty in China, led by the Manchus. It started in 1636 and ended in 1912. After seizing Beijing in 1644, it expanded its rule over all of China and Taiwan, and later into Inner Asia. The dynasty was overthrown in the Xinhai Revolution. Preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China, the Qing dynasty played a vital role in shaping modern China, being the largest empire in Chinese history. With a population of 419,264,000 in 1907, it was also the most populous country at that time.

Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598): The Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598), also known as the Imjin War, consisted of two invasions with a brief truce in between. The conflict ended in 1598 with the withdrawal of Japanese forces from Korea after a military stalemate in the southern provinces.

Sino-Burmese War: The Sino-Burmese War, also known as the Qing invasions of Burma, was a conflict between the Qing dynasty of China and the Konbaung dynasty of Burma. China conducted four invasions of Burma from 1765 to 1769, resulting in the death of over 70,000 Chinese soldiers. However, the war is considered a disaster for the Qing dynasty, leading to Burmese independence and setting the boundary between the two nations that exists today.

Toungoo dynasty: The Toungoo dynasty, also known as the Restored Toungoo dynasty, was the ruling dynasty of Burma (Myanmar) from the mid-16th century to 1752. Under the leadership of Tabinshwehti and Bayinnaung, it successfully reunited the territories of the Pagan Kingdom and incorporated the Shan States, Manipur, Chinese Shan States, Siam, and Lan Xang. The Toungoo Empire reached its peak as the largest and strongest empire in Southeast Asia but collapsed after Bayinnaung's death in 1581.

Great Bengal famine of 1770: The Great Bengal famine of 1770 was a devastating famine that affected Bengal and Bihar, impacting around 30 million people. It occurred during a period of dual governance, where the East India Company held the right to collect revenue but did not have control over civil administration. The famine occurred due to a combination of poor governance and natural factors, resulting in widespread hunger and loss of life.

Deccan sultanates: The Deccan Sultanates were five independent Muslim kingdoms on the Deccan Plateau in India. They were Ahmadnagar, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur, and Golconda. These sultanates emerged after the Bahmani Sultanate dissolved. Ahmadnagar declared independence in 1490, followed by Bijapur and Berar in the same year. Golconda became independent in 1518, and Bidar in 1528.

Maratha Empire: The Maratha Empire, also called the Maratha Confederacy, was a powerful Indian empire in the 18th century. It emerged in 1674 when Shivaji, a Maratha ruler, was crowned as the Chhatrapati. The empire included warriors, administrators, and nobles from various castes in Maharashtra. The Maratha Kingdom eventually grew into a vast empire under Peshwa Bajirao I's leadership.

Mughal Empire: The Mughal Empire was an influential empire in South Asia that reached its height from the Indus River to Afghanistan, Kashmir, Assam, and Bangladesh. It also extended to the Deccan Plateau in South India.

Sikh Empire: The Sikh Empire was a powerful regional force in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent from 1799 to 1849. It was established by Maharaja Ranjit Singh after capturing Lahore and was ultimately conquered by the British East India Company in the Second Anglo-Sikh War. The empire was built on the Khalsa foundation and consisted of autonomous misls. At its height, it spanned from Gilgit and Tibet in the north to the deserts of Sindh in the south and from the Khyber Pass in the west to the Sutlej River in the east. The empire was divided into four provinces: Lahore, Multan, Peshawar, and Kashmir. With a diverse population of around 4.5 million, it was the final major region of the Indian subcontinent to be annexed by the British Empire.

Abolitionism: Abolitionism is a global movement to end slavery and emancipate enslaved people.

Great Depression: The Great Depression (1929–1939) was a severe global economic downturn caused by a sharp decline in US stock prices. It led to the Wall Street crash in October 1929, triggering a period of economic depression. This prolonged crisis was characterized by high unemployment rates and widespread business failures, affecting many countries worldwide.

Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution was a global transition from manual labor to machine-based manufacturing that took place from around 1760 to 1820-1840. It began in Great Britain, spreading to Europe and the United States. This period saw advancements in manufacturing processes, such as the use of machines, new chemical and iron production techniques, as well as the rise of water and steam power. It also led to the development of machine tools and the mechanized factory system. The population grew rapidly as output increased, and the textile industry became dominant.

Late modern period: The late modern period, starting in 1800, followed the early modern period. It either ended in 1945 or continues to the present. Key features include its position after the early modern period and its connection to contemporary history.

New Imperialism: New Imperialism was a historical period of colonial expansion by European powers, the United States, and Japan in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It involved the pursuit of overseas territories, conquest, and resource exploitation. The era witnessed the conquest of Africa and parts of Asia by European powers, driven by rivalries, economic motives, and a desire for a "civilizing mission." Many colonies established during this period gained independence after World War II.

Spanish flu: The Spanish flu, officially known as the 1918–1920 flu pandemic, was a highly lethal global influenza outbreak caused by the H1N1 influenza A virus. It started in Kansas, United States in March 1918 and quickly spread to France, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Within two years, around one-third of the world population, estimated at 500 million people, had been infected in four waves. The death toll ranges from 17 to 100 million, positioning the Spanish flu as one of the deadliest pandemics in history.

World War I: World War I, also known as the First World War, was a global conflict between the Allies and the Central Powers. It occurred in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, the Pacific, and parts of Asia. This deadly war resulted in approximately 9 million soldiers dead and 23 million wounded, along with 5 million civilian deaths from various causes. It also played a major role in the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic and led to widespread genocide.

Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was a significant event that triggered World War I. On June 28, 1914, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne and his wife were killed in Sarajevo by Bosnian Serb student Gavrilo Princip. This act took place in Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina, which had been annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908.

Balfour Declaration: The Balfour Declaration was a 1917 public statement by the British Government during WWI, expressing support for creating a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine. It was made in a letter from Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour to Lord Rothschild, a leader of the British Jewish community, and published in the press on November 9th.

Balkans theatre: The Balkans theatre refers to the World War I battleground between the Central Powers and the Allies.

Eastern Front (World War I): The Eastern Front in World War I was a theater of operations stretching from Russia to Romania, involving Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire, and Germany. It covered most of Eastern Europe and extended into Central Europe. This contrasts with the Western Front in Belgium and France.

Italian front (World War I): The Italian front in World War I was a major battleground in Northern Italy from 1915 to 1918. The Kingdom of Italy joined the Allies, hoping to gain territory from the Austrians.

Middle Eastern theatre of World War I: The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I occurred from 30 October 1914 to 30 October 1918. The main combatants were the Ottoman Empire and the British, with support from other Central Powers and Allied Powers respectively. The major campaigns included Sinai and Palestine, Mesopotamia, Caucasus, Persian, and Gallipoli.

Treaty of Versailles: The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, ended World War I and the state of war between Germany and most of the Allied Powers. It was signed in the Palace of Versailles, five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The United States did not ratify the treaty and made a separate peace agreement with Germany. The negotiations took six months at the Paris Peace Conference, while Germany was not allowed to participate and was forced to sign the final treaty.

Western Front (World War I): The Western Front was a major battleground in World War I. The German Army invaded Luxembourg, Belgium, and gained control of important industrial areas in France. The Battle of the Marne halted the German advance. Both sides then dug trenches along a fortified line from the North Sea to Switzerland, with little change except in 1917 and 1918.

