Murasaki Shikibu: Murasaki Shikibu, a Japanese novelist, poet, and lady-in-waiting in the Heian period, is renowned for writing The Tale of Genji, which is considered one of the world's earliest novels. Composed in Japanese between 1000 and 1012, her personal name remains unidentified, though she might have been Fujiwara no Kaoriko, mentioned as an imperial lady-in-waiting in a 1007 court diary.

Miguel de Cervantes: Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, an Early Modern Spanish writer, is widely considered the greatest writer in Spanish and one of the world's top novelists. His acclaimed novel, Don Quixote, is recognized as the first modern novel and referred to as "the first great novel of world literature". A 2002 poll of renowned authors proclaimed it the "most meaningful book of all time" among the finest works in global literary history.

Voltaire: Voltaire, born François-Marie Arouet, was a renowned French Enlightenment writer, philosopher, satirist, and historian. He criticized Christianity and slavery while advocating for freedom of speech, religion, and the separation of church and state. Known for his wit, Voltaire left a lasting impact on the Enlightenment era.

Leo Tolstoy: Leo Tolstoy, a renowned Russian writer, is widely considered one of the most influential authors in history. He was nominated multiple times for the Nobel Prize in Literature and also for the Nobel Peace Prize.

Homer: Homer, a Greek poet, is known for crafting the Iliad and the Odyssey, both foundational works of ancient Greek literature. He is highly respected and considered an immensely influential author in history.

Virgil: Virgil, or Publius Vergilius Maro, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period, known for his famous Latin literature works. These include the Eclogues, Georgics, and the epic Aeneid. While some minor poems in the Appendix Vergiliana were once attributed to him, modern scholars doubt his authorship of these.

Li Bai: Li Bai, also known as Li Bo, was a renowned poet in the Tang dynasty and is considered one of the greatest poets in Chinese history. Alongside his friend and fellow poet Du Fu, they contributed to the flourishing era of Chinese poetry during the Tang dynasty, often referred to as the "Golden Age of Chinese Poetry." The "Three Wonders" encompass Li Bai's poetry, Pei Min's swordplay, and Zhang Xu's calligraphy.

Rumi: Rumi, also known as Jalāl al-Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī, was a prominent 13th-century Persian poet, Islamic scholar, and Sufi mystic from Greater Khorasan in Iran. He was not only a Hanafi faqih and Maturidi theologian but also a highly revered figure in the field of Islamic spirituality.

Dante Alighieri: Dante Alighieri, a renowned Italian poet, writer, and philosopher, is best known for his masterpiece Divine Comedy. This epic poem, originally named Comedìa and later titled Divina, is regarded as a significant work from the Middle Ages and a pinnacle of Italian literature.

Rabindranath Tagore: Rabindranath Tagore, a Bengali polymath, was a renowned poet, writer, playwright, composer, philosopher, social reformer, educationist, and painter during the Bengal Renaissance. He revolutionized Bengali literature, music, and Indian art with Contextual Modernism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Tagore's poetic songs were spiritually captivating, while his prose and magical poetry gained immense popularity in the Indian subcontinent. In 1913, he became the first non-European and lyricist to win the Nobel Prize in Literature for his profoundly sensitive and beautiful poetry in Gitanjali. Often referred to as "the Bard of Bengal," Tagore was revered with titles like Gurudeb, Kobiguru, and Biswokobi. He also held membership in the Royal Asiatic Society.

William Shakespeare: William Shakespeare, an English playwright, poet, and actor, is widely considered the greatest writer in the English language. He is known as England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon." Shakespeare wrote 39 plays, including collaborations, as well as 154 sonnets, three long narrative poems, and other verses. His works have been translated into numerous languages and are performed more frequently than any other playwright's. Shakespeare remains highly influential, and his works are still studied and reinterpreted today.

Leonardo da Vinci: Leonardo da Vinci, the Italian polymath of the High Renaissance, was a painter, engineer, scientist, sculptor, and architect. His famous notebooks contain drawings and notes on anatomy, astronomy, botany, cartography, painting, and paleontology. Leonardo is considered a genius who embodied the Renaissance humanist ideal. His extensive works rival those of Michelangelo and continue to inspire future generations of artists.

Rembrandt: Rembrandt was a renowned Dutch painter, printmaker, and draughtsman during the Dutch Golden Age. He is regarded as one of the greatest visual artists in history. Known for his innovation and prolific output, Rembrandt created around 300 paintings, 300 etchings, and 2,000 drawings.

Frida Kahlo: Frida Kahlo, a Mexican painter, is renowned for her portraits, self-portraits, and works influenced by Mexico's culture. Her art explores themes of identity, gender, race, and class using a naïve folk art style. Kahlo's paintings combine realism and fantasy, often with autobiographical elements. She was associated with the post-revolutionary Mexicayotl movement and is recognized as a surrealist or magical realist. Kahlo also depicted her chronic pain through her art.

Pablo Picasso: Pablo Picasso was a Spanish artist who lived most of his life in France. He was highly influential in the 20th century and is renowned for co-founding the Cubist movement, innovating constructed sculpture, and co-inventing collage. Picasso also explored a wide range of styles. Notable works include Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, an early Cubist piece, and Guernica, a powerful anti-war painting depicting the bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War.

Michelangelo: Michelangelo, a renowned Italian artist of the High Renaissance, was a master in sculpture, painting, architecture, and poetry. Inspired by classical antiquity, his work had a profound impact on Western art. Alongside Leonardo da Vinci, he is considered an archetypal Renaissance man. Michelangelo's extensive surviving correspondence, sketches, and accolades make him one of the best-documented artists of the 16th century. He was highly regarded by contemporary biographers as the most accomplished artist of his time.

Hokusai: Hokusai, a Japanese ukiyo-e artist, was active during the Edo period, known for his woodblock print series Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji. His most famous work, The Great Wave off Kanagawa, became an iconic image. He transformed ukiyo-e from focusing on courtesans and actors to broader themes like landscapes, plants, and animals. Hokusai's works greatly influenced Van Gogh and Monet during the Japonisme movement in 19th-century Europe.

Johann Sebastian Bach: Johann Sebastian Bach, a German composer, was a renowned musician during the late Baroque period. He is famous for his orchestral music, instrumental compositions, keyboard works, organ works, and vocal music. Since the 19th-century Bach revival, he is widely recognized as one of the greatest composers in Western music history.

Ludwig van Beethoven: Ludwig van Beethoven was a respected German composer and pianist, celebrated for his significant contributions to Western music. His compositions are widely performed, exemplifying the transition from Classical to Romantic music. Divided into early, middle, and late periods, Beethoven's career witnessed his growth as an artist. The middle period was marked by personal development and the emergence of a unique style. Suffering from increasing deafness, he persisted and continued to innovate in his late period, expanding musical form and expression.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was a highly productive and influential composer of the Classical period, known for composing over 800 works in various genres. His compositions are considered exceptional in symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral music. Mozart is widely regarded as one of the greatest composers in Western music history, admired for his beautiful melodies, elegant form, and rich harmony. Despite his short life, his vast musical legacy lives on.

Louis Armstrong: Louis Armstrong, also known as "Satchmo" or "Pops", was a highly influential American trumpeter and vocalist in the jazz genre. He had a remarkable career spanning five decades, receiving numerous accolades such as the Grammy Award for Best Male Vocal Performance in 1965. Even after his passing, Armstrong's impact on music was recognized with a posthumous Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1972 and induction into the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame in 2017.

Michael Jackson: Summary: Michael Jackson, the "King of Pop," was a celebrated American singer, songwriter, dancer, and philanthropist. His immense impact on popular culture stemmed from his groundbreaking contributions to music, dance, and fashion throughout his four-decade career. Recognized for his intricate street dance moves like the moonwalk and the robot, Jackson's stage and video performances influenced artists across various music genres.

The Beatles: The Beatles were an influential English rock band formed in 1960. Comprising John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr, they revolutionized the music industry. Their sound blended various genres, including skiffle, beat, rock 'n' roll, classical music, and traditional pop. They explored diverse styles, from folk to Indian music, psychedelia, and hard rock. The Beatles were pioneers in recording, songwriting, and artistic presentation. They played a significant role in the development of 1960s counterculture and popular music's recognition as an art form.

Walt Disney: Walt Disney was a pioneering American animator, film producer, and entrepreneur known for his contributions to the animation industry. He holds the record for the most Academy Awards earned and nominations by an individual, and his films are considered some of the greatest ever by the American Film Institute.

Charlie Chaplin: Charlie Chaplin, an English comic actor and filmmaker, achieved worldwide fame during the silent film era. Known for his iconic character, the Tramp, he is considered a significant figure in the film industry. His career spanned 75 years, from the Victorian era until 1977. Chaplin's impact was characterized by both admiration and controversy.

Aristotle: Aristotle, an ancient Greek philosopher and polymath, covered various subjects including natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, and the arts. He founded the Peripatetic school of philosophy in Athens, which paved the way for the development of modern science.

Cicero: Cicero was a prominent Roman statesman, scholar, and writer who advocated for traditional Roman values during a time of political turmoil. He is revered for his eloquence as an orator and for his influential writings on rhetoric, philosophy, and politics. Educated in both Rome and Greece, Cicero came from a wealthy family and served as consul in 63 BC.

Confucius: Confucius, a Chinese philosopher during the Spring and Autumn period, is revered as the epitome of wisdom in Chinese culture. His teachings, known as Confucianism, continue to shape East Asian society by emphasizing morality, social relationships, justice, kindness, sincerity, and a ruler's responsibility to their subjects.

Laozi: Laozi, also known as Lao Tzu, was a legendary Chinese philosopher and the author of the Tao Te Ching, a significant text in Taoism. He is often referred to as "the Old Master." While his biographical details are considered to be invented, he was said to be born in the state of Chu during the 6th century BC and served as the royal archivist for the Zhou court. Laozi is believed to have crossed paths with Confucius and composed the Tao Te Ching before withdrawing from societal life.

Plato: Plato, an influential Greek philosopher, was born in Athens during the Classical period.

Socrates: Socrates, an influential Greek philosopher, is considered the founder of Western philosophy and moral thought. Though he left no writings, his ideas were preserved through dialogues by his students, such as Plato and Xenophon. These dialogues gave rise to the Socratic dialogue literary genre. Due to contradictory accounts, his philosophy remains a subject of debate, known as the Socratic problem. Socrates was a controversial figure in Athens and was ultimately sentenced to death in 399 BC after being accused of impiety and corrupting the youth.

Thomas Aquinas: Thomas Aquinas was an influential Italian Dominican friar, philosopher, theologian, and jurist, known for his contributions to scholasticism.

René Descartes: René Descartes was a French philosopher, scientist, and mathematician who played a crucial role in the development of modern philosophy and science. He pioneered the integration of geometry and algebra, forming analytic geometry. Descartes spent most of his career in the Dutch Republic, becoming a prominent figure in the Dutch Golden Age. Despite being associated with a Protestant state and criticized as a deist, Descartes remained a Roman Catholic.

Immanuel Kant: Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher and a key figure of the Enlightenment. His comprehensive works in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics have earned him the titles of the "father of modern ethics," "father of modern aesthetics," and "father of modern philosophy."

Friedrich Nietzsche: Friedrich Nietzsche was a German philosopher known for his influential works. He began as a classical philologist but later turned to philosophy. Despite health issues, he held a prestigious academic position at a young age and wrote extensively over the next decade. At the age of 44, he suffered a mental collapse and lived under the care of family members until his passing in 1900, after battling pneumonia and strokes.

Herodotus: Herodotus, a Greek historian and geographer, wrote the Histories, a detailed account of the Greco-Persian Wars. He conducted systematic investigations and is recognized as "The Father of History" by Cicero.

Ibn Khaldun: Ibn Khaldun, an influential Arab scholar, is highly regarded as a leading social scientist of the Middle Ages. Often referred to as the father of historiography, sociology, economics, and demography studies, his work holds significant importance in those fields.

Karl Marx: Karl Marx, a German philosopher and revolutionary socialist, was a prominent figure in various disciplines such as economics, politics, history, sociology, and journalism. His significant contributions include the famous publication "The Communist Manifesto" in 1848 and the extensive analysis of capitalism in "Das Kapital" from 1867 to 1894, employing his critical approach of historical materialism. His ideas and theories, collectively known as Marxism, have had a profound impact on the intellectual, economic, and political history of modern society.

Adam Smith: Adam Smith was a Scottish economist and philosopher known as "The Father of Economics" and "The Father of Capitalism". His most notable works are The Theory of Moral Sentiments and The Wealth of Nations, which is considered a groundbreaking modern work in economics. Smith explores various factors like politics, society, environment, and technology in explaining the distribution of wealth and power, rejecting the notion of God's will. He also introduces the concept of absolute advantage in economics.