World War II: World War II was a global conflict from 1939-1945. All major countries were involved, forming the Allies and Axis alliances. It was a total war with intense investment in economic and military resources. Aircraft played a significant role, leading to strategic bombings and nuclear weapon use. With 70-85 million fatalities, it was the deadliest conflict, involving genocides, starvation, massacres, and disease. Germany, Austria, and Japan were occupied, and war crime trials were held against their leaders.

Battle of Britain: The Battle of Britain was a military campaign during World War II. It saw the RAF and Royal Navy defending the UK against large-scale attacks by the Luftwaffe. It was the first major air battle of the war and lasted from July to October 1940, overlapping with the Blitz. The British recognize the battle's duration as July to October 1940, while German historians view it as July 1940 to May 1941, incorporating the Blitz.

Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were the only uses of nuclear weapons in an armed conflict. The bombings killed between 129,000 and 226,000 civilians. Japan surrendered to the Allies after the bombings and the Soviet Union's declaration of war. The instrument of surrender was signed on 2 September, effectively ending the war.

Attack on Pearl Harbor: The surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor brought the United States into World War II. It occurred on December 7, 1941, leading to the U.S. formally joining the Allies.

Battle of the Atlantic: The Battle of the Atlantic, a crucial part of naval history in World War II, lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the Allied naval blockade of Germany and Germany's counter-blockade. The campaign reached its peak from mid-1940 to the end of 1943.

Eastern Front (World War II): The Eastern Front in WWII was a battleground between Axis powers and Allies including the USSR and Poland. It took place in Central, Eastern, Northeast, and Southeast Europe from 1941 to 1945. The Eastern Front saw around 30 million deaths, including 9 million children. Ultimately, the front played a crucial role in defeating Nazi Germany and the Axis nations.

The Holocaust: The Holocaust was the genocide of six million European Jews during World War II. Nazi Germany and collaborators systematically murdered two-thirds of Europe's Jewish population between 1941 and 1945. The killings occurred through mass shootings and poison gas in camps like Auschwitz, Treblinka, Belzec, Sobibor, and Chełmno in occupied Poland.

Nazi concentration camps: Nazi concentration camps were numerous during 1933-1945, encompassing over a thousand camps across Nazi Germany and occupied Europe.

Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II: The Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II involved naval, land, and air campaigns fought across the Mediterranean, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Middle East, and Southern Europe. It lasted from 1940 to 1945, with Italy joining the war on Germany's side and all Axis forces in Italy surrendering in 1945. The fighting spilled over into Greece during the early stages of the Greek Civil War.

Pacific War: The Pacific War, also known as the Asia-Pacific War, was the largest theater of World War II. It covered eastern Asia, the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean, and Oceania. It included major conflicts such as the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Soviet-Japanese War.

Western Front (World War II): The Western Front in World War II included Denmark, Norway, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, France, and Germany. It had two phases - the first involved the defeat and capitulation of Luxembourg, Netherlands, Belgium, and France, leading to an air war between Germany and Britain; the second involved the Allied landings in Normandy and the subsequent ground combat leading to Germany's defeat. Italy was considered a separate but related theater.

Yalta Conference: The Yalta Conference was a meeting in February 1945 where the leaders of the US, UK, and USSR discussed the future of Germany and Europe after World War II. President Roosevelt, Prime Minister Churchill, and General Secretary Stalin represented their respective countries. The conference took place near Yalta in Crimea, Soviet Union, in three palaces.

Austrian Empire: The Austrian Empire, also known as the Empire of Austria, was a major European power from 1804 to 1867. It was formed by the Habsburgs and became the third most populous monarchy in Europe. As one of the leading powers in the German Confederation, it was geographically the third-largest empire in Europe.

Austria-Hungary: Austria-Hungary, also known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire or Dual Monarchy, was a constitutional monarchy in Central Europe from 1867 to 1918. It united two sovereign states under one ruler who held the titles of emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. Formed after the Austro-Prussian War, it marked the final stage in the Habsburg monarchy's constitutional development. However, Hungary ended the union with Austria in 1918, leading to its dissolution.

Balkan Wars: The Balkan Wars were two conflicts in 1912 and 1913 in the Balkan states. In the First Balkan War, Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria defeated the Ottoman Empire and took over its European provinces. In the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria fought against the original combatants and faced an attack from Romania. The Ottoman Empire lost most of its European territory, and Austria-Hungary became weaker as Serbia sought union of the South Slavic peoples. These wars set the stage for the July crisis of 1914, which led to the First World War.

Congress of Berlin: The Congress of Berlin was a diplomatic meeting in 1878 to reorganize states in the Balkan Peninsula after the Russo-Turkish War. Six great powers of Europe, the Ottomans, and four Balkan states were represented. The meeting resulted in the signing of the Treaty of Berlin, replacing a previous treaty.

Crimean War: The Crimean War was fought from 1853 to 1856 between the Russian Empire and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, the United Kingdom, and Sardinia-Piedmont. It resulted in the victory of the alliance.

Dreyfus affair: The Dreyfus affair was a political scandal in France from 1894 to 1906. It symbolizes modern injustice and antisemitism and is a famous example of a miscarriage of justice. Media played a crucial role in shaping public opinion.

Franco-Prussian War: The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) was a conflict between France and the German Confederation led by Prussia. It arose from France's desire to maintain its dominant position in Europe after Prussia's victory over Austria in 1866. Historians debate whether Prussian chancellor Bismarck purposely provoked France's declaration of war, or simply took advantage of the situation. However, they agree that Bismarck aimed to form new German alliances.

German Confederation: The German Confederation was a grouping of 39 German-speaking states in Central Europe, established in 1815 after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. It replaced the former empire and was formed through the Congress of Vienna.

German Empire: The German Empire, known as Imperial Germany, was a period in German history from 1871 to 1918. It started with the unification of Germany and ended with the November Revolution. It transitioned from a monarchy to a republic during this time.

Great Famine (Ireland): The Great Famine, also known as the Irish Potato Famine, was a devastating period of starvation and disease in Ireland from 1845 to 1852. It had a profound impact on Irish society and history, leading to a major population decline and mass emigration. Over a million people died, and another million fled the country, reducing the population by 20-25%. The worst year was 1847, known as "Black '47". This famine primarily affected the western and southern regions of Ireland, where Irish was the dominant language. The event is referred to as "an Drochshaol" in Irish, meaning "the bad life" or "the hard times". It resulted in one of the largest mass departures from a single island in history, with at least 2.1 million people leaving Ireland between 1845 and 1855 on various types of ships.

Great Purge: The Great Purge, also known as the Great Terror, was Stalin's campaign to consolidate power by imprisoning and executing rivals. It aimed to eliminate Trotsky's influence and took place from 1936 to 1938. Show trials were a major feature, and the purges affected a significant portion of the population.

Greek War of Independence: The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution, was a successful war fought by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire from 1821 to 1829. With assistance from the British Empire, Kingdom of France, and the Russian Empire, the Greeks gained independence. The war resulted in the establishment of modern Greece, celebrated as Independence Day on 25 March annually.

Gulag: The Gulag was a system of forced labor camps in the Soviet Union, primarily operated by the secret police from the 1930s to the early 1950s under Joseph Stalin. Although originally referring to the division in charge, it is commonly used to describe the broader forced labor system throughout the Soviet era. The abbreviation GULAG stands for "Гла́вное Управле́ние исправи́тельно-трудовы́х ЛАГере́й", with the agency's full official name changing several times.