John Locke: John Locke, an influential English philosopher and physician, is known as the "father of liberalism" and a key figure in the Enlightenment. He contributed to social contract theory, epistemology, and political philosophy. His writings influenced prominent thinkers such as Voltaire, Rousseau, and the American Revolutionaries. Locke's ideas greatly affected the development of classical republicanism and liberal theory, as seen in the United States Declaration of Independence. His political-legal principles continue to shape limited representative government and the protection of basic rights worldwide.

Niccolò Machiavelli: Niccolò Machiavelli, a renowned Florentine diplomat, author, and philosopher of the Renaissance era, is famed for his political treatise "The Prince." Considered the father of modern political philosophy and science, Machiavelli's work was published posthumously in 1532, five years after his demise.

Mary Wollstonecraft: Mary Wollstonecraft, a British writer and philosopher, was a pioneer in advocating for women's rights. Despite her unconventional personal relationships, her writings gained recognition centuries later. She is now considered one of the founding feminist philosophers, with her life and works serving as significant influences for feminists today.

Sigmund Freud: Sigmund Freud, an Austrian neurologist, founded psychoanalysis - a method for treating mental disorders arising from conflicts in the mind. It involves dialogue between patient and psychoanalyst, leading to the development of a unique theory of mind and human agency.

Adi Shankara: Adi Shankara, also known as Adi Shankaracharya, was an 8th-century Indian scholar and teacher. His works offered a holistic interpretation of sastras, emphasizing the liberation of self. He combined the teachings of Advaita Vedanta prevalent during his era.

The Buddha: The Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, was an influential religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE. He was a wandering ascetic and the founder of Buddhism.

Jesus: Jesus was a Jewish preacher and religious leader in the first century. He is central to Christianity and believed by most Christians to be the incarnation of God the Son. Jesus is also known as Jesus Christ and Jesus of Nazareth. He is seen as the awaited messiah prophesied in the Hebrew Bible.

Paul the Apostle: Paul the Apostle, also known as Saint Paul, was a Christian apostle who played a vital role in spreading Jesus' teachings in the first-century world. He is considered a significant figure of the Apostolic Age and is credited with founding Christian communities in Asia Minor and Europe from the mid-40s to the mid-50s AD. Additionally, his contributions to the New Testament have cemented his importance in Christian history.

Martin Luther: Martin Luther, a German priest and theologian, led the Protestant Reformation. He was a prolific author, hymnwriter, and professor, known for his foundational role in Lutheranism.

Muhammad: Muhammad, an Arab leader and the founder of Islam, was a prophet who preached and confirmed monotheistic teachings. Believed to be the Seal of the Prophets, his teachings and the Quran are the foundation of Islamic belief.

Hatshepsut: Hatshepsut, the Great Royal Wife of Pharaoh Thutmose II, was the fifth Pharaoh of Egypt's Eighteenth Dynasty. She ruled as regent first and then as queen regnant from around 1479 BC until approximately 1458 BC. Hatshepsut was Egypt's second confirmed queen regnant, with the first being Sobekneferu/Nefrusobek in the Twelfth Dynasty.

Ramesses II: Ramesses II, also known as Ramesses the Great, was an influential Egyptian pharaoh from the Nineteenth Dynasty. Considered one of the New Kingdom's greatest rulers, he led 15 successful military campaigns, except for the notable Battle of Kadesh.

Qin Shi Huang: Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China's Qin dynasty, unified the country and introduced a new title, "emperor." Reigning from 221 to 210 BC, he established a precedent for future Chinese monarchs, who would adopt this title for the next 2000 years.

Ashoka: Ashoka the Great was the Mauryan Emperor of Magadha in ancient India from 268 to 232 BCE. His vast empire spanned from Afghanistan to Bangladesh, with its capital in Pataliputra. Ashoka is known for promoting Buddhism and facilitating its spread throughout Asia.

Hammurabi: Hammurabi, the 6th king of the Old Babylonian Empire, ruled from approx. 1792 to 1750 BC. He expanded his empire by conquering Larsa, Eshnunna, and Mari city-states. He also defeated Assyria's king and made their ruler pay tribute, establishing Babylonian rule over most of Mesopotamia. His reign marked a significant period of expansion and consolidation of power in Babylonian history.

Cyrus the Great: Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, expanded his territory by defeating the Median Empire and other ancient Near East states. Under the rule of his successor Darius the Great, the Achaemenid Empire became the world's first superpower, stretching from Southeast Europe to the Indus Valley.

Alexander the Great: Alexander the Great, also known as Alexander III of Macedon, was the ruler of ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He ascended to the throne at the age of 20 and led a extensive military campaign across Western Asia and Egypt. By the age of 30, he had established one of the largest empires ever known, spanning from Greece to northwestern India. Regarded as one of the greatest military commanders in history, Alexander was undefeated in battle.

Julius Caesar: Julius Caesar - Roman general and statesman, led Roman armies in Gallic Wars, defeated political rival Pompey, became dictator, critical role in demise of Roman Republic and rise of Roman Empire.

Augustus: Augustus, also known as Octavian, was the founder and first emperor of the Roman Empire. His reign from 27 BC to AD 14 marked the beginning of the Pax Romana, a time of relative peace throughout the Roman world. Augustus established the imperial cult and implemented the Principate system of imperial rule, which lasted until the Crisis of the Third Century.

Mansa Musa: Mansa Musa, the ninth ruler of the Mali Empire, was renowned for his unprecedented wealth and expansive territory. Despite being considered the richest person in history, the precise extent of his riches remains uncertain. His reign marked the zenith of the Mali Empire's territorial dominance, and he gained recognition for his extraordinary generosity.

Genghis Khan: Genghis Khan (1162-1227) was the founder and first ruler of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire ever. He united Mongol tribes and led military campaigns, conquering vast regions in China and Central Asia.

Charlemagne: Charlemagne, King of the Franks and Lombards, became Emperor in 800. He united much of Western and Central Europe and was the first recognized ruler post the fall of the Western Roman Empire. His rule brought lasting political and societal changes, shaping the Middle Ages in Europe.

George Washington: George Washington, an American Founding Father and military officer, was the first president of the United States. He led the Continental Army to victory in the Revolutionary War and played a crucial role in shaping the Constitution of the United States as president of the Constitutional Convention. Washington is widely known as the "Father of the Nation."

Akbar: Akbar, also known as Akbar the Great, was the third Mughal emperor who ruled from 1556 to 1605. He succeeded his father, Humayun, and with the aid of his regent, Bairam Khan, he expanded and consolidated Mughal territories in the Indian subcontinent.

Suleiman the Magnificent: Suleiman the Magnificent, also known as Suleiman the Lawgiver, was the longest-reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He ruled from 1520 until his death in 1566 and had a vast empire with over 25 million subjects.

Napoleon: Napoleon Bonaparte, also known as Napoleon I, was a French emperor and military commander who played a significant role in the French Revolution. He led successful campaigns during the Revolutionary Wars and served as the leader of the French Republic. Later, he became the Emperor of the French, ruling from 1804 to 1814 and briefly in 1815. Napoleon introduced lasting reforms but faced criticism for his authoritarian rule. He is renowned as a brilliant military strategist and his wars and campaigns continue to be analyzed in military schools worldwide. However, historians still debate his responsibility for the Napoleonic Wars, which resulted in the deaths of millions.

Elizabeth I: Elizabeth I, the final Tudor monarch, ruled England and Ireland from 1558 to 1603 until her demise.

Catherine the Great: Catherine II, also known as Catherine the Great, ruled Russia from 1762 to 1796. She ousted her husband, Peter III, to become empress. During her reign, inspired by Enlightenment ideas, Russia flourished culturally and scientifically, resulting in the creation of new cities, universities, and theaters. This era also saw significant immigration from Europe and cemented Russia's status as a major European power.

Abraham Lincoln: Abraham Lincoln was the 16th president of the United States, serving from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. He led the nation during the American Civil War, defending the constitution and defeating the Confederate States. Lincoln abolished slavery, expanded federal power, and modernized the U.S. economy.

Simón Bolívar: Simón Bolívar was a Venezuelan military and political leader who liberated several South American countries from Spanish rule, including Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Panama, and Bolivia. He is commonly referred to as El Libertador, or the Liberator of America.

Adolf Hitler: Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German dictator who led the Nazi Party. He became chancellor in 1933 and later held the title of Führer und Reichskanzler. Hitler initiated World War II by invading Poland in 1939 and was heavily involved in military operations. He played a central role in the Holocaust, the genocide of approximately six million Jews and millions of other victims.

Joseph Stalin: Joseph Stalin was a Soviet revolutionary and politician who led the Soviet Union from 1924 until his death in 1953. He held powerful positions within the Communist Party and the government, becoming a dictator in the 1930s. Stalin adhered to the ideology of Marxism–Leninism and his policies are known as Stalinism.

Nelson Mandela: Nelson Mandela was a South African anti-apartheid activist and politician. He served as the first black president of the country from 1994 to 1999, following a fully representative democratic election. Mandela's government prioritized the dismantling of apartheid and promoting racial reconciliation. He was an African nationalist and socialist, and also served as the president of the African National Congress (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.

Mao Zedong: Mao Zedong, a Chinese politician and revolutionary, founded the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949 and led the country until his death in 1976. He was also the chairman of the Chinese Communist Party. Mao's legacy includes his theories, military strategies, and policies which are known as Maoism.

Joan of Arc: Joan of Arc, a patron saint of France, defended the nation during the Hundred Years' War. She led the siege of Orléans and insisted on the coronation of Charles VII as the rightful king. Guided by divine inspiration, Joan defied gender norms and became a renowned military leader, earning recognition as a savior of France.

Mahatma Gandhi: Mahatma Gandhi, an Indian lawyer and anti-colonial nationalist, led India to independence from British rule through nonviolent resistance. He inspired global movements for civil rights and freedom. The honorific Mahātmā, initially given to him in South Africa in 1914, is now recognized worldwide.

Archimedes: Archimedes of Syracuse, an Ancient Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, astronomer, and inventor, is considered one of the greatest scientists in classical antiquity. He is renowned for his contributions in mathematics, where he anticipated modern calculus and analysis through the concept of the infinitely small. Archimedes rigorously derived and proved various geometrical theorems, such as the area of a circle, surface area and volume of a sphere, and area under a parabola.

Euclid: Euclid was an ancient Greek mathematician known as the "father of geometry." His Elements treatise laid the foundations of geometry, which dominated the field until the 19th century. Euclidean geometry combined innovations and theories from earlier Greek mathematicians. He is considered one of the greatest mathematicians of antiquity and had a significant impact on the history of mathematics.

Hippocrates: Hippocrates of Kos, a Greek physician of great historical significance, is known as the "Father of Medicine." He made lasting contributions to the field, including the use of prognosis, clinical observation, and the categorization of diseases. Hippocrates revolutionized ancient Greek medicine, establishing it as a separate profession.

Avicenna: Avicenna, also known as Ibn Sina, was a renowned Muslim philosopher and physician. He flourished during the Islamic Golden Age and served in the courts of Iranian rulers. Often called the father of early modern medicine, his philosophy was influenced by the Muslim Peripatetic school which drew from Aristotelian principles.

Al-Khwarizmi: Al-Khwarizmi, a Persian polymath, made significant contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and geography. He is known for his influential Arabic-language works. He served as the astronomer and head of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad in the 9th century.

Shen Kuo: Shen Kuo, a Chinese polymath in the Song dynasty, excelled in mathematics, optics, and horology. He held various government positions, including finance minister and head official for the Bureau of Astronomy. Shen was aligned with the Reformist faction led by Chancellor Wang Anshi.

Isaac Newton: Isaac Newton was an influential English mathematician, physicist, astronomer, alchemist, theologian, and author. He played a significant role in the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment. Newton's book, Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, revolutionized classical mechanics and consolidated previous scientific findings. He made groundbreaking contributions to optics and developed calculus independently, alongside Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Regarded as one of history's greatest scientists, Newton's impact on science is immense.

Marie Curie: Marie Curie, a Polish-French physicist and chemist, conducted groundbreaking research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, winning it twice and in two scientific fields. Her husband Pierre Curie was her first co-winner, making them the first married couple to receive the Nobel Prize. Curie also became the first woman to be a professor at the University of Paris in 1906.

Albert Einstein: Albert Einstein, a German-born theoretical physicist, is widely considered one of the most influential scientists of all time. He is best known for his development of the theory of relativity and his contributions to quantum mechanics. Einstein's famous equation, E=mc2, is a result of his work on relativity theory. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for his discovery of the photoelectric effect, which played a significant role in the development of quantum theory. Einstein's work has greatly impacted the philosophy of science, and his intellectual achievements have made him synonymous with genius.

Michael Faraday: Michael Faraday was an influential English scientist who made significant contributions to the study of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. Despite limited formal education, he discovered principles such as electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and electrolysis. Faraday established the concept of the electromagnetic field and its relationship with magnetism and light. His inventions in electric motor technology paved the way for practical use of electricity in technology.