Unification of Italy: The unification of Italy, also called the Risorgimento, was a 19th-century political and social movement that combined various states in the Italian Peninsula and isles into one country, the Kingdom of Italy, by 1861. It was influenced by uprisings against the Congress of Vienna outcome in the 1820s and 1830s, while the Revolutions of 1848 accelerated the unification process. It was finally achieved in 1871 after the capture of Rome and its establishment as the capital of the Kingdom.

July Revolution: The July Revolution, also called the French Revolution of 1830 or Second French Revolution, resulted in the removal of King Charles X and the rise of Louis Philippe as the new monarch. It marked a significant change in power and ended an 18-year reign of Louis Philippe before he was ousted in the 1848 French Revolution.

Napoleonic Wars: The Napoleonic Wars were a series of conflicts between the First French Empire under Napoleon and various European coalitions from 1803 to 1815. These wars arose from political forces stemming from the French Revolution and Revolutionary Wars and resulted in a period of French dominance over Continental Europe.

Congress of Vienna: The Congress of Vienna was a series of diplomatic meetings from 1814-1815. It aimed to establish a new political and constitutional order in Europe following Napoleon's downfall. Representatives from all European powers participated, led by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich. The meetings took place in Vienna and lasted from September 1814 to June 1815.

French invasion of Russia: The French invasion of Russia, also known as the Russian campaign, was Napoleon's attempt to force the Russian Empire to comply with the continental blockade of the United Kingdom. It resulted in one of the most devastating military campaigns in history, claiming the lives of nearly a million soldiers and civilians in less than six months.

Nazi Germany: Nazi Germany was a totalitarian dictatorship led by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party from 1933 to 1945. They transformed Germany into the Greater German Reich, claiming to be the successors to the Holy Roman Empire and German Empire. The regime, known as the Third Reich, lasted only 12 years before being defeated by the Allies in World War II, ending in May 1945.

Paris Commune: The Paris Commune was a short-lived revolutionary government in Paris from March to May 1871. It sought to establish socialism and popular democracy, challenging the centralized French governmental authority at the time.

Polish–Soviet War: The Polish-Soviet War occurred after World War I and the Russian Revolution. It involved the Second Polish Republic and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. The war took place in territories previously held by the Russian Empire and the Habsburg Monarchy.

Population transfer in the Soviet Union: Population transfer in the Soviet Union refers to the enforced movement of different groups from 1930 to 1952, following orders from Joseph Stalin and Lavrentiy Beria. Categories include deportations of "anti-Soviet" individuals, entire nationalities, and organized migrations to fill ethnically cleansed areas. The deportations of the kulaks and Soviet Koreans were significant events, involving the mass relocation of entire classes and nationalities.

Revolutions of 1848: The Revolutions of 1848, also called the Springtime of the Peoples, were a series of revolutions that swept across Europe from 1848 to 1849. It was the most extensive revolutionary movement in European history.

Russian Civil War: The Russian Civil War was a multi-party conflict in the former Russian Empire following the October Revolution. Various factions fought to determine Russia's political future. It led to the formation of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and later the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The war marked the end of the Russian Revolution, a significant event in the 20th century.

Russian Empire: The Russian Empire, also called Imperial Russia or simply Russia, was the Russian monarchy from 1721 to 1917. It covered most of northern Eurasia, succeeding the Tsardom of Russia after the Treaty of Nystad. The empire emerged as other neighboring powers declined, including the Swedish Empire, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Qajar Iran, Ottoman Empire, and Qing China. It had colonies in Russian America from 1799 to 1867. With an area of 22.8 million square kilometers, it was the third-largest empire in history, ruling over a population of 125.6 million people. The Russian Empire was known for its ethnic, linguistic, religious, and economic diversity.

Russian Revolution: The Russian Revolution was a period of transformative political and social change in the Russian Empire that began in 1917. It led to the overthrow of the monarchy, the establishment of a socialist government, and a brutal civil war. This revolution served as a catalyst for similar movements throughout Europe after World War I.

Russian Revolution of 1905: The Russian Revolution of 1905, also called the First Russian Revolution, saw widespread political and social unrest across the Russian Empire. The revolt targeted the Tsar, the nobility, and ruling class through worker strikes, peasant uprisings, and military rebellions. As a result, Tsar Nicholas II was pressured to make reforms, including the establishment of the State Duma, a multi-party system, and the Russian Constitution of 1906. However, the Duma had limited power and frequently clashed with the Tsar, who retained ultimate authority and dissolved the Duma three times to suppress opposition.

Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878): The Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) was a conflict between the Ottoman Empire and a coalition led by the Russian Empire. It took place in the Balkans and Caucasus, fueled by Balkan nationalism and Russian goals of recovering territories lost in the Crimean War. The war aimed to free Balkan nations from Ottoman rule and re-establish Russian influence in the Black Sea region.

Sinking of the Titanic: The RMS Titanic, the largest ocean liner at the time, sank on 15 April 1912, four days into her maiden voyage from Southampton to New York. It struck an iceberg at 23:40 on 14 April, leading to its sinking two hours and forty minutes later at 02:20 on 15 April. Over 1,500 people lost their lives, making it one of the deadliest peacetime maritime disasters in history.

Spanish Civil War: The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) was a conflict between the Republicans, who supported the left-leaning Popular Front government, and the Nationalists, led by General Franco. The Republicans consisted of various left-wing parties, while the Nationalists were an alliance of Falangists and conservatives. The war had multiple dimensions, viewed as a class struggle, religious conflict, and a battle between dictatorship and democracy. It also served as a precursor to World War II. The Nationalists emerged victorious and governed Spain until Franco's death in 1975.

Holodomor: The Holodomor, or Great Ukrainian Famine, was a man-made famine that occurred in Soviet Ukraine from 1932 to 1933, resulting in the death of millions of Ukrainians. It was part of a broader Soviet-wide famine during 1930-1933, mainly affecting regions that were major grain producers in the Soviet Union.

Unification of Germany: The unification of Germany was the process of creating the first nation-state for Germans. It began in 1866 with the adoption of the North German Confederation Treaty, forming a military alliance led by Prussia. This alliance was later strengthened with the adoption of the North German Constitution. The process concluded in 1871 when most south German states joined the North German Confederation, resulting in the proclamation of the German Empire. The Empire was composed of 25 member states and led by the Kingdom of Prussia. The legal events of unification took place in January and May 1871.

Empire of Brazil: The Empire of Brazil was a 19th-century state that included modern Brazil and Uruguay. It had a representative parliamentary constitutional monarchy, ruled by Emperors Pedro I and Pedro II. Brazil became the seat of the Portuguese Empire in 1808. Pedro declared independence in 1822, becoming the first Emperor. The country was vast, sparsely populated, and ethnically diverse.

Gran Colombia: Gran Colombia, or Greater Colombia, was a state in northern South America and southern Central America from 1819 to 1831. It included present-day Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela, along with parts of Peru, Brazil, and Guyana. The term differentiates it from the current Republic of Colombia.

Mexican–American War: The Mexican–American War was a conflict from 1846 to 1848, when the United States Army invaded Mexico. It was triggered by the American annexation of Texas in 1845, which Mexico did not recognize. This was due to Mexico refusing to acknowledge the Treaties of Velasco, signed by President Santa Anna while he was captured by the Texian Army during the 1836 Texas Revolution. The Republic of Texas, although de facto independent, desired annexation by the United States.

Mexican Revolution: The Mexican Revolution was a series of armed conflicts in Mexico from 1910 to 1920. It resulted in the destruction of the Federal Army and the rise of a revolutionary army, leading to significant changes in Mexican culture and government. The northern Constitutionalist faction gained power, drafting the current Constitution of Mexico and establishing a strong central government. Revolutionary generals ruled from 1920 to 1940. The conflict involved foreign powers, especially the United States, and caused the deaths of approximately one million people, mostly noncombatants.

Paraguayan War: The Paraguayan War, also called the War of the Triple Alliance (1864-1870), was a brutal conflict in South America between Paraguay and the Triple Alliance of Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay. It was the deadliest war in Latin American history. Paraguay suffered heavy losses, with disputed casualty figures. The war started as a result of tensions between Paraguay and Brazil caused by the Uruguayan War. Argentina and Uruguay later joined, turning it into the "War of the Triple Alliance." Paraguay was ultimately forced to cede disputed land to Argentina and Brazil.

Spanish American wars of independence: The Spanish American wars of independence were multiple wars fought in Spanish America during the early 19th century. They aimed to gain political independence from Spanish rule. These wars started during the Napoleonic Wars and the Peninsular War. The battles took place from 1809 in present-day Bolivia to 1829 in Mexico. The conflict was a struggle between those who sought a unitary monarchy (royalists) and those who desired plural monarchies or republics (patriots).

Mexican War of Independence: The Mexican War of Independence was a revolutionary civil war and political process that led to Mexico's independence from the Spanish Empire. It consisted of various local and regional struggles occurring between 1810 and 1821. The war culminated with the drafting of the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire in Mexico City on September 28, 1821, after the collapse of royal government and the victory of independence forces.

War of the Pacific: The War of the Pacific, also known as the Nitrate War, was a conflict between Chile and a Bolivian-Peruvian alliance from 1879 to 1884. It centered around Chile's territorial claims on the coastal Bolivian region in the Atacama Desert. Chile emerged victorious, acquiring resource-rich territory from Peru and Bolivia.

American frontier: The American frontier, also known as the Old West or Wild West, refers to the period of expansion in mainland North America from the 17th century until 1912. It was a time of massive migration and settlement, fueled by the Louisiana Purchase and the concept of "manifest destiny". The American frontier's legends, historical events, and folklore have become deeply ingrained in American culture, shaping the national identity and giving rise to the popular Western genre in media.

American Indian Wars: The American Indian Wars were fought by European governments, colonists, and later the United States government and settlers against various Native American tribes from the 17th to the 19th century. These conflicts resulted from settlers and governments wanting Native American lands, with some wars involving allied tribes. After the American Revolution, conflicts became localized and often centered around land disputes, leading to cycles of violence.

Dust Bowl: The Dust Bowl was a series of severe dust storms in the 1930s that damaged the environment and agriculture in the American and Canadian prairies. It was caused by both natural and human factors, such as the destruction of topsoil by settlers and a failure to use appropriate farming methods to prevent wind erosion. The drought occurred in three waves between 1934 and 1940, with some regions experiencing drought conditions for up to eight years.

Lewis and Clark Expedition: The Lewis and Clark Expedition, also known as the Corps of Discovery, was a U.S. mission to explore the newly acquired western territory after the Louisiana Purchase. Led by Lewis and Clark, a group of Army and civilian volunteers embarked on a journey from Illinois to the Pacific Ocean. They braved diverse terrains, crossed the Continental Divide, and reached the Columbia River. The expedition lasted from 1804 to 1806 and provided valuable insights into the uncharted American West.

Manhattan Project: The Manhattan Project was a collaborative effort between the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada during World War II to develop the first nuclear weapons. Led by Major General Leslie Groves, it involved the Los Alamos Laboratory, directed by J. Robert Oppenheimer. The project absorbed the British Tube Alloys program and operated under the Manhattan District. It employed about 130,000 people, cost $2 billion, and spanned over 30 sites in the three countries. The focus was on building factories, producing fissile material, and developing the weapons.

Monroe Doctrine: The Monroe Doctrine opposes European colonialism in the Western Hemisphere and considers any foreign intervention in the Americas as potentially hostile to the United States. It played a significant role in American grand strategy throughout the 20th century.

New Deal: The New Deal was a set of programs and reforms implemented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the United States between 1933 and 1938. It aimed to provide support for farmers, the unemployed, youth, and the elderly, and included major federal programs and agencies such as the CCC, WPA, CWA, FSA, NIRA, and SSA. The New Deal also introduced regulations and safeguards for the banking industry and worked to revive the economy. It consisted of both laws passed by Congress and presidential executive orders.

Spanish–American War: The Spanish-American War was triggered by the explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor, leading to U.S. involvement in the Cuban War of Independence. It resulted in America becoming dominant in the Caribbean and acquiring Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The war also led to U.S. participation in the Philippine Revolution and subsequent Philippine-American War.

Wall Street Crash of 1929: The Wall Street Crash of 1929, also called the Great Crash or Crash of '29, was a significant American stock market crash that took place in September-November 1929. It led to a catastrophic collapse of the New York Stock Exchange and played a crucial role in causing the worldwide Great Depression in the 1930s.

War of 1812: The War of 1812 was a conflict between the United States and the United Kingdom in North America. It started when the U.S. declared war in June 1812 and officially ended in February 1815 after the ratification of the peace treaty. The war involved indigenous allies on both sides, and Spain had limited involvement in Florida.

American Civil War: The American Civil War was a conflict in the United States between the Union and the Confederacy, fueled by the dispute over the expansion of slavery into the western territories. The war resulted from states seceding from the Union, with the central cause being the disagreement over whether to allow the establishment of more slave states or prevent slavery from spreading further.

Confederate States of America: The Confederate States of America (CSA), also known as the Confederacy or the South, was a breakaway republic in the Southern United States from 1861 to 1865. Comprised of eleven states, including South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina, the Confederacy declared secession and engaged in war against the United States during the American Civil War.

Congo Free State: The Congo Free State, also known as the Independent State of the Congo, was a large absolute monarchy in Central Africa from 1885 to 1908. It was privately owned by King Leopold II of Belgium. Although not officially part of Belgium, the two nations were in a personal union. Leopold acquired the territory by deceiving other European countries at the Berlin Conference and claiming humanitarian intentions. Through the International Association of the Congo, he asserted control over most of the Congo Basin. The name "Congo Free State" was adopted in 1885 and Leopold governed it from Brussels without ever visiting it.

Scramble for Africa: The Scramble for Africa refers to the colonization of most of Africa by seven Western European powers during "New Imperialism". In a span of four decades, European control went from 10% in 1870 to nearly 90% by 1914, leaving Liberia and Ethiopia as the only independent nations.

Anglo-Zulu War: The Anglo-Zulu War occurred in 1879 between the British Empire and the Zulu Kingdom. It was part of a larger British plan to establish control over various African regions and utilize their cheap labor. The British Empire sent Sir Bartle Frere to South Africa to implement this strategy, but faced opposition from the independent states of the South African Republic and the Kingdom of Zululand.

Second Italo-Ethiopian War: The Second Italo-Ethiopian War (1935-1937) was a conflict between Italy and Ethiopia, known as the Italian Invasion in Ethiopia and the Ethiopian War in Italy. It highlights the expansionist aims of the Axis powers and exposes the limitations of the League of Nations.