James Clerk Maxwell: James Clerk Maxwell was a Scottish physicist who formulated the classical theory of electromagnetic radiation. He recognized that electricity, magnetism, and light are different manifestations of the same phenomenon. His equations for electromagnetism are considered as a significant unification in physics, after Isaac Newton's achievements.

Nicolaus Copernicus: Nicolaus Copernicus, a Renaissance polymath, was a mathematician, astronomer, and Catholic canon. He proposed a groundbreaking model of the universe, placing the Sun at its center instead of the Earth. He developed this model independently of Aristarchus of Samos, who had suggested a similar idea centuries before.

Galileo Galilei: Galileo Galilei, an Italian polymath, was a prominent astronomer, physicist, and engineer born in Pisa. Considered the father of modern science, he made groundbreaking contributions to observational astronomy, classical physics, the scientific method, and overall advancements in scientific thinking.

Antoine Lavoisier: Antoine Lavoisier was a French nobleman and chemist who played a crucial role in the chemical revolution of the 18th century. He greatly influenced the fields of chemistry and biology.

Dmitri Mendeleev: Dmitri Mendeleev: Russian chemist known for formulating the Periodic Law and creating the periodic table. Corrected properties of known elements and predicted three undiscovered elements.

Charles Darwin: Charles Darwin, an English naturalist, geologist, and biologist, made significant contributions to evolutionary biology. He proposed that all life forms derive from a common ancestor, a concept now widely accepted in science. Together with Alfred Russel Wallace, he introduced the theory of natural selection, explaining how life evolves through a process similar to artificial selection. Darwin's impact on history is immense, and he was honored with burial in Westminster Abbey.

Carl Linnaeus: Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish biologist and physician, is known as the "father of modern taxonomy." He formalized binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms. Linnaeus' name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus and, after his ennoblement in 1761, as Carolus a Linné.

Florence Nightingale: Florence Nightingale was a pioneering English social reformer and statistician. She is known as the founder of modern nursing and rose to prominence during the Crimean War. Nightingale significantly reduced death rates by improving hygiene and living standards for wounded soldiers. She became an iconic figure in Victorian culture as "The Lady with the Lamp," who made nightly rounds to care for injured soldiers.

Louis Pasteur: Louis Pasteur was a French chemist and microbiologist known for his discoveries in vaccination, fermentation, and pasteurization. His breakthroughs in understanding diseases and hygiene laid the foundations for modern medicine. Pasteur's development of vaccines for diseases like rabies and anthrax saved millions of lives. He is considered a founder of modern bacteriology and microbiology and is honored as the "father of bacteriology" and the "father of microbiology."

Thomas Edison: Thomas Edison was a prominent American inventor and businessman. His inventions, including the phonograph, motion picture camera, and early versions of the electric light bulb, greatly influenced the modern world. Edison was known for his application of organized science and teamwork in the invention process, and he established the first industrial research laboratory.

Johannes Gutenberg: Johannes Gutenberg, a German inventor, revolutionized Europe with his movable-type printing press. His invention led to an information revolution, widespread literature, and influenced the Renaissance, Reformation, and humanist movements. Gutenberg’s printing press is considered an essential catalyst for these significant changes in history.

Nikola Tesla: Nikola Tesla, a Serbian-American inventor and engineer, greatly impacted the modern electrical system, particularly in the development of alternating current (AC) electricity supply.

Leonhard Euler: Leonhard Euler, a Swiss mathematician and physicist, was a pioneer in graph theory, topology, and analytic number theory. He made influential contributions in diverse mathematical branches such as complex analysis, infinitesimal calculus, and introduced modern mathematical terminology and notation. Euler's work also extended to mechanics, fluid dynamics, optics, astronomy, and music theory.

Carl Friedrich Gauss: Carl Friedrich Gauss was a renowned German mathematician, geodesist, and physicist. His remarkable contributions to various fields in mathematics and science make him one of history's most influential and celebrated mathematicians, often referred to as the "Prince of Mathematicians."

Kurt Gödel: Kurt Gödel, a prominent logician, mathematician, and philosopher, exerted a significant influence on scientific and philosophical thought in the 20th century. Often mentioned alongside Aristotle and Gottlob Frege, he played a crucial role in the investigation of the foundations of mathematics, following the footsteps of mathematicians such as Richard Dedekind, Georg Cantor, and Gottlob Frege. His work impacted renowned thinkers like Bertrand Russell, Alfred North Whitehead, and David Hilbert who were exploring logic and set theory during that period.

Emmy Noether: Emmy Noether, a German mathematician, made significant contributions to abstract algebra. She discovered fundamental theorems in mathematical physics, earning her recognition as the most important woman in math history by renowned mathematicians. Her work in rings, fields, and algebras further established her as a leading mathematician of her time. In physics, Noether's theorem explains the link between symmetry and conservation laws.

Alan Turing: Alan Turing was an influential English mathematician, computer scientist, and logician. He formalized the idea of algorithm and computation with the Turing machine, seen as a model of a general-purpose computer. Known as the father of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence, Turing made significant contributions to these fields and played a crucial role in World War II as a cryptanalyst.

Henry Ford: Henry Ford was an American industrialist, founder of Ford Motor Company, and pioneer of assembly line production. He revolutionized the automobile industry by making affordable cars for the middle class, which greatly impacted society in the 20th century.

Marco Polo: Marco Polo was a Venetian merchant, explorer, and writer who traveled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. His travels, documented in The Travels of Marco Polo, provided Europeans with their first in-depth understanding of the Eastern world. His book revealed the wealth and vastness of the Mongol Empire, China during the Yuan Dynasty, as well as insights into Persia, India, Japan, and other Asian cities and countries.

Zheng He: Zheng He was a renowned Chinese mariner, explorer, and fleet admiral during the Ming dynasty. He is considered the greatest admiral in Chinese history. Commissioned by two emperors, he led seven treasure voyages to various regions from 1405 to 1433. His ships were legendary for their size, carrying hundreds of sailors on four decks and unprecedented dimensions.

Christopher Columbus: Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer and navigator, completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean sponsored by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain. His expeditions were the first European contact with the Caribbean, Central, and South America, opening the way for widespread European exploration and colonization of the Americas.

James Cook: James Cook was a British explorer known for his three expeditions to the Pacific Ocean between 1768 and 1779. He made important contributions to cartography by creating detailed maps of Newfoundland. Cook was the first European to make contact with the eastern coast of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands. He also completed the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand.

Vasco da Gama: Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese explorer and the first European to reach India by sea.

Ferdinand Magellan: Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese explorer who led the 1519 Spanish expedition to the East Indies. He planned and navigated the first European voyage to Asia via the Pacific Ocean, discovering a passage that now bears his name. Magellan's main achievement was opening a new maritime trade route, establishing important connections between Europe and Asia.

Roald Amundsen: Roald Amundsen, a Norwegian explorer, played a vital role in the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration. He was an adventurous figure known for his expeditions to polar regions.

Human history: Human history is the story of how modern humans emerged in Africa 300,000 years ago. Initially, they lived as hunter-gatherers and later migrated out of Africa during the Last Glacial Period. By the end of the Ice Age, approximately 12,000 years ago, they had settled across much of the Earth.

History: History is the organized examination and recording of humanity's past events and developments.

Civilization: A civilization is a complex society with key features including advanced governance, social hierarchy, urban development, and non-verbal forms of communication.

Archaeology: Archaeology is the study of human activity by analyzing material culture like artifacts, architecture, and ecofacts. It is both a social science and a humanities discipline, often classified as part of anthropology, history, or geography.

History of art: The history of art explores the creation of objects by humans for various purposes, with a main emphasis on their visual appeal. It encompasses spiritual, narrative, philosophical, symbolic, documentary, decorative, and functional aspects. Art can be categorized into fine arts and applied arts, and it spans various media like architecture, sculpture, painting, film, photography, and graphic arts. Advancements in technology have led to the emergence of video art, computer art, performance art, animation, television, and videogames.

History of architecture: The history of architecture explores changes in buildings across cultures and time periods. It encompasses diverse traditions, stylistic trends, and dates. Architecture began with humans seeking shelter and safety. The term encompasses more than just buildings, including urbanism, civil engineering, naval, military, and landscape architecture.

History of film: The history of film traces the evolution of a visual art form that emerged in the late 19th century, utilizing film technologies.

History of literature: The history of literature refers to the progression of written works in prose or poetry that aim to entertain or educate readers. It also includes the development of literary techniques used to communicate these works. Not all writings are considered literature, as certain recorded materials, like data compilations, are excluded. This summary concentrates on the evolution of the defined works.

History of music: The history of music is a topic of great debate, as its origins are not clearly identified. It is considered a universal cultural practice, present in every known culture. There are varying theories on whether music predates, coexists, or follows the development of language. Many scholars have proposed different ideas, but no consensus has been reached. Different cultures have their own myths and beliefs about the invention of music, often tied to their religion, philosophy, or mythology.

History of science: The history of science is the study of scientific progress throughout ancient times to today, covering natural, social, and formal branches of science.

History of technology: The history of technology is the study of the development of tools and techniques throughout time. It encompasses a wide range of advancements, from simple stone tools to complex genetic engineering and information technology. The term technology originates from Greek words meaning art and craft, initially applied to applied arts but now includes advancements that impact our environment.

History of agriculture: The history of agriculture began in various regions worldwide, leading to a significant shift in human lifestyles. Around 12,000 years ago, the development of agriculture resulted in the transition from nomadic hunter-gatherer societies to settled communities dependent on farming.

Green Revolution: The Green Revolution, or Third Agricultural Revolution, was a period of technology transfer that boosted crop yields. It started in developed countries in the early 20th century and later spread worldwide until the late 1980s. Notably, farmers adopted high-yielding varieties of cereals like dwarf wheat and rice, along with chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and controlled irrigation.

History of mathematics: The history of mathematics explores the origins and methods of mathematical discoveries. Prior to widespread knowledge, new developments were only found in a few places. From 3000 BC, Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations began using mathematics for practical purposes such as taxation and trade, as well as for understanding patterns in nature, astronomy, and recording time.

History of medicine: The history of medicine includes studying medical practices in past societies, exploring current practices, and is a multidisciplinary field seeking to understand the evolution of medicine throughout history.

Military history: Military history is the exploration of past armed conflicts and their effects on societies, cultures, economies, and relationships, both local and international.

Prehistory: Prehistory is the period of human history before the invention of writing. It spans from the use of stone tools approximately 3.3 million years ago to the development of writing systems around 5,000 years ago. While symbols and marks were used early on, widespread adoption of writing occurred much later. Prehistory ended at different times in different regions and is less commonly discussed in societies where it ended more recently.

Early human migrations: Early human migrations refer to the initial movements of archaic and modern humans across continents, beginning around 2 million years ago with Homo erectus leaving Africa. Later migrations involved other archaic humans, such as H. heidelbergensis, who likely gave rise to Denisovans, Neanderthals, and modern humans. These early hominids likely crossed now submerged land bridges.

Stone Age: The Stone Age was a prehistoric period lasting around 3.4 million years, in which stone was predominantly used to make tools. It ended between 4,000 BC and 2,000 BC, with the introduction of metalworking, making up almost 99.3% of human history. Although basic metalworking existed during the Stone Age, the melting and smelting of copper marked its end. The Bronze Age followed, characterized by the use of copper alloys in place of stone for tool-making.

Neolithic Revolution: The Neolithic Revolution, or First Agricultural Revolution, was a significant transition in human cultures during the Neolithic period. It involved a shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture and settlement, leading to the rise of larger populations. The development of settled communities allowed humans to study plants and led to the domestication of crops.

Ancient history: Ancient history is the time period spanning from the start of recorded human history to the late antiquity, around 5,000 years. It encompasses all continents and is divided into the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age based on the three-age system. Recorded history is believed to have begun during the Bronze Age, but the start and end of these ages differ across regions.

Bronze Age: The Bronze Age, from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, marked the use of bronze and early urban civilization. It is the second phase of the Metal Ages and part of the three-age system proposed by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen.

Iron Age: The Iron Age is the last era of the three Metal Ages. It follows the Copper and Bronze Ages and is considered the final stage of the three-age division that starts with prehistory. Initially describing Iron Age Europe and the Ancient Near East, the concept now includes other regions of the Old World.

Silk Road: The Silk Road was an ancient network of trade routes spanning over 6,400 kilometers. It operated from the second century BCE to the mid-15th century, connecting the East and West. The Silk Road facilitated economic, cultural, political, and religious exchanges. Some historians now prefer the term Silk Routes to highlight the intricate web of overland and maritime connections across Asia, East Africa, and Southern Europe.

Ancient Greece: Ancient Greece was a civilization in northeastern Mediterranean, lasting from the 12th–9th centuries BC to classical antiquity. It consisted of city-states and territories, briefly united under Alexander the Great. After this, it transitioned into the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine period.