Sokoto Caliphate: The Sokoto Caliphate, also known as the Sultanate of Sokoto, was a Sunni Muslim empire in West Africa founded by Usman dan Fodio in 1804 after defeating the Hausa Kingdoms. It encompassed present-day Cameroon, Burkina Faso, Niger, and Nigeria. By 1837, it became the most populous empire in West Africa with a population of 10-20 million people. It was dissolved in 1903 when the British, French, and Germans conquered the region and incorporated it into their territories.

Great Game: The 'Great Game' was a 19th-century rivalry between the British and Russian Empires for influence in Central Asia. They used military interventions and diplomacy to acquire and redefine territories in Afghanistan, Persia, and Tibet. Russia conquered Turkestan, while Britain expanded and set borders in India. This led to the establishment of independent states, tribes, and monarchies as protectorates and territories of the two empires, extending from the Caspian Sea to the Eastern Himalayas.

Persian Constitutional Revolution: The Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905-1911) brought significant changes to Iran under the Qajar dynasty. It resulted in the establishment of a parliament, marking a pivotal moment in the country's modern history.

1911 Revolution: The 1911 Revolution, also called Xinhai Revolution, brought an end to China's Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China. It followed years of unrest and rebellion, marking the downfall of the monarchy and the start of China's early republican era after 2,132 years of imperial rule.

1931 China floods: The 1931 China floods, also known as the 1931 Yangtze–Huai River floods, devastated China between June and August 1931. Wuhan, Nanjing, and other major cities were severely affected. The floods reached their peak when a dike near Lake Gaoyou collapsed on 25 August 1931.

Boxer Rebellion: The Boxer Rebellion was a revolt in North China from 1899 to 1901. Led by the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, also known as "Boxers," it aimed to oppose foreign influence and imperialism. This anti-foreign, anti-imperialist, and anti-Christian movement occurred towards the end of the Qing dynasty. The Boxers were so named because they practiced Chinese martial arts, referred to as "Chinese boxing" at the time. Ultimately, they were defeated by the Eight-Nation Alliance, composed of foreign powers.

Chinese Civil War: The Chinese Civil War was a prolonged armed conflict between the Kuomintang-led government and the Chinese Communist Party from 1927 to 1949. It ended with a Communist victory and their subsequent control over mainland China.

Empire of Japan: The Empire of Japan, also known as Imperial Japan, existed from 1868 until 1947. It ruled over various territories, including naichi and gaichi, as well as a South Seas Mandate. After World War II, Japan surrendered and its territory was reduced to the current Japanese archipelago.

First Opium War: The First Opium War was a series of military engagements between the British Empire and the Qing dynasty of China from 1839 to 1842. It started when China banned opium and seized merchants' stocks. Despite the ban, Britain demanded compensation and equal trade rights. The British navy defeated China using superior ships and weapons and imposed the Treaty of Nanking. This treaty compelled China to increase foreign trade, provide compensation, and cede Hong Kong to Britain. The opium trade continued, and this conflict marked the beginning of modern Chinese history.

First Sino-Japanese War: The First Sino-Japanese War, also known as the First China-Japan War, was a conflict between the Qing dynasty and Empire of Japan. It mainly revolved around the struggle for control over Korea. The war lasted for over six months, during which the Japanese forces achieved continuous victories on land and at sea. The Qing government sought peace in February 1895, following the loss of the strategic port of Weihaiwei.

Meiji Restoration: The Meiji Restoration, also known as the Honorable Restoration, was a political event in 1868 that reinstated imperial rule in Japan under Emperor Meiji. It consolidated the political system and marked a shift towards modernization. The goals of the restoration were outlined in the Charter Oath.

Russo-Japanese War: The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) was a conflict between Japan and Russia over control of Manchuria and the Korean Empire. The major battlefields were in Southern Manchuria and the Yellow Sea.

Second Opium War: The Second Opium War (1856-1860) was a conflict between the British Empire, French Empire, and the Chinese Qing dynasty. Also called the Second Anglo-Sino War, China War, or Arrow War, it was a colonial war that greatly impacted China.

Second Sino-Japanese War: The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) was a total war between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan, often seen as the start of World War II in Asia. It was the largest Asian conflict of the 20th century, marked by Imperial Japan's war crimes against Chinese civilians. After Japan's attacks on Malaya and Pearl Harbor in 1941, the war became part of the broader China Burma India Theater of World War II.

Nanjing Massacre: The Nanjing Massacre, also known as the Rape of Nanjing, was a six-week period of mass murder, rape, looting, and arson committed by the Imperial Japanese Army in Nanjing, China in December 1937. It occurred after the Battle of Nanking during the Second Sino-Japanese War and is considered one of the worst wartime atrocities.

Taiping Rebellion: The Taiping Rebellion was a civil war in China (1850-1864) between the Qing dynasty and the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. Led by the Hakka people, it caused 20-30 million deaths, around one-tenth to one-twentieth of China's population. The Qing government emerged victorious but suffered significant economic and political losses.

British Raj: The British Raj, also known as Crown rule in India, was the British Crown's control over the Indian subcontinent from 1858 to 1947. It encompassed British India, directly administered by the UK, and princely states under British influence. Often referred to as the Indian Empire, it ended with India's independence.

Indian Rebellion of 1857: The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major uprising in India against British rule. It started with a mutiny of sepoys in Meerut and spread to other parts of the country. The rebellion posed a military threat to the British, but they defeated the rebels in Gwalior. The British granted amnesty to most rebels in November 1858, but officially declared the end of hostilities in July 1859.

Indian independence movement: The Indian independence movement aimed to end British rule in India (British Raj). It spanned from several historic events until 1947 when India gained independence.

Dutch East Indies: The Dutch East Indies, or Netherlands East Indies, was a Dutch colony that included mostly modern-day Indonesia. It gained independence in 1945 after the Indonesian War of Independence and made peace with the Netherlands in 1949. The Dutch also ceded Dutch Malacca to Britain in 1824, which eventually became part of modern Malaysia.

French Indochina: French Indochina, also known as the Indochinese Union, was a group of French-controlled territories in Southeast Asia until 1954. It included Cambodia, Laos, Guangzhouwan (a Chinese territory), and various regions in Vietnam. Hanoi was the capital from 1902 to 1945, while Saigon served as the capital from 1887 to 1902 and again from 1945 to 1954.

Konbaung dynasty: The Konbaung dynasty, also called the Third Burmese Empire, was the last ruling dynasty in Burma from 1752 to 1885. They expanded the Burmese empire and implemented administrative reforms, providing the foundation for modern-day Burma. However, these reforms were not enough to prevent British colonization. The British defeated the Burmese in three Anglo-Burmese Wars from 1824 to 1885, resulting in the end of the Burmese monarchy. Today, there are claimants to the dynasty's lineage through Myat Phaya Lat, one of Thibaw's daughters.

Nguyễn dynasty: The Nguyễn dynasty was the last ruling family in Vietnam, from 1802 to 1883. They expanded their empire into southern Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. However, French conquest resulted in the loss of sovereignty over parts of southern Vietnam. After 1883, the Nguyễn dynasty only had nominal rule over French protectorates. They briefly became the Empire of Vietnam until 1945.

Philippine Revolution: The Philippine Revolution was a war of independence fought by the Katipunan against Spanish colonial rule from 1896 to 1898. It marked the end of Spanish domination after 333 years. Following Cuba's rebellion, the Spanish Empire clashed with the United States in a war and lost. In June 1898, the Philippine revolutionaries declared a republic, but this was disregarded by Spain. Eventually, the islands were sold to the United States in the Treaty of Paris.

Philippine–American War: The Philippine–American War was fought from 1899 to 1902 between the United States and the First Philippine Republic. It started after the US annexed the Philippines instead of recognizing their independence. This war was a continuation of the Philippines' fight for freedom against Spanish rule.

Armenian genocide: The Armenian genocide was a systematic campaign by the Ottoman Empire during World War I that aimed to annihilate the Armenian people and their identity. Led by the Committee of Union and Progress, it resulted in the mass murder of about one million Armenians through death marches to the Syrian Desert. Many others were forcibly Islamized, particularly women and children.

Turkish War of Independence: The Turkish War of Independence was a series of military campaigns led by the Turkish National Movement after the Ottoman Empire was occupied and divided following World War I. It was a conflict between Turkish Nationalists, who sought self-determination, and Allied forces and separatists. The revolution resulted in the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the abolition of the monarchy and Islamic caliphate, and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey. This transfer of power marked a period of nationalist reform in Turkey.

1973 oil crisis: The 1973 oil crisis was caused by an oil embargo imposed by the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) against countries supporting Israel during the Fourth Arab-Israeli War. Led by Saudi Arabia's Faisal, OAPEC targeted countries like the US, UK, Canada, Japan, Netherlands, and later expanded the list. The embargo led to a global oil price increase of nearly 300%, causing an oil shock with significant short and long-term effects on the global economy and politics. It became known as the "first oil shock" compared to the later 1979 oil crisis.

2007–2008 financial crisis: The 2007–2008 financial crisis, known as the Global Financial Crisis (GFC), was a severe worldwide economic crisis comparable to the Great Depression. It was caused by predatory lending through subprime mortgages to low-income homebuyers, excessive risk-taking by global financial institutions, the accumulation of toxic assets within banks, and the subsequent bursting of the US housing bubble. These factors combined to create a "perfect storm" that triggered the Great Recession.

Civil rights movements: Civil rights movements are global campaigns for equality before the law that reached their peak in the 1960s. They often employ nonviolent protests and civil resistance to bring about change. These movements have also witnessed civil unrest and armed rebellion in some cases. While progress has been made, many of these movements still strive to fully achieve their goals. Nonetheless, they have resulted in improved legal rights for previously oppressed groups in certain regions.

Cold War: The Cold War was a period of tension between the US and the USSR and their allies, starting after WWII in 1945 and ending in 1991. Key features include geopolitical rivalry, ideological differences, and the division of the world into the Western and Eastern Blocs.

Nuclear arms race: The nuclear arms race was a competition between the United States and the Soviet Union for dominance in nuclear warfare during the Cold War. Other countries also developed nuclear weapons, but not on the same scale as the superpowers.

Warsaw Pact: The Warsaw Pact was a collective defense treaty signed in 1955 between the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern Bloc countries during the Cold War. It created a defensive alliance known as the Warsaw Treaty Organization. The pact was complementary to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, which was an economic organization for the region.

Collective farming: Collective farming is a system where multiple farmers work together to operate their holdings as a joint enterprise. It includes agricultural cooperatives, where member-owners collaborate in farming, and state farms, which are owned and managed by the government. This process is called collectivization. Examples of this system include the Soviet Union's kolkhozy and sovkhozy.

Contemporary history: Contemporary history refers to the time period from 1945 to the present and is a subset of modern history. It is a major subset of modern history, along with the early modern and late modern periods. In the social sciences, contemporary history is related to the rise of postmodernity.

Sexual revolution: The sexual revolution, a social movement in the 1960s-70s, challenged traditional sexual norms and behaviors in the Western world. It promoted sexual liberation, including acceptance of non-heterosexual relationships, contraception, public nudity, pornography, premarital and alternative forms of sex, homosexuality, masturbation, and legalized abortion.

COVID-19 pandemic: The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, began in Wuhan, China in December 2019 and quickly spread globally. The World Health Organization declared it a public health emergency in January 2020. To date, it has resulted in over 712 million cases and 6.2 million confirmed deaths, making it one of the deadliest pandemics in history.

Decolonization: Decolonization is the process of ending colonialism, where powerful nations establish control over foreign territories. The term has different interpretations. Some scholars look at independence movements and the downfall of colonial empires. Others consider economic, cultural, and psychological aspects of the colonial experience.

Electrification: Electrification is the adoption of electricity for power, often replacing previous power sources.

Information Age: The Information Age, starting in the mid-20th century, marks a major shift from traditional industries to an economy centered on information technology. Key technological developments such as the transistor in 1947 and the optical amplifier in 1957 have greatly influenced the processing and transmission of information.

Post–World War II economic expansion: The post-WWII economic expansion, or the Golden Age of Capitalism, was a period of global economic growth from after World War II to the 1973-1975 recession. It was characterized by high and sustained growth, full employment, and experienced by the US, Soviet Union, Western European, and East Asian countries.

Space exploration: Space exploration involves the use of telescopes and space technology to explore outer space. It includes both robotic space probes and human spaceflight. This field contributes significantly to space science alongside classical astronomy.

Exploration of Mars: Mars exploration involves remotely studying the planet with spacecraft. Sending probes from Earth has significantly increased our understanding of Martian geology and potential habitability. However, the complexity of engineering interplanetary journeys has resulted in a high failure rate, with around 60% of missions failing. Yet, there have been unexpected successes, like the long-lasting Mars Exploration Rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, which exceeded their intended lifespan.

Moon landing: A Moon landing refers to a spacecraft's arrival on the surface of the Moon. It can be manned or unmanned. The Soviet Union's Luna 2 was the first human-made object to land on the Moon on 13 September 1959.

Space Race: The Space Race was a competition between the United States and the Soviet Union in the 20th century to achieve superior spaceflight capability. It originated from the nuclear arms race after World War II and reached its peak with the Moon Race. Achieving spaceflight capability became crucial for national security and symbolic of the time. The Space Race included pioneering launches of satellites, robotic probes to other celestial bodies, and human spaceflight to the Moon.

War on terror: The War on Terror, also known as the Global War on Terrorism (GWOT), is a worldwide military effort launched by the United States after the September 11 attacks. It targets militant Islamist movements like Al-Qaeda, Taliban, and their allies, as well as the Ba'athist regime in Iraq. The war has seen multiple conflicts and insurgencies. Additionally, the Islamic State militia has become a significant adversary of the United States after their territorial expansion in 2014.

Iraq War: The Iraq War was a long-lasting armed conflict from 2003 to 2011, initiated by a US-led coalition that removed Saddam Hussein's Ba'athist government. The war continued as an insurgency against coalition forces and the new Iraqi government. US troops officially withdrew in 2011, but became re-involved in 2014. The conflict has ongoing dimensions, and it started as part of the George W. Bush administration's response to the September 11 attacks.

Algerian War: The Algerian War was a significant armed conflict between France and the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) from 1954 to 1962. It resulted in Algeria gaining independence from France, making it a key decolonization conflict. The war involved guerrilla warfare, war crimes, and internal divisions among communities. While primarily fought in Algeria, it also had implications for metropolitan France.