Ancient Rome: Ancient Rome refers to the period of Roman civilization from its founding in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the establishment of Rome, the development of the Roman Kingdom, Republic, and Empire.

Mesopotamia: Mesopotamia, also known as present-day Iraq, is a historical region in West Asia. It was located within the Tigris-Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Besides Iraq, it also encompassed parts of Iran, Kuwait, Syria, and Turkey.

Sumer: Sumer is an ancient civilization that emerged in southern Mesopotamia around 6,000 years ago. It is considered one of the cradles of civilization along with Egypt, the Indus Valley, and Mesoamerica. Sumerians were skilled farmers who lived along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, growing abundant crops that allowed them to form urban settlements. They were also pioneers in writing, with the world's earliest known texts originating from Sumerian cities around 5,000 years ago.

Phoenicia: Phoenicia was an ancient Semitic civilization centered in modern Lebanon. Their territory extended from modern Syria to Israel, covering the entire coast of Lebanon. They were known for their thalassocratic culture and had significant influence through trade and colonization across the Mediterranean, from Cyprus to the Iberian Peninsula.

Achaemenid Empire: The Achaemenid Empire, also called the First Persian Empire, was an ancient Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC. It was the largest empire of its time, covering 5.5 million square kilometers. The empire stretched from the Balkans and Egypt in the west to Central and South Asia in the east.

Gupta Empire: The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire that existed from the 4th to 6th century CE. It covered a significant portion of the Indian subcontinent from 319 to 467 CE. Consideredby some as the Golden Age of India, it had notable rulers like Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II, and Skandagupta. The Guptas conquered several kingdoms, including those outside India, such as the Parasikas, Hunas, Kambojas, Kinnaras, and Kiratas.

Indus Valley Civilisation: The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization in South Asia from around 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE. It was one of the earliest civilizations in the Near East and South Asia, alongside ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. The IVC was the most widespread of these civilizations, with sites spanning from Pakistan to Afghanistan and India. It flourished in the alluvial plain of the Indus River and along monsoon-fed rivers in northwest India and eastern Pakistan.

Han dynasty: The Han dynasty was an important imperial dynasty in China, established by Liu Bang. It followed the short-lived Qin dynasty and a period of conflict called the Chu-Han contention, and it was succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period. The dynasty was interrupted by the Xin dynasty, but is generally divided into the Western Han and Eastern Han periods. Spanning over four centuries, the Han dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history and has had a lasting impact on Chinese civilization. The Han people, the majority ethnic group in modern China, identify themselves as Han Chinese. The spoken language and written characters are known respectively as the Han language and Han characters.

Ancient Egypt: Ancient Egypt was a civilization in Northeast Africa, centered around the Nile River and now modern-day Egypt. It emerged around 3100 BC with the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. The history of Ancient Egypt was marked by stable kingdoms and intermittent periods of instability called Intermediate Periods. Key periods include the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom.

Andean civilizations: The Andean civilizations were sophisticated societies in South America, spanning from Colombia to Argentina. They emerged on the Pacific coast and the oldest known civilization is the Caral in Peru. These civilizations developed independently and are considered one of the world's six "pristine" civilizations.

Mesoamerica: Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in central and southern Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. It is known for its indigenous cultures and the shared development of cultural traits.

Maya civilization: The Maya civilization was an ancient Mesoamerican culture known for its advanced temples, intricate glyphs, and sophisticated writing system. They were highly skilled in art, architecture, mathematics, and had a complex calendar and astronomical system.

Post-classical history: Post-classical history, from 500 CE to 1500 CE, denotes the expansion of civilizations and trade networks. It is also known as the medieval era, post-antiquity era, or pre-modern era.

Mongol Empire: The Mongol Empire was the largest empire in history from the 13th to 14th centuries. It originated in present-day Mongolia and stretched from Eastern Europe to parts of the Arctic. The empire also extended into the Indian subcontinent, attempted invasions of Southeast Asia, and conquered the Iranian Plateau. Additionally, it reached as far west as the Levant and the Carpathian Mountains.

Middle Ages: The Middle Ages, also known as the medieval period, spanned from around 500 AD to 1500. It was the middle era between antiquity and modern times. The medieval period is further divided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages. The early medieval period is sometimes called the Dark Ages.

Black Death: The Black Death was a devastating bubonic plague pandemic that occurred in Western Eurasia and North Africa from 1346 to 1353. It is the deadliest known pandemic in human history, resulting in the deaths of approximately 40% to 60% of Europe's population. The plague was caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, primarily spread through fleas. However, during this epidemic, it likely also spread through person-to-person contact, leading to a more contagious form known as pneumonic plague.

Holy Roman Empire: The Holy Roman Empire was a polity in Europe headed by the Holy Roman emperor. It existed for nearly 1000 years from the Early Middle Ages until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars.

Viking Age: The Viking Age (793–1066 CE) was a time during the Middle Ages when Norsemen known as Vikings conducted mass raiding, colonization, conquest, and trade across Europe, even reaching North America. It followed the Migration Period and the Germanic Iron Age, encompassing not only Scandinavia but also settlements by Scandinavians in various places. The term "Vikings" is commonly used to refer to the Scandinavians of this era, although most of them were not pirates.

Byzantine Empire: The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centered in Constantinople. It survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire and remained a powerful force in the Mediterranean world until its ultimate collapse in 1453. The empire was known for its economic, cultural, and military dominance. While its citizens referred to themselves as Romans, the term "Byzantine Empire" was coined after its demise. The empire distinguished itself from its earlier Roman counterpart through its relocation to Byzantium, adoption of state Christianity, and the predominance of Greek over Latin.

Aztecs: The Aztecs were a Mesoamerican culture that thrived in central Mexico from 1300 to 1521. They were a diverse group of people who spoke the Nahuatl language and controlled parts of Mesoamerica for centuries. They had city-states that sometimes formed alliances or empires, and the most notable of these was the Aztec Empire, which consisted of three city-states. The term "Aztecs" is used to refer to Mexica of Tenochtitlan and other Nahua groups in both the prehispanic and Spanish colonial eras. The meaning of "Aztec" has been debated by scholars since the 19th century.

Inca Empire: The Inca Empire, known as Tawantinsuyu, was the largest pre-Columbian empire in the Americas. Its capital was Cusco in Peru. Emerging in the 13th century, it encompassed a vast territory. However, it was conquered by the Spanish, and by 1572, the empire was completely subdued.

Pre-Columbian era: The Pre-Columbian era refers to the time before European colonization in the Americas. It starts with the first inhabitation of the Americas and ends when Indigenous cultures were significantly affected by Europeans. This era covers a wide range of Indigenous history until Christopher Columbus's voyage in 1492, and sometimes even beyond.

Islamic Golden Age: The Islamic Golden Age, from the 8th to the 13th century, marked an outstanding era of scientific, economic, and cultural prosperity in Islamic history.

Crusades: The Crusades were a series of religious wars led by the Christian Latin Church in the Middle Ages. They aimed to reconquer Jerusalem and surrounding areas from Muslim rule. The First Crusade was successful in conquering Jerusalem in 1099, leading to numerous subsequent military campaigns. The Crusades played a pivotal role in European history for centuries but declined after the 15th century.

Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire, also called the Turkish Empire, was a vast empire that governed Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to the early 20th centuries. It extended its control over parts of southeastern Central Europe from the 16th to the 18th century.

Tang dynasty: The Tang dynasty was an imperial dynasty in China from 618 to 907. It was a high point in Chinese civilization and known for its cosmopolitan culture. The Tang rulers expanded their territory through military campaigns, rivaling the Han dynasty in size.

Early modern period: The early modern period is a historical era in Europe, spanning from the 16th to the 19th centuries. It follows the Middle Ages and precedes modernity. The timeline may vary depending on the area studied. It is considered a part of the broader concept of modernity and is often used globally, even in the absence of a corresponding medieval period.

Age of Discovery: The Age of Discovery, also known as the Age of Exploration, was a period from the 15th to the 17th century. European seafarers explored and conquered regions around the world. This period experienced extensive overseas exploration and colonization, led by the Spanish, Portuguese, and later the Dutch, English, and French. It marked the rise of colonialism as a government policy in several European states and is often associated with the first wave of European colonization.

Renaissance: The Renaissance was a historical period and cultural movement in the 15th and 16th centuries. It aimed to revive and surpass classical antiquity, bringing great social change in various fields like art, architecture, literature, exploration, and science. Some argue that the Renaissance was a break from the past, while others see it as an extension of the Middle Ages. The period overlaps with the Late Middle Ages and shows similarities to both eras.

Scientific Revolution: The Scientific Revolution was a transformative period in early modern Europe marked by breakthroughs in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry. These advancements revolutionized society's understanding of nature. It began with Nicolaus Copernicus' 1543 publication, "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium," which challenged traditional views of the cosmos.

British Empire: The British Empire was a vast collection of territories ruled by the United Kingdom and its predecessors. It originated from England's overseas possessions and trading posts established in the 16th and 17th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire ever, holding influence over 412 million people and covering 24% of the Earth's land area. Its power and global dominance lasted for a century, earning it the title of "the empire on which the sun never sets." Today, the influence of the British Empire can still be seen in its constitutional, legal, linguistic, and cultural legacy.

Spanish Empire: The Spanish Empire, also called the Hispanic Monarchy or the Catholic Monarchy, was a major colonial empire governed by Spain from 1492 to 1976. Alongside the Portuguese Empire, it initiated the European Age of Discovery and had a global reach, controlling vast territories in the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. Renowned as "the empire on which the sun never sets," it was one of the most powerful empires of the early modern era and at its peak in the late 1700s-early 1800s, it encompassed over 13 million square kilometers, ranking among the largest empires in history.

Age of Enlightenment: The Age of Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. It emphasized the value of human happiness, the pursuit of knowledge through reason and senses, and ideals like natural law, liberty, progress, toleration, constitutional government, and separation of church and state. It had global influences and aimed to advance society's understanding and improve the human condition.

Reformation: The Reformation, a 16th-century movement in Western Christianity, challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and the papacy. It paved the way for Protestantism and coincided with the Renaissance era.

French Revolution: The French Revolution (1789-1799) was a transformative period in France marked by political and societal change. It began with the Estates General and ended with the coup of 18 Brumaire and the French Consulate. It introduced fundamental principles of liberal democracy and its values and institutions continue to shape modern French politics.

American Revolution: The American Revolution was an ideological and political revolution in British America in the late 18th century. It led to the American Revolutionary War, where the Thirteen Colonies gained independence from Britain and established the United States as the first nation based on Enlightenment principles of consent of the governed, constitutionalism, and liberal democracy.

European colonization of the Americas: European colonization of the Americas took place between the late 15th century and early 19th century. While the Norse had explored and briefly settled the region earlier, the colonization by European powers in North and South America is more well-known due to its long duration and significance during the Age of Discovery.

Western imperialism in Asia: Western imperialism in Asia refers to the dominance and control exerted by Western European powers and associated states over Asian territories during the colonial period, starting in the 16th century. This influence peaked during the Age of Sail, bringing about colonization, the introduction of modern warfare, and the expansion of the spice trade. European-style colonial empires operated in Asia for six centuries until the Portuguese Empire's last colony, Macau, gained independence in 1999. This imperialism introduced Western concepts of nation and the multinational state, shaping the development of the Western concept of the nation state.

Mughal Empire: The Mughal Empire was an influential empire in South Asia that reached its height from the Indus River to Afghanistan, Kashmir, Assam, and Bangladesh. It also extended to the Deccan Plateau in South India.

Great Depression: The Great Depression (1929–1939) was a severe global economic downturn caused by a sharp decline in US stock prices. It led to the Wall Street crash in October 1929, triggering a period of economic depression. This prolonged crisis was characterized by high unemployment rates and widespread business failures, affecting many countries worldwide.

Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution was a global transition from manual labor to machine-based manufacturing that took place from around 1760 to 1820-1840. It began in Great Britain, spreading to Europe and the United States. This period saw advancements in manufacturing processes, such as the use of machines, new chemical and iron production techniques, as well as the rise of water and steam power. It also led to the development of machine tools and the mechanized factory system. The population grew rapidly as output increased, and the textile industry became dominant.

Late modern period: The late modern period, starting in 1800, followed the early modern period. It either ended in 1945 or continues to the present. Key features include its position after the early modern period and its connection to contemporary history.

World War I: World War I, also known as the First World War, was a global conflict between the Allies and the Central Powers. It occurred in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, the Pacific, and parts of Asia. This deadly war resulted in approximately 9 million soldiers dead and 23 million wounded, along with 5 million civilian deaths from various causes. It also played a major role in the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic and led to widespread genocide.