Angolan Civil War: The Angolan Civil War was a conflict that took place in Angola from 1975 to 2002. It started after Angola gained independence from Portugal and was a power struggle between the communist MPLA and the anti-communist UNITA guerrilla movements.

Apartheid: Apartheid was a system of racial segregation in South Africa and South West Africa from 1948 to the early 1990s. It was characterized by political dominance of the white minority, with whites having the highest social status. Indians, Coloureds, and Black Africans were ranked lower in the social hierarchy. Apartheid resulted in lasting economic and social inequality in the region.

Ethiopian Civil War: The Ethiopian Civil War (1974-1991) was a conflict between the Ethiopian military junta called the Derg and anti-government rebels from Ethiopia and present-day Eritrea.

Nigerian Civil War: The Nigerian Civil War, also called the Nigerian-Biafran War, was fought between Nigeria and the secessionist state of Biafra from 1967 to 1970. Led by General Gowon, Nigeria aimed to reunify the country, while Biafra, led by Ojukwu, sought independence for the Igbo ethnic group. The conflict stemmed from political, economic, ethnic, cultural, and religious tensions that had arisen since Nigeria's independence from the UK. Factors leading to the war included military and political coups, as well as anti-Igbo violence in Northern Nigeria.

Rwandan genocide: The Rwandan genocide, also known as the genocide against the Tutsi, took place over a 100-day period from April to July 1994 during the Rwandan Civil War. Armed Hutu militias targeted the Tutsi minority, along with some moderate Hutu and Twa, resulting in a significant loss of life. Official figures suggest over 1 million deaths, but scholarly estimates range from 500,000 to 800,000 Tutsi fatalities.

Second Boer War: The Second Boer War, also called the Boer War or Anglo–Boer War, was a conflict between the British Empire and the Boer Republics from 1899 to 1902. It arose from the Empire's desire for control in Southern Africa.

Second Congo War: The Second Congo War, also known as Africa's World War, started in August 1998 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It occurred shortly after the First Congo War and addressed similar issues.

Cuban Missile Crisis: The Cuban Missile Crisis was a 13-day confrontation between the US and the Soviet Union in 1962. American nuclear missile deployments in Italy and Turkey were countered by Soviet deployments in Cuba. It is regarded as the closest the Cold War came to full-scale nuclear war.

Cuban Revolution: The Cuban Revolution (1953-1959) aimed to overthrow the Cuban government. Fidel Castro, after facing a coup in 1952, led a failed attack on the Cuban military in 1953. He and his supporters formed the 26th of July Movement while in prison. After gaining amnesty, they invaded Cuba from Mexico in 1956. The rebel army gradually defeated the Cuban army in rural areas and engaged in sabotage and recruitment in urban areas. By late 1958, the 26th of July Movement gained support from the Popular Socialist Party and the Revolutionary Directorate of March 13. Together, they ousted Batista and brought about the revolution.

Civil rights movement: The civil rights movement was a nonviolent campaign in the US from 1954 to 1968, aiming to end racial segregation, discrimination, and disenfranchisement. It started in the late 19th century and gained momentum in the 1940s. The movement achieved significant legislative victories in the 1960s through grassroots protests and nonviolent resistance. Its efforts resulted in the establishment of federal protections for the civil rights of all Americans.

September 11 attacks: The September 11 attacks, also known as 9/11, were coordinated suicide terrorist attacks by al-Qaeda in 2001. 19 terrorists hijacked four planes and crashed two into the Twin Towers in New York City. The other two flights aimed for targets in Washington, D.C. - one striking the Pentagon and the fourth crashing in Pennsylvania. These attacks killed nearly 3,000 people and led to the global war on terror.

2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami: The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami was a major earthquake that struck off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. It had a magnitude of 9.1-9.3 and was caused by a rupture between the Burma Plate and the Indian Plate. The earthquake triggered a devastating tsunami, resulting in widespread destruction in the region.

Afghan conflict: The Afghan conflict refers to the continuous armed unrest in Afghanistan since the 1970s. It began after the collapse of the Kingdom of Afghanistan in 1973 and intensified after the Saur Revolution in 1978. The Soviet Union intervened in 1979, leading to the Soviet-Afghan War. During this time, the Afghan mujahideen received support from Pakistan, the United States, and Saudi Arabia.

Iran–Iraq War: The Iran-Iraq War was a conflict between Iran and Iraq from 1980 to 1988. Iraq invaded Iran to prevent the export of Iran's revolutionary ideology and to counter fears of sectarian tensions. Iraq also aimed to replace Iran as the dominant power in the Persian Gulf. The war lasted for eight years until a United Nations resolution was accepted by both sides.

Iranian Revolution: The Iranian Revolution, also called the Islamic Revolution, was a political and ideological uprising in 1979. It brought about the removal of the Pahlavi dynasty and establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran, led by Ayatollah Khomeini. This revolution ended Iran's monarchy under the rule of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, marking a significant transformation in the country's governance.

Korean War: The Korean War (1950-1953) was a conflict between North and South Korea. It started when North Korea invaded South Korea on 25 June 1950 and ended with an armistice on 27 July 1953. China and the Soviet Union supported North Korea, while South Korea received support from the United States and the United Nations (UN).

1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre: The 1989 Tiananmen Square protests in Beijing, China were student-led demonstrations held from April 15 to June 4. The protests aimed for a peaceful resolution but ended with a Chinese government-declared martial law and troops occupying the square on the night of June 3, known as the Tiananmen Square massacre. These events are also referred to as the '89 Democracy Movement, the Tiananmen Square Incident, or the Tiananmen uprising.

Cultural Revolution: The Cultural Revolution was a sociopolitical movement in China from 1966 to 1976, led by Mao Zedong. Its aim was to eliminate remnants of capitalism and traditional influences in Chinese society to preserve communism. Despite not achieving its main goals, it restored Mao's power after a period of absence caused by more moderate policies following the Great Leap Forward and the ensuing Great Chinese Famine.

Great Leap Forward: The Great Leap Forward was a campaign in China from 1958 to 1962, led by Mao Zedong, to transform the nation from an agrarian to an industrialized society. People's communes were established and efforts were made to boost grain production and bring industry to rural areas. Local officials, driven by fear and competition, exaggerated achievements and collected non-existent surpluses, causing millions of farmers to starve. The true extent of the economic disaster was hidden, resulting in a devastating famine and an estimated death toll ranging from 15 to 55 million.

1970 Bhola cyclone: The 1970 Bhola cyclone was a catastrophic tropical cyclone in the Bengal region. On November 12, it struck East Pakistan and India's West Bengal, causing immense devastation. This cyclone holds the grim record for being the deadliest ever recorded, with an estimated death toll ranging from 300,000 to 500,000 people. The storm surge, which flooded the Ganges Delta's low-lying islands, was responsible for most of the fatalities. Bhola was also the most powerful cyclonic storm of the 1970 North Indian Ocean cyclone season.

Bangladesh Liberation War: The Bangladesh Liberation War was a revolution and armed conflict in East Pakistan that led to the independence of Bangladesh. It started when the Pakistani military junta launched Operation Searchlight against the people of East Pakistan, resulting in widespread violence and the Bangladesh genocide.

Partition of India: The Partition of India in 1947 was the division of political borders and assets that occurred when the British Raj dissolved. This resulted in the creation of two independent dominions - India and Pakistan. India is now the Republic of India, while Pakistan comprises two regions, Pakistan and Bangladesh. The partition involved the division of Bengal and Punjab provinces, with Muslim-majority areas going to Pakistan and non-Muslim-majority areas to India. Assets such as the military, navy, air force, civil service, railways, and treasury were also divided. Independent Pakistan and India were established on August 14 and 15, 1947.