World War II: World War II was a global conflict from 1939-1945. All major countries were involved, forming the Allies and Axis alliances. It was a total war with intense investment in economic and military resources. Aircraft played a significant role, leading to strategic bombings and nuclear weapon use. With 70-85 million fatalities, it was the deadliest conflict, involving genocides, starvation, massacres, and disease. Germany, Austria, and Japan were occupied, and war crime trials were held against their leaders.

Scramble for Africa: The Scramble for Africa refers to the colonization of most of Africa by seven Western European powers during "New Imperialism". In a span of four decades, European control went from 10% in 1870 to nearly 90% by 1914, leaving Liberia and Ethiopia as the only independent nations.

Cold War: The Cold War was a period of tension between the US and the USSR and their allies, starting after WWII in 1945 and ending in 1991. Key features include geopolitical rivalry, ideological differences, and the division of the world into the Western and Eastern Blocs.

Contemporary history: Contemporary history refers to the time period from 1945 to the present and is a subset of modern history. It is a major subset of modern history, along with the early modern and late modern periods. In the social sciences, contemporary history is related to the rise of postmodernity.

Decolonization: Decolonization is the process of ending colonialism, where powerful nations establish control over foreign territories. The term has different interpretations. Some scholars look at independence movements and the downfall of colonial empires. Others consider economic, cultural, and psychological aspects of the colonial experience.

Information Age: The Information Age, starting in the mid-20th century, marks a major shift from traditional industries to an economy centered on information technology. Key technological developments such as the transistor in 1947 and the optical amplifier in 1957 have greatly influenced the processing and transmission of information.

Space exploration: Space exploration involves the use of telescopes and space technology to explore outer space. It includes both robotic space probes and human spaceflight. This field contributes significantly to space science alongside classical astronomy.

Soviet Union: The Soviet Union (USSR) was a transcontinental country that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was a successor state to the Russian Empire and encompassed fifteen national republics. The Russian SFSR was the largest and most populous. The government and economy of the USSR were highly centralized. It was a one-party state governed by the Communist Party and considered a flagship communist state.

Geography: Geography is the study of Earth's lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena. It seeks to understand both the human and natural complexities of our planet, including how things have changed over time. While specific to Earth, geography also has applications in planetary science. It is seen as a bridge between natural and social sciences.

Africa: Africa is the second-largest and second-most populous continent on Earth, covering 20% of the land area and inhabited by 1.4 billion people. Despite its rich natural resources, it is the least wealthy continent per capita due to factors such as geography, climate, tribalism, colonialism, and corruption. Nonetheless, recent economic growth and a large, young population establish Africa as a significant global market.

Europe: Europe is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere, bordered by the Arctic Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, and Asia. It shares the landmass of Eurasia and Afro-Eurasia. The Ural Mountains, Ural River, Caspian Sea, Greater Caucasus, Black Sea, and Turkish strait separate it from Asia.

Asia: Asia is the world's largest continent with a land area of over 44 million square kilometers and a population of 4.7 billion, making up about 60% of the global population. It has been home to many early civilizations and currently covers about 30% of the Earth's land and 8% of its surface.

North America: North America is a continent in the Northern and Western Hemispheres. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, South America and the Caribbean Sea to the southeast, and the Pacific Ocean to the west and south. Greater North America includes Canada, Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean Islands, and Greenland.

South America: South America is a continent located mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a smaller part in the Northern Hemisphere. It is considered the southern subregion of the larger continent known as America.

Antarctica: Antarctica is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent, surrounded by the Southern Ocean. It is the fifth-largest continent, covering an area of 14,200,000 km2 (5,500,000 sq mi). Most of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, with the geographic South Pole located within its boundaries.

Map: A map is a symbolic representation highlighting relationships between elements in a space, like objects, regions, or themes.

Arctic: The Arctic is a polar region at the northernmost part of Earth, consisting of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of several countries. It is characterized by seasonally changing snow and ice cover and treeless permafrost. The Arctic seas have seasonal sea ice in many areas.

Arctic Ocean: The Arctic Ocean, the smallest and shallowest of the world's major oceans, spans approximately 14,060,000 km2 (5,430,000 sq mi). Considered one of the coldest oceans, it is recognized as an ocean by the International Hydrographic Organization. Some refer to it as the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean. It is also considered the northernmost part of the World Ocean.

Atlantic Ocean: The Atlantic Ocean, the second-largest ocean, covers about 17% of Earth's surface. It separates Africa, Europe, and Asia from the Americas.

Mediterranean Sea: The Mediterranean Sea is a sea surrounded by land, connected to the Atlantic Ocean. It has been crucial in shaping Western civilization. Around 5.9 million years ago, it was isolated and dried up, but was refilled about 5.3 million years ago by a massive flood.

Indian Ocean: The Indian Ocean is the third-largest ocean, covering about 20% of Earth's surface. It is surrounded by Asia, Africa, and Australia, while the Southern Ocean marks its southern boundary. There are several regional seas within it, including the Arabian Sea, Laccadive Sea, Bay of Bengal, and Andaman Sea.

Pacific Ocean: The Pacific Ocean is the Earth's largest and deepest ocean, stretching from the Arctic to the Southern Ocean. It is surrounded by Asia, Oceania, and the Americas.

Southern Ocean: The Southern Ocean, also called Antarctic Ocean, is the world's southernmost ocean surrounding Antarctica below 60° S latitude. It covers an area of 20,327,000 km2, making it the second-smallest ocean after the Arctic. The Southern Ocean is experiencing significant climate change since the 1980s, resulting in alterations to its marine ecosystem.

Lake Victoria: Lake Victoria is Africa's largest lake and the world's largest tropical lake. It has a surface area of about 59,947 square kilometers and a maximum depth of 80-81 meters. With a catchment area of 169,858 square kilometers, it contains about 2,424 cubic kilometers of water. The lake has a shoreline that spans 7,142 kilometers, with islands making up 3.7% of the total length.

Caspian Sea: The Caspian Sea is the world's largest inland body of water, located between Europe and Asia. It is often referred to as both the largest lake and a sea. Covering an area of 371,000 km2, it has a volume of 78,200 km3. The Caspian Sea has a salinity of approximately 1.2%, much less than that of average seawater. It is surrounded by countries like Russia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and Iran.

Great Lakes: The Great Lakes are a group of large freshwater lakes in North America. They are connected to the Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lawrence River. The five lakes—Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario—are located near the border between Canada and the United States. Michigan and Huron are joined together at the Straits of Mackinac. The Great Lakes Waterway allows for efficient water travel and shipping between the lakes.

Nile: The Nile is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa that flows into the Mediterranean Sea. It is historically considered the longest river in the world. It stretches for about 6,650 km and passes through eleven countries. The Nile is the primary water source for Egypt, Sudan, and South Sudan, and supports agriculture and fishing.

Yangtze: The Yangtze, also known as Yangzi or Changjiang, is the longest river in Eurasia and the third longest globally. It flows entirely within China, starting at Jari Hill in the Tibetan Plateau and stretching for 6,300 km in an easterly direction to the East China Sea. The river ranks as the fifth largest in terms of discharge volume worldwide. Its extensive drainage basin covers a fifth of China's land area and is home to nearly a third of the country's population.

Ganges: The Ganges is a trans-boundary river in Asia that flows through India and Bangladesh. Rising in the Himalayas, it flows through the Gangetic plain, receiving tributaries from Nepal. In India, a canal diverts 50% of its flow to the Hooghly River. In Bangladesh, it becomes the Padma and joins the Jamuna and Meghna rivers, forming the Ganges Delta. This river system is the second-largest in the world by discharge.

Mississippi River: The Mississippi River, the second-longest river in the US, flows for 2,340 miles from Lake Itasca in Minnesota to the Mississippi River Delta in the Gulf of Mexico. Its vast watershed covers parts of 32 US states and two Canadian provinces. With a total drainage basin of 1,151,000 sq mi, the Mississippi ranks thirteenth globally in terms of discharge. It borders or passes through several states including Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana.

Amazon River: The Amazon River in South America is the world's largest river in terms of water flow and forms the longest river system. Its status as the longest river system has been challenged by those who argue that the Nile holds this title.

Great Barrier Reef: The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef system spanning over 2,300 km. It consists of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands, covering an area of about 344,400 square kilometres. Located off the coast of Queensland, Australia, it can be seen from space and is the largest structure created by living organisms. The reef is made up of coral polyps and supports abundant biodiversity. It was designated as a World Heritage Site in 1981 and is recognized as one of the Seven Natural Wonders of the World. Its importance is also acknowledged by being listed as a state icon of Queensland.

Rocky Mountains: The Rocky Mountains, or the Rockies, are the largest mountain system in North America, stretching 3,000 miles from Canada to New Mexico. The northern terminus is in Canada's British Columbia or Alaska's Brooks Range, while the southernmost point is near Albuquerque. As the easternmost part of the North American Cordillera, the Rockies are distinct from the Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada in the west.

Andes: The Andes, also known as the Andes Mountains or Andean Mountain Range, are the longest continental mountain range in the world, stretching 8,900 km (5,530 mi) along the western edge of South America. It has an average height of about 4,000 m (13,123 ft) and spans seven countries: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina.

Himalayas: The Himalayas, also known as Himalaya, is a mountain range in Asia that separates the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. Home to the world's highest peaks including Mount Everest, it boasts over 100 peaks above 7,200 m (23,600 ft) in elevation.

Alps: The Alps, a mountain range entirely in Europe, span 1,200 km across Monaco, France, Switzerland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Germany, Austria, and Slovenia. They are the highest and most extensive mountains in Europe.

Sahara: The Sahara is the largest hot desert in the world, covering North Africa. It spans over 9,200,000 square kilometers (3,600,000 sq mi) and is third in size compared to the deserts of Antarctica and the northern Arctic.

Amazon rainforest: The Amazon rainforest, also known as Amazonia, is a vast tropical rainforest covering most of the Amazon basin in South America. It spans 7 million km2, with 5.5 million km2 covered by the rainforest. This region is home to nine nations and 3,344 formally acknowledged indigenous territories.

Country: A country is a distinct political entity, which can be a sovereign state or a part of a larger state. It may have independent or unified governance and can be historically sovereign or associated with distinct political, ethnic, or cultural characteristics. Examples include Japan as a sovereign state and England, Scotland, and Wales as components of the United Kingdom.

Canada: Canada is a vast country in North America with ten provinces and three territories, stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and into the Arctic Ocean. It is the second-largest country by area and has the world's longest coastline as well as the longest international land border with the United States. Canada is known for its diverse meteorologic and geological regions. Despite its size, it is sparsely populated with 40 million people, mainly concentrated in urban areas south of the 55th parallel. Ottawa is the capital and Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver are its largest metropolitan areas.

Mexico: Mexico, officially known as the United Mexican States, is a North American country bordered by the United States to the north, the Pacific Ocean to the south and west, and the Gulf of Mexico to the east. It is also surrounded by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea to the southeast. Mexico covers 1,972,550 km2, making it the 13th-largest country in the world. With a population of around 130 million, it ranks as the 10th-most populous country and holds the highest number of Spanish speakers. Mexico is a federal republic with 31 states and its capital is Mexico City.

United States: The United States of America (USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a large country located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, and several territories. With a population of over 334 million, it is the most populous country in the Americas and the third-most populous in the world. The United States shares borders with Canada and Mexico and has maritime borders with other countries. Its capital is Washington, D.C., and its most populous city is New York City.

Argentina: Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is the second-largest country in South America and the eighth-largest in the world. It shares borders with Chile, Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, and Uruguay. Buenos Aires is the capital city and the largest in the country. Argentina is a federal state with 23 provinces and one autonomous city. It also claims sovereignty over the Falkland Islands, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, the Southern Patagonian Ice Field, and a part of Antarctica.

Brazil: Brazil is the largest country in South America and Latin America. Its capital is Brasília, and it is known for São Paulo, its most populous city. It is a federation comprised of 26 states and the Federal District. Portuguese is the official language and it is the only country in the Americas with this distinction. Brazil is culturally diverse due to immigration from around the world and is predominantly Roman Catholic.

Colombia: Colombia is a country in South America, with some parts in North America. It is bordered by the Caribbean Sea, Venezuela, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, the Pacific Ocean, and Panama. The capital city is Bogotá. Other important cities include Medellín, Cali, Barranquilla, and Cartagena. Colombia has a population of around 52 million and covers an area of 1,141,748 square kilometers. Its rich cultural heritage reflects influences from Europe, the Middle East, Africa, and indigenous civilizations. The official language is Spanish, but other languages are recognized regionally.

Ethiopia: Ethiopia, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in East Africa, bordered by Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, South Sudan, and Sudan. It spans 1.1 million square kilometers and has a population of about 128 million, making it the second most populous country in Africa. The capital city is Addis Ababa, located in the western part of the country. Ethiopia is known for its strategic location in the Horn of Africa and its diverse landscapes, including the East African Rift Valley.

Kenya: Kenya, officially the Republic of Kenya, is an East African country with a population of over 47.6 million. It is the 28th most populous in the world and 7th in Africa. The capital and largest city is Nairobi, while Mombasa serves as a major port city. Mombasa was the capital during British colonial rule. Important cities include Kisumu and Nakuru. Kenya is bordered by South Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Uganda, Tanzania, and the Indian Ocean. Its geography and climate vary greatly, with diverse landscapes from snow-capped mountains and forests to fertile agricultural regions and arid deserts.

Tanzania: Tanzania is a country in East Africa known for its location within the African Great Lakes region. It shares borders with Uganda, Kenya, Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Mount Kilimanjaro, Africa's tallest mountain, is found in northeastern Tanzania. With a population of approximately 62 million, Tanzania is the most populous country south of the equator.

Nigeria: Nigeria is a federal republic in West Africa, bordered by Niger, Chad, Cameroon, and Benin. It covers an area of 923,769 square kilometres, with a population of over 230 million, making it the most populous country in Africa and the sixth-most populous in the world. Its capital is Abuja, and the largest city is Lagos, which is one of the world's largest metropolitan areas.

Algeria: Algeria is a North African country, bordering Tunisia, Libya, Niger, Mali, Mauritania, Western Sahara, Morocco, and the Mediterranean Sea. It is part of the Maghreb region and has a semi-arid geography. The country is the tenth largest in the world and the largest in Africa. The population of 44 million makes it the tenth-most populous country in Africa, with Algiers as its capital and largest city.

Egypt: Egypt, officially called the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning Africa and Asia. It is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea, Palestine and Israel, the Red Sea, Sudan, and Libya. Egypt's capital is Cairo, while Alexandria is a major city on the Mediterranean coast. With a population of about 100 million people, Egypt is the 14th most populous country globally and the third most in Africa after Nigeria and Ethiopia.

South Africa: South Africa, the southernmost country in Africa, is bordered by Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Eswatini. It also completely surrounds Lesotho. It has a diverse range of plant and animal life and is known for being a biodiversity hotspot. With a population of over 62 million people, it is the 23rd-most populous nation in the world. The country covers an area of 1,221,037 square kilometers. Pretoria is the administrative capital, Cape Town is the legislative capital, and Bloemfontein is the judicial capital. Johannesburg is the largest city and the location of the highest court.

Democratic Republic of the Congo: The Democratic Republic of the Congo, also known as Congo-Kinshasa or DRC, is a country in Central Africa. It is the second-largest country in Africa and the 11th-largest in the world. With a population of around 112 million, it is the most populous officially Francophone country. Its capital and largest city is Kinshasa. The DRC shares borders with multiple countries and is also bordered by the South Atlantic Ocean.

China: China, or the People's Republic of China, is an East Asian country with a population of over 1.4 billion, making it the world's second-most populous country. It spans the equivalent of five time zones and shares land borders with fourteen other countries. With an area of 9.6 million square kilometers, it is the third-largest country by land area. China is divided into provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities, and special administrative regions. Beijing serves as the national capital, while Shanghai is the largest city and a major financial hub.

Japan: Japan is an island country in East Asia, located in the northwest Pacific Ocean. It is part of the Ring of Fire and consists of a 14,125 island archipelago. The five main islands are Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Okinawa. Tokyo is the capital and largest city, followed by Yokohama, Osaka, Nagoya, Sapporo, Fukuoka, Kobe, and Kyoto.

South Korea: South Korea, formally known as the Republic of Korea (ROK), is an East Asian country situated in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. It shares a border with North Korea through the Korean Demilitarized Zone and is bounded by the Yellow Sea to the west and the Sea of Japan to the east. South Korea claims authority over the entire peninsula and neighboring islands. With a population of 51.96 million, it boasts the Seoul Capital Area, one of the world's most densely populated metropolitan regions. Noteworthy cities include Incheon, Busan, and Daegu.

Indonesia: Indonesia is a Southeast Asian and Oceanic country consisting of over 17,000 islands. It is the world's largest island country, covering an area of 1,904,569 square kilometres. With a population of over 279 million people, it is the world's fourth-most populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority nation. Java, the most populous island, is home to over half of Indonesia's population.

Malaysia: Malaysia is a Southeast Asian country, consisting of 13 states and three federal territories. It is divided into two regions: Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo's East Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur is the national capital and largest city. Putrajaya serves as the administrative center. With a population of over 33 million, Malaysia is a constitutional monarchy. It shares borders and maritime boundaries with Thailand, Singapore, Vietnam, Indonesia, Brunei, and the Philippines. Malaysia is known for its tropical climate and rich biodiversity, being one of the 17 megadiverse countries. Tanjung Piai in Johor is the southernmost point of continental Eurasia.

Myanmar: Myanmar, also known as Burma, is the largest country in Mainland Southeast Asia with a population of approximately 55 million. It is bordered by Bangladesh, India, China, Laos, and Thailand, and has access to the Andaman Sea and Bay of Bengal. The capital city is Naypyidaw, and the largest city is Yangon.

Philippines: The Philippines is an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia, consisting of 7,641 islands in the western Pacific Ocean. It is bounded by the South China Sea, the Philippine Sea, and the Celebes Sea. It shares maritime borders with several countries. The Philippines is known for its diverse ethnicities and cultures, and Manila is its capital and most populated city.

Singapore: Singapore is an island country in Southeast Asia, located near the equator. It borders the Strait of Malacca to the west, the Singapore Strait to the south, and the South China Sea to the east. The country has one main island and several satellite islands, with a total area that has increased by 25% due to land reclamation. Singapore has a high population density but also offers green spaces. It is multicultural, with four official languages: English, Malay, Mandarin, and Tamil. The country values multi-racialism and incorporates it into various national policies.

Thailand: Thailand, also known as the Kingdom of Thailand or Siam, is a country in Southeast Asia on the Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of nearly 70 million people, it covers an area of 513,120 square kilometers. Thailand shares borders with Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia, and maritime borders with Vietnam, Indonesia, and India. Bangkok serves as the capital and largest city of Thailand.

Vietnam: Vietnam, officially known as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is a country in Southeast Asia. It has a land area of 331,700 square kilometers and a population of over 100 million, making it the 15th most populous country in the world. Vietnam shares borders with China, Laos, and Cambodia, and has maritime borders with Thailand, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia. Its capital is Hanoi and its largest city is Ho Chi Minh City.

Iran: Iran, also known as Persia, is a West Asian country bordered by Iraq, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Armenia, the Caspian Sea, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, the Gulf of Oman, and the Persian Gulf. With an area of 1.648 million square kilometers, it is the world's 17th-largest country. Iran has a population of around 90 million, making it the world's 17th most populous country. Tehran is its capital and largest city, with approximately 16 million people in its metropolitan area.

Israel: Israel is a country in West Asia, bordered by Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, the Red Sea, Egypt, and the Mediterranean Sea. Its financial hub is Tel Aviv and its seat of government is in Jerusalem, although international recognition of Israeli sovereignty over East Jerusalem is lacking.

Saudi Arabia: Saudi Arabia, officially known as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in West Asia, covering most of the Arabian Peninsula. It is the largest nation in the Middle East and the fifth largest in Asia, with a land area of 2,150,000 km². It shares borders with Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait to the north, the Red Sea to the west, the Persian Gulf, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates to the east, Oman to the southeast, and Yemen to the south. Bahrain, an island country, lies off its east coast. Saudi Arabia is the exclusive country with coastlines along both the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. Its landscape primarily consists of arid deserts, lowlands, steppe, and mountains. Riyadh, its capital and largest city, is home to important Islamic sites including Mecca and Medina.

Turkey: Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country located in Southeast Europe and West Asia. It occupies the Anatolian Peninsula in West Asia and has a small portion known as East Thrace on the Balkan Peninsula. Turkey shares borders with several countries including Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Greece, and Bulgaria. The country is surrounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean and Aegean Seas to the south, and Cyprus off its south coast. Turkish and Kurds are the main ethnic groups, with Ankara as the capital and Istanbul as the largest city and economic hub in Europe.

United Arab Emirates: The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a country in West Asia on the eastern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It shares borders with Oman and Saudi Arabia, and has maritime borders with Qatar and Iran. Abu Dhabi is the capital, while Dubai is a bustling international city.

Bangladesh: Bangladesh is a densely populated country in South Asia, sharing borders with India and Myanmar. It has a population of nearly 170 million in an area of 148,460 square kilometers. The capital and largest city is Dhaka, known for being a political, financial, and cultural center. The country has a busy port in Chittagong and a coastline along the Bay of Bengal. Bengali is the official language of Bangladesh.

India: India, officially the Republic of India, is a populous South Asian country, known for being the world's most populous democracy. It is the seventh-largest country, sharing borders with Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. Surrounded by the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, and Bay of Bengal, India is also close to Sri Lanka and the Maldives. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands form maritime borders with Thailand, Myanmar, and Indonesia.

Pakistan: Pakistan is a densely populated country in South Asia, with a large Muslim population. Its capital is Islamabad, and Karachi serves as its biggest city and financial hub. Pakistan is the world's fifth-most populous country and the second largest in South Asia. It shares borders with India, Afghanistan, Iran, and China, while also having a maritime border with Oman. The country is geographically diverse, bordered by the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman.

Poland: Poland, officially known as the Republic of Poland, is a Central European country. It is made up of 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships and covers an area of 312,700 km2 (120,700 sq mi). With a population of over 38 million, Poland is the fifth most populous member state in the European Union. The country's capital and largest city is Warsaw, while other major cities include Kraków, Wrocław, and Gdańsk.

Russia: Russia, also known as the Russian Federation, is the world's largest country by area. It spans both Eastern Europe and Northern Asia, extending across eleven time zones. Russia shares land borders with fourteen countries and holds the title of Europe's most populous nation. Moscow serves as the capital and largest city, while Saint Petersburg is a prominent cultural center. Notable urban areas in Russia include Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod, Chelyabinsk, Krasnoyarsk, Kazan, Krasnodar, and Rostov-on-Don.

Ukraine: Ukraine is a large country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia, Belarus, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Moldova. It has a coastline along the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. Kyiv is its capital and largest city, followed by Kharkiv, Dnipro, and Odesa. The official language is Ukrainian, but Russian is widely spoken in the east and south.

France: France is a country in Western Europe with territories in the Americas and oceans. It borders Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Monaco, Andorra, Spain, and the UK. Its metropolitan area spans from the Rhine to the Atlantic and the Mediterranean to the English Channel. It has overseas territories in South America, the North Atlantic, the West Indies, Oceania, and the Indian Ocean. France has 18 integral regions, covering a total area of 643,801 km2, with a population of over 68 million. It is a unitary semi-presidential republic, with Paris as its capital and major cities like Marseille, Lyon, and Toulouse.

Germany: Germany is a populous country in Central Europe, bordered by various countries. It is the second-most populous country in Europe and a member state of the European Union. Germany has 16 constituent states, with a total population of over 84 million. It is known for its location between the Baltic and North Sea in the north and the Alps in the south. The capital city is Berlin, the main financial center is Frankfurt, and the largest urban area is the Ruhr.

Netherlands: The Netherlands, also known as Holland, is a country in Northwestern Europe with territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and consists of twelve provinces. It shares borders with Germany and Belgium and has a North Sea coastline. The official language is Dutch, with West Frisian as a secondary official language in one province. The Netherlands has overseas territories and shares maritime borders with the United Kingdom, Germany, and Belgium.

United Kingdom: The United Kingdom (UK) or Britain is a country in Northwestern Europe. It consists of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The UK includes the island of Great Britain, part of Ireland, and other smaller islands. It shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean and other seas. The UK covers an area of 94,060 square miles (243,610 km2) and has a population of around 67 million people (2022 estimate).

Italy: Italy, officially known as the Italian Republic, is a country located in Southern and Western Europe. It is a peninsula surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea and has land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, Vatican City, and San Marino. Italy has a diverse geography, including an exclave in Switzerland and an archipelago in Africa. With an area of 301,340 km2 and a population of around 60 million, it is the tenth-largest country in Europe and the third-most populous member state of the European Union. Rome serves as the capital and largest city of Italy.

Spain: Spain, located in Southwestern Europe, is the largest country in Southern Europe and a member of the European Union. Its territory spans across the Iberian Peninsula and includes the Canary Islands, Balearic Islands, and the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla. Bordered by France, Andorra, the Mediterranean Sea, Gibraltar, Portugal, and the Atlantic Ocean, Spain's capital is Madrid with other major urban areas including Barcelona, Valencia, and Seville.

Australia: Australia, officially called the Commonwealth of Australia, is a large country in Oceania. It is the world's sixth-largest nation, encompassing the mainland, Tasmania, and several smaller islands. Australia is known for its diverse landscapes and climates, including deserts, rainforests, savannas, and mountains. It is the oldest, flattest, and driest inhabited landmass, with unproductive soils. This megadiverse country offers a variety of environments and is home to unique flora and fauna.