Sri Lankan Civil War: The Sri Lankan Civil War was a conflict in Sri Lanka from 1983 to 2009. The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam rebel group fought against the government to establish a separate Tamil state due to discrimination against Sri Lankan Tamils.

Khmer Rouge: The Khmer Rouge was a communist party that ruled Cambodia from 1975 to 1979. The name was given by Norodom Sihanouk in the 1960s and referred to the country's communist-led dissidents.

First Indochina War: The First Indochina War (1946-1954) was fought between France and the Việt Minh, led by Võ Nguyên Giáp and Hồ Chí Minh. It primarily occurred in Northern Vietnam but also affected the whole country, as well as the French Indochina protectorates of Laos and Cambodia.

Indonesian National Revolution: The Indonesian National Revolution, also called the Indonesian War of Independence, was a conflict between Indonesia and the Dutch Empire from 1945 to 1949. It involved armed fighting, diplomacy, and a social revolution. It began with Indonesia's declaration of independence and ended with the Netherlands transferring sovereignty over the Dutch East Indies to the Republic of the United States of Indonesia.

Vietnam War: The Vietnam War was a major conflict in Southeast Asia from 1955 to 1975. It involved Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia and was a key battleground of the Cold War. The war was fought between North and South Vietnam, with the north supported by the Soviet Union and China, while the south was backed by the United States and its allies. Lasting almost 20 years, it also impacted neighboring countries, leading to the communist takeover of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia by 1976.

Arab–Israeli conflict: The Arab-Israeli conflict is a political and military dispute between Arab countries and Israel that began in the 20th century. It is rooted in the support of Arab League countries for Palestinians in their conflict with Israel, which arose with the rise of Zionism and Arab nationalism in the late 19th century.

Israeli–Palestinian conflict: The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is a long-standing military and political dispute in the Levant region. It involves key issues such as Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, the status of Jerusalem, Israeli settlements, borders, security and water rights. The conflict also encompasses Palestinian freedom of movement and the right of return.

Gulf War: The Gulf War was an armed conflict between Iraq and a coalition led by the United States. It consisted of two main phases: Operation Desert Shield, a military buildup from August 1990 to January 1991, and Operation Desert Storm, an aerial bombing campaign against Iraq from January to February 1991, resulting in the liberation of Kuwait.

European integration: European integration refers to the progressive amalgamation of European states, economically, politically, legally, socially, and culturally. The primary vehicle for this process is the European Union and its policies.

Iron Curtain: The Iron Curtain was a political boundary that divided Europe into two separate areas from 1945 to 1991. It represented the Soviet Union's efforts to cut off contact with the West, its allies, and neutral states. Countries influenced by the Soviets were on the east side, while NATO members or countries influenced by the United States were on the west side. Economic and military alliances formed on both sides. The Iron Curtain also referred to a physical barrier of fences, walls, minefields, and watchtowers, including the Berlin Wall.

Czechoslovakia: Czechoslovakia was a landlocked state in Central Europe that existed from 1918 to 1939. It declared independence from Austria-Hungary, but lost territories to Nazi Germany, Hungary, and Poland. During World War II, Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia separated, while Bohemia and Moravia became a German Protectorate. Former President Edvard Beneš formed a government-in-exile seeking recognition from the Allies.

Eastern Bloc: The Eastern Bloc, also known as the Communist Bloc, was a coalition of communist states aligned with the Soviet Union during the Cold War. It consisted of countries in Central and Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America. These states followed the ideology of Marxism-Leninism, opposing the capitalist Western Bloc. The Eastern Bloc was often referred to as the "Second World". The term "First World" represented the Western Bloc, while the "Third World" included non-aligned countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, as well as Yugoslavia.

Hungarian Revolution of 1956: The Hungarian Revolution of 1956, also called the Hungarian Uprising, was a nation-wide revolt against the Soviet-influenced government of the Hungarian People's Republic. Lasting for 12 days, the uprising was brutally suppressed by Soviet tanks and troops on 4 November 1956. This led to thousands of casualties and the exodus of nearly a quarter of a million Hungarians from the country.

Prague Spring: The Prague Spring was a period in Czechoslovakia from January to August 1968 characterized by political liberalization and mass protests. It was initiated by Alexander Dubček's election as First Secretary of the Communist Party, aiming for reforms. However, it was abruptly ended when the Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact nations invaded Czechoslovakia to suppress the movement.

Revolutions of 1989: The Revolutions of 1989, also known as the Fall of Communism, were a series of liberal democracy movements that led to the collapse of Marxist-Leninist governments in the Eastern Bloc and beyond. Also referred to as the Fall of Nations or Autumn of Nations, this wave of revolutions may have played a role in the eventual dissolution of the Soviet Union and the abandonment of communist regimes worldwide. These events significantly reshaped the global power balance, marking the end of the Cold War and the beginning of a new era.

Soviet Union: The Soviet Union (USSR) was a transcontinental country that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was a successor state to the Russian Empire and encompassed fifteen national republics. The Russian SFSR was the largest and most populous. The government and economy of the USSR were highly centralized. It was a one-party state governed by the Communist Party and considered a flagship communist state.

Chernobyl disaster: The Chernobyl disaster occurred in 1986 when the No. 4 reactor at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine exploded, causing one of the two nuclear accidents rated at the highest severity level. The response involved over 500,000 personnel and cost approximately $68 billion in today's currency. This incident is considered the most catastrophic nuclear disaster in history.

Dissolution of the Soviet Union: The dissolution of the Soviet Union was the disintegration process that led to its 15 republics gaining full independence on December 26, 1991. It was the result of internal stagnation, ethnic separatism, and a political crisis. Efforts to reform the political and economic system failed, leading to the resignation of General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev. The Russian, Byelorussian, and Ukrainian SSRs were among the first to declare the end of the Soviet Union, followed by eight more republics. The Soviet parliament voted to dissolve itself after Gorbachev's resignation.

Yugoslavia: Yugoslavia, existing from 1918 to 1992, was a country in Southeast and Central Europe.

German reunification: German reunification refers to the process of establishing Germany as a single sovereign state, occurring between November 1989 and March 1991. The Unification Treaty, effective from October 1990, dissolved the German Democratic Republic and integrated its constituent states into the Federal Republic of Germany. This led to the formation of present-day Germany, celebrated annually as German Unity Day since 1991. Additionally, as part of reunification, East and West Berlin were merged into a single city, which eventually became the country's capital.

Berlin Wall: The Berlin Wall was a guarded concrete barrier that separated West Berlin from East Berlin and the German Democratic Republic. Construction began in 1961 and included guard towers, concrete walls, anti-vehicle trenches, and other defenses. The main purpose of the Wall was to prevent East German citizens from escaping to the West.

The Troubles: The Troubles were an ethno-nationalist conflict in Northern Ireland from the late 1960s to 1998. This conflict, also known as the Northern Ireland conflict, lasted for about 30 years and is sometimes referred to as an "irregular war" or "low-level war." While centered in Northern Ireland, the violence occasionally spread to the Republic of Ireland, England, and mainland Europe. The Good Friday Agreement in 1998 is widely considered as the end of the Troubles.