Taiwan: Taiwan, officially known as the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, located in the northwestern Pacific Ocean. It shares borders with the People's Republic of China, Japan, and the Philippines. The ROC controls 168 islands with a combined area of 36,193 square kilometres. Taiwan's main island, also called Formosa, is dominated by mountain ranges in the east and has heavily populated plains in the west. The capital city of Taipei, along with New Taipei City and Keelung, forms the largest metropolitan area in Taiwan. The country has a high population density, with around 23.9 million inhabitants.

Middle East: The Middle East refers to a geopolitical region, replacing the term Near East in the 20th century. It includes the Arabian Peninsula, Levant, Turkey, Egypt, Iran, and Iraq. The term has caused confusion and is seen as Eurocentric. It encompasses most of West Asia, excluding the South Caucasus, and includes all of Egypt and Turkey.

Caribbean: The Caribbean is a subregion of the Americas, located southeast of the Gulf of Mexico. It includes the Caribbean Sea and its islands, some of which are surrounded by the Caribbean Sea while others border both the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean. The region is also home to nearby coastal areas on the mainland.

Oceania: Oceania is a region encompassing Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. It spans across the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, with a land area of 9 million square kilometers and a population of 44.4 million. Oceania is the smallest continent in terms of land area and the second least populated, trailing behind Antarctica.

City: A city is a large human settlement with no fixed size limit. It can also refer to smaller settlements. In a narrower sense, a city is a densely populated place with defined boundaries where people primarily work in non-agricultural jobs. Cities have housing, transportation, sanitation, utilities, and communication systems. They facilitate interaction between people, government, and businesses, improving the distribution of goods and services.

Cairo: Cairo is the capital and largest city of Egypt, with a population of 10 million. It is also part of the Greater Cairo metropolitan area, which is the 12th-largest urban agglomeration in the world, housing over 22.1 million people.

Lagos: Lagos is the most populous city in Nigeria and the most populous urban area in Africa, with an estimated population of 21 million in 2015. It was the national capital of Nigeria until 1991 when it was moved to Abuja. Lagos is a major financial center and the economic hub of Lagos State and Nigeria. It greatly influences commerce, entertainment, technology, education, politics, tourism, art, and fashion in Africa. Additionally, it is one of the world's fastest-growing cities and urban areas, with the fourth-highest GDP in Africa. It houses a large and busy seaport and is classified as a Medium-Port Megacity due to its large population and port traffic volumes.

New York City: New York City, often referred to as NYC, is the most populous city in the United States. Located at the southern tip of New York State, it has one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city is composed of five boroughs, each corresponding to a county. NYC is a global city with significant influence in various fields such as finance, entertainment, media, and technology. It is home to the headquarters of the United Nations and is renowned for its international diplomacy. Known as a major cultural hub and a center for commerce, New York City also excels in areas such as research, education, art, fashion, and sports.

Mexico City: Mexico City is the capital and largest city of Mexico. It is a major global cultural and financial hub located in the Valley of Mexico, at a high altitude of 2,240 meters. With 16 boroughs, it is home to numerous neighborhoods.

São Paulo: São Paulo is Brazil's largest city and the capital of the state of São Paulo. It is an alpha global city, exerting strong international influences in commerce, finance, arts, and entertainment. As the most populous city outside of Asia, it is also the world's fourth-largest city. The metropolitan area, Greater São Paulo, is Brazil's most populous and the 12th most populous globally. With over 30 million inhabitants, it forms the São Paulo Macrometropolis, one of the world's most populous urban agglomerations. Additionally, São Paulo is the largest Portuguese-speaking city and its name honors the Apostle Saint Paul of Tarsus.

Beijing: Beijing, also known as Peking, is the capital of China and the most populous national capital in the world. With over 21 million residents, it is the second largest city in China after Shanghai. Located in Northern China, Beijing is a municipality with 16 districts. It is surrounded by Hebei Province, except for the neighboring city of Tianjin to the southeast. Together, they form the Jingjinji megalopolis and the national capital region of China.

Hong Kong: Hong Kong is a highly populated city and special administrative region in China with 7.4 million residents from different nationalities. It covers a small territory of 1,104 square kilometers and is known for its dense population.

Tokyo: Tokyo is the capital of Japan and the most populous city worldwide, with over 14 million residents. It is part of the Tokyo metropolitan area, the world's most populous metropolitan area, with 40.8 million residents. The city also boasts the second-largest metropolitan economy globally, estimated at US$2 trillion in 2023.

Delhi: Delhi is the capital city and a union territory of India. It is home to New Delhi, the national capital. Situated on the banks of the Yamuna river, Delhi shares borders with Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. It became a union territory in 1956 and the National Capital Territory in 1995. Covering an area of 1,484 square kilometers, Delhi has a city population of over 11 million and an NCT population of about 16.8 million according to the 2011 census.

Mumbai: Mumbai, the capital city of Maharashtra, is a financial powerhouse and the most populous city in India, with around 12.5 million inhabitants. It serves as the hub of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region, home to over 23 million people. Situated on the Konkan coast, Mumbai boasts a strategic location with a natural deep harbour. Recognized as an alpha world city, Mumbai plays a significant role in India's economy and is a bustling metropolis.

Jakarta: Jakarta is the capital and largest city of Indonesia, located on the northwest coast of Java. It is the largest metropole in Southeast Asia and serves as the diplomatic capital of ASEAN. Jakarta borders West Java and Banten provinces and faces the Java Sea. With a metropolitan area that is ASEAN's second-largest economy, it is a significant global city.

Jerusalem: Jerusalem is an ancient city in West Asia, considered holy by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. It is located on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. Israel and Palestine both claim it as their capital, but international recognition is limited.

Mecca: Mecca is the holiest city in Islam and the capital of Mecca Province in western Saudi Arabia. It is situated inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, at an elevation of 277 m (909 ft) above sea level. The city's population reached 1.58 million people in 2015 and is estimated to have grown to 2.04 million in 2020. Mecca attracts millions of pilgrims each year during the Ḥajj pilgrimage, observed in the twelfth month of Dhūl-Ḥijjah.

Istanbul: Istanbul is Turkey's largest city, acting as its economic, cultural, and historic center. Straddling the Bosporus Strait, it is located in both Europe and Asia with a population of over 15 million, representing 19% of Turkey's population. Istanbul is the most populous European city and the 15th largest globally.

Moscow: Moscow, the capital and largest city of Russia, is located on the Moskva River in Central Russia. Its population exceeds 13 million within the city limits, 18.8 million in the urban area, and 21.5 million in the metropolitan area. Covering 2,511 square kilometers, it is one of the largest cities in the world, boasting the largest urban and metropolitan area in Europe. Moscow is also Europe's most populous city and holds the distinction of being the largest city by land area on the European continent.

Paris: Paris is the capital and largest city of France, with a population of over 2.1 million people. It is a prominent global center for finance, culture, commerce, and fashion. Considered the City of Light, Paris has played a significant role in the arts and sciences and is renowned for its extensive street lighting system.

London: London is the capital and largest city of England and the UK, situated on the River Thames. It has a population of around 8.8 million and has been a major settlement for almost 2,000 years. The City of London is the ancient core and financial center, founded by the Romans as Londinium. The City of Westminster, located to the west, houses the national government and parliament. London refers to the entire metropolis, historically spread across multiple counties, but since 1965 it is mainly comprised of Greater London, governed by 33 local authorities and the Greater London Authority.

Rome: Rome is the capital city of Italy, located in the Lazio region. It is the most populous city in the country, with about 2.9 million residents. Rome is known for being the center of the Catholic Church and is often called the Eternal City. It has a rich history and is considered the cradle of Western civilization. Vatican City, an independent country, is located within Rome's boundaries.

The arts: The arts encompass a wide range of creative expression and cultural participation in various media. They are dynamic and constant in human life, evolving into stylized and intricate forms through study and training. They serve as a vehicle for cultivating distinct identities, transmitting values, and sharing experiences across time and space.

Art: Art is a varied human activity that produces creative and imaginative works. It encompasses technical skill, aesthetic appeal, emotional impact, and conceptual ideas.

Architecture: Architecture is the art and technique of designing and constructing buildings or structures. It involves sketching, planning, and conceiving unique creations. It is rooted in the Latin and Greek words for 'chief creator'. Architectural works are seen as cultural symbols and artistic expressions, defining historical civilizations.

Great Wall of China: The Great Wall of China is a historical series of fortifications on the northern borders of ancient Chinese states and Imperial China. It was built to defend against nomadic groups from the Eurasian Steppe. The wall was constructed by various dynasties, starting from the 7th century BC. The most famous sections were built by the Ming dynasty.

Great Pyramid of Giza: The Great Pyramid of Giza, the largest Egyptian pyramid, was the tomb of pharaoh Khufu. It was built in the early 26th century BC and is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. As part of the Giza pyramid complex, it is situated at the northern end of a line of three pyramids.

Museum: A museum is an institution that displays and preserves culturally significant objects. It typically has exhibits open to the public and may also have private collections for researchers. Museums cover a wide range of topics, including arts, science, history, and attract millions of visitors, making them popular tourist attractions.

Literature: Literature encompasses written works, including prose, fiction, drama, and poetry, both in print and digital form. It also includes oral literature, known as orature, which has been transcribed. Literature serves as a means of recording, preserving, and transmitting knowledge and entertainment. It can also hold social, psychological, spiritual, or political significance.

Novel: A novel is a long work of fiction written in prose and published as a book. It has a history of about two thousand years, originating from Ancient Greek and Roman novels, Medieval Chivalric romance, and Italian Renaissance novellas. Some authors use the term "romance" instead of novel. The novel typically presents a realistic depiction of society, while romance emphasizes extraordinary events. Examples of novels include Frankenstein, The Lord of the Rings, and To Kill a Mockingbird. Romance novels, focusing on romantic love, should not be confused with this broader definition.

Short story: A short story is a brief piece of prose fiction that aims to create a specific mood or effect. It can be read in one sitting and often focuses on a self-contained incident or a series of linked incidents. Short stories have a long history and have existed in various forms, such as legends, mythic tales, and folk tales. The modern short story as we know it today emerged in the early 19th century.

Poetry: Poetry, or verse, is a literary form that utilizes aesthetic and rhythmic language to convey additional meanings beyond its literal interpretation. It incorporates elements like phonaesthetics, sound symbolism, and metre. Poems are written compositions by poets who adhere to these principles.

Epic poetry: An epic poem is a lengthy narrative about extraordinary characters who shape the mortal universe through their extraordinary deeds and interactions with gods or superhuman forces.

Fiction: Fiction is any creative work portraying imaginary individuals, events, or places. It includes written narratives like novels, as well as theatrical performances, films, TV shows, comics, and video games. Fictional stories are distinct from history and fact, exploring imaginary possibilities.

Fairy tale: A fairy tale is a short story with magical elements and fanciful beings that belong to the folklore genre. They are part of literature in preliterate societies, combining myths, folktales, and fairy tales. Fairy tales differ from legends, moral tales, and beast fables, and commonly include dragons, elves, giants, witches, and magical elements like talking animals and enchantments.

English literature: English literature is a body of works written in English, evolving over 1,400 years. It began with Old English, brought to Britain by Anglo-Saxon invaders. Beowulf is a famous early work. After the Norman conquest, French became dominant, but Middle English emerged in the 11th century. Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales helped establish Middle English. The printing press and the King James Bible standardized the language. The Great Vowel Shift also played a role in shaping English literature.

Music: Music is the arrangement of sounds to create form, harmony, melody, and rhythm. It is a cultural universal, but varies in definition across cultures. The creation of music involves composition, improvisation, and performance. It encompasses academic disciplines, criticism, philosophy, psychology, and therapy. Music can be performed using various instruments, including the human voice, making it versatile and creative.

Orchestra: An orchestra is a large ensemble of instruments from various families, typically found in classical music. It consists of four main sections: bowed strings (violin, viola, cello, double bass), woodwinds (flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon), brass (horn, trumpet, trombone, cornet, euphonium, tuba), and percussion (timpani, snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, triangle, tambourine, tam-tam, mallet percussion).

Singing: Singing is the act of producing musical sounds with the voice. Singers, also known as singers, artists, or vocalists, perform music with or without musical accompaniment. They can perform solo or as part of a group like a choir. Singing encompasses various styles including opera, Chinese opera, Indian music, Greek music, Japanese music, religious music like gospel, traditional and world music, jazz, blues, and popular music genres like pop, rock, and electronic dance music.

Classical music: Classical music is Western art music known for its complexity and formality. It distinguishes from folk and popular music and can also refer to non-Western art music. It has a rich history since the ninth century, with a sophisticated notational system and extensive literature. Composers have greatly influenced its development, making classical music a foundational component of Western culture.

Opera: Opera is a theatrical art form where singers take on dramatic roles accompanied by music. It combines various performing arts, including acting, scenery, costume, and occasionally dance. Usually performed in an opera house, with an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble conducted by a conductor. It is distinct from musical theatre.

Pop music: Pop music is a popular genre that emerged in the mid-1950s in the US and UK. It started as a fusion of rock and roll and youth-oriented styles. In the late 1960s, it became more commercial, ephemeral, and easily accessible.

Folk music: Folk music is a genre that blends traditional and contemporary styles. It encompasses music transmitted orally, with unknown composers, played on traditional instruments, and related to cultural identity. It contrasts with commercial and classical styles and has roots dating back to the 19th century. The term is broad and includes world music.

Jazz: Jazz is a music genre that started in African-American communities of New Orleans in the late 19th century. It combines elements of blues and ragtime with swing, blue notes, complex chords, call and response vocals, polyrhythms, and improvisation. Jazz has roots in both European harmony and African rhythmic traditions. Since the 1920s, it has become a significant form of musical expression in traditional and popular music.

Rock music: Rock is a popular genre of music that originated as rock and roll in the late 1940s and early 1950s. It developed into various styles in the mid-1960s, influenced by blues, rhythm and blues, country, electric blues, and folk. Rock is typically centered around the electric guitar and is song-based, often following a 4/4 time signature and verse-chorus structure. The genre incorporates influences from jazz, classical, and other styles. Rock lyrics cover a wide range of themes, including romantic love and social or political issues. It was the most popular genre in the US and Western world from the 1950s to the 2010s.

Musical instrument: A musical instrument is a device that creates musical sounds. It can be any object that produces sound with the purpose of making music. Those who play musical instruments are known as instrumentalists. Musical instruments have been used since the beginning of human culture, initially for rituals and later for entertainment. They have evolved alongside changing applications and technologies.

Piano: The piano is a keyboard instrument with 88 black and white keys. It can play 88 different pitches in a range of over seven octaves. This includes keys for the C major scale and "accidentals" for playing in all twelve keys.

Performing arts: Performing arts include music, dance, and drama, performed live for an audience. It is distinct from visual arts, which create physical art objects. The disciplines of performing arts encompass theatre, music, and dance, presented in front of a live audience.

Dance: Dance is an art form that involves body movements with aesthetic and symbolic value, often considered a sport. It can be categorized by choreography, repertoire, historical period, or place of origin. Dance is usually performed with music, sometimes with the dancer also using a musical instrument.

Theatre: Theatre is a collaborative form of performing art that uses live actors to present real or imagined events before a live audience. It incorporates gesture, speech, song, music, and dance to communicate the experience. It is the oldest form of drama but has now been joined by modern recorded forms. The use of art elements like scenery and stagecraft enhances the physicality and immediacy of the experience. The word "theatre" is derived from the Greek word θέατρον meaning "to see."

Prehistoric art: Prehistoric art refers to all art created by preliterate cultures before the development of writing or significant contact with literate cultures. It encompasses a wide time span, ending when ancient art begins in older literate civilizations. The term's coverage varies across different regions.

Realism (arts): Realism in the arts aims to represent subject matter truthfully, avoiding artificial and supernatural elements. It is often used interchangeably with naturalism, although they are not the same. Naturalism strives to depict objects with minimal distortion and is linked to the development of perspective and illusionism in Renaissance Europe. Realism, originating in France after the French Revolution, is a specific art movement rejecting idealization and focusing on the everyday and politically conscious themes. Realist painters rejected the dominance of Romanticism and its roots in the late 18th century.

Abstract art: Abstract art is a form of visual expression using shapes, colors, lines, and forms to create compositions that may not rely on real-world references.

Modernism: Modernism is a movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, driven by transformations in Western society. It aimed to create new art, philosophy, and social structures that reflected the modern industrial world, incorporating urbanization, architecture, technology, and war. Artists sought to break free from traditional and outdated forms of art. The motto "Make it New" by poet Ezra Pound encapsulated their approach.

Romanticism: Romanticism, an artistic and intellectual movement in Europe during the late 18th to mid-19th centuries, emphasized emotion, individualism, and admiration for the past and nature, favoring medieval over classical influences. Reacting against the Industrial Revolution and Enlightenment ideals, it strongly influenced visual arts, music, and literature, and also had significant impact on historiography, education, social sciences, and the natural sciences. Romantic thinking influenced various political ideologies, including conservatism, liberalism, radicalism, and nationalism.

Visual arts: Visual arts encompass various forms of artistic expression, including painting, sculpture, photography, filmmaking, and architecture. It also includes applied arts like industrial design and graphic design. Other disciplines, such as performing arts and textile arts, may feature visual elements.

Drawing: Drawing is a visual art where marks are made on a two-dimensional surface using instruments like pencils, pens, brushes, or computer styluses.

Fashion: Fashion encompasses the creation of clothing, accessories, cosmetics, and jewelry that represent diverse cultural aesthetics. It involves combining these elements to create unique outfits, reflecting social status, self-expression, and group affiliation. Fashion is a dynamic industry that encompasses styles, aesthetics, and trends.

Comics: Comics is a visual medium that combines images with text or other information. It uses panels to convey ideas and can include speech balloons, captions, and onomatopoeia for dialogue and sound effects. There is no agreed definition, with some emphasizing the combination of images and text, while others focus on sequentiality or historical aspects. It often involves cartooning and illustration, but can also incorporate photographic images. Common forms of comics include comic strips, cartoons, and comic books. In recent years, bound volumes like graphic novels and webcomics have gained popularity.

Painting: Painting is a visual art that involves applying paint or other mediums to a solid surface. It commonly uses a brush but can include other tools like knives, sponges, or airbrushes.

Calligraphy: Calligraphy is a visual art centered on writing, involving the skilled creation and ornamentation of letters using writing instruments like pens and brushes. The modern practice of calligraphy is defined as the artistic expression of signs through a harmonious and skillful approach.

Sculpture: Sculpture is a three-dimensional art form that includes works presented in height, width, and depth. It is a branch of visual arts, specifically belonging to the plastic arts. Historically, sculptures were created through processes like carving and modeling using materials like stone, metal, ceramics, wood, etc. However, in the modern era, artists enjoy freedom in materials and techniques. Sculptures can be made by removing materials through carving, welding or assembling them, molding, or casting. Various materials can be used for sculpting.

Design: Design is the intentional creation of an object, process, or system. It involves developing a concept and considering various factors such as aesthetics, functionality, and societal impact. Designs have purposes within specific contexts and must fulfill certain goals and constraints. They can be expressed through drawings, diagrams, patterns, or models.

Film: Film is a visual art that utilizes moving images to communicate ideas, stories, and emotions. It is also referred to as cinema and involves the use of sound and occasionally other sensory stimulations.

Animation: Animation is a filmmaking technique that uses still images to create moving images. Traditional animation involves hand-drawn images on transparent sheets to be photographed and shown on film. It is recognized as an artistic medium, commonly used in entertainment. Computer-generated imagery (CGI) is widely used in many animations, while stop motion animation, like claymation, coexists with these forms.

Philosophy: Philosophy is a rational and critical study of fundamental questions about topics like existence, reason, knowledge, value, mind, and language. It examines its own methods and assumptions.

Philosophy of science: The philosophy of science explores the foundations, methods, and implications of scientific knowledge. It examines what qualifies as science, the reliability of theories, and the purpose of scientific inquiry. It also delves into the relationship between science and truth, overlapping with metaphysics, ontology, and epistemology. This field considers metaphysical, epistemic, and semantic aspects of science, while ethical issues like bioethics and scientific misconduct are often studied separately.

Western philosophy: Western philosophy encompasses the philosophical ideas and contributions originating from the Western world. It traces its roots back to ancient Greek thinkers, known as the pre-Socratics, and is characterized by its pursuit of wisdom, as reflected in the Greek term "philosophía" meaning "the love of wisdom."

Eastern philosophy: Eastern philosophy encompasses a range of philosophies originating in East and South Asia. It includes dominant traditions like Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese philosophies in East Asia, as well as Indian philosophy in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Tibet, and Mongolia.

Ethics: Ethics is the study of moral phenomena, examining questions about what is morally right and how people should behave. It consists of three branches: normative ethics, applied ethics, and metaethics.

Free will: Free will is the ability to freely choose among various courses of action without hindrance or constraints.

Good and evil: "Good and evil" is a common concept in religion, ethics, philosophy, and psychology. In some cultures influenced by Manichaean and Abrahamic religions, evil is seen as the opposite of good, with good triumphing over evil. In Buddhist-influenced cultures, good and evil are considered part of an opposing duality that needs to be transcended through embracing emptiness and recognizing the illusory nature of their existence.

Logic: Logic is the study of correct reasoning, encompassing both formal and informal aspects. Formal logic focuses on deductively valid inferences and logical truths, examining how conclusions are drawn from premises based solely on argument structure. Informal logic deals with informal fallacies, critical thinking, and argumentation theory, analyzing arguments expressed in natural language. "A logic" can refer to a formal system articulating a proof system. Logic plays a vital role in philosophy, mathematics, computer science, and linguistics.

Epistemology: Epistemology is a branch of philosophy that examines knowledge. It investigates the nature, origin, and extent of knowledge, justification for beliefs, rationality of belief, and related issues. Key areas of debate include analysis of knowledge and its conditions, sources of knowledge and justified belief, structure of justified belief, and philosophical skepticism.

Belief: A belief is a subjective stance or opinion about the truth of a proposition or state of affairs. It can be true or false, and is a mental state separate from active introspection. Beliefs can be assumed without conscious thought, and can also be dispositional rather than occurring in the moment.

Knowledge: Knowledge is the awareness and understanding of facts, individuals, situations, or practical skills. It includes justified true beliefs and distinguishes itself from opinions and guesses. Philosophical debates surround the concept of justification, its necessity, and alternative definitions, particularly sparked by thought experiments in the latter half of the 20th century.

Reason: Reason is the conscious use of logic to draw conclusions and seek the truth. It is a unique human ability involved in activities like philosophy, religion, science, language, mathematics, and art. Reason is often called rationality.

Truth: Truth is the quality of aligning with reality. It is commonly attributed to beliefs, statements, and sentences that aim to represent or correspond to reality.

Metaphysics: Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy concerned with the fundamental principles that define reality. It explores topics such as existence, identity, change, space and time, cause and effect, necessity, actuality, and possibility.

Ontology: Ontology is the study of being and the existence of entities. It categorizes entities and explores their relationships. Key concepts include categories like substances, properties, relations, states of affairs, and events. Ontologists examine fundamental concepts like particularity and universality, abstractness and concreteness, and possibility and necessity. The concept of ontological dependence is important in determining the fundamental existence of entities. Debates in ontology revolve around the existence and relationships of entities within categories.

Aesthetics: Aesthetics is the philosophy that explores the nature of beauty and taste. It encompasses the philosophy of art and involves critical judgments of artistic value. Its function is to critically reflect on art, culture, and nature.

Confucianism: Confucianism, also known as Ruism, is an ancient Chinese system of thought and behavior. It is considered a tradition, philosophy, religion, theory of government, and way of life. Confucianism developed from the teachings of the philosopher Confucius in the 5th century BCE, who drew from cultural values inherited from earlier Chinese dynasties. It was suppressed during the Qin dynasty but survived and became the official ideology during the Han dynasty, blending with other influential schools of thought.

Religion: Religion encompasses diverse systems with varying beliefs, practices, and organizations that connect humanity to the supernatural and spiritual. It may include elements like sacred texts, moral codes, prophecies, and faith in a divine entity, but there is no unanimous definition or agreement on its constituents and boundaries.

Deity: A deity, also known as a god or goddess, is a sacred and supernatural being that is worshiped. They possess greater powers than humans and interact with them, leading to heightened consciousness and transcending ordinary life.

God: God is the supreme being and object of faith in monotheistic belief systems. In polytheistic beliefs, a god is a spirit or being that created or controls part of the universe. Theism refers to the belief in at least one god.

Meditation: Meditation is a mindfulness practice that trains attention and awareness through focusing the mind on an object, thought, or activity. Its goal is to achieve a clear and stable state of mental clarity and emotional calmness.

Prayer: Prayer is a deliberate communication that seeks to establish a connection with a deity or ancestor through supplication, intercession, thanksgiving, or praise. It is closely associated with meditation and charms/spells in comparative religion.

Ritual: A ritual is a series of actions or gestures involving revered objects that may be prescribed by a community, including religious groups. It is characterized by formalism, traditionalism, rule-governance, and sacral symbolism. Rituals often involve repetitive performances.

Spirituality: Spirituality is a term that has evolved over time and encompasses various meanings. Initially, it referred to religious re-formation to achieve the ideal state of humanity as outlined by different religions. Early Christianity associated it with living in accordance with the Holy Spirit, and later it encompassed mental aspects of life during the Late Middle Ages.

Afterlife: The afterlife refers to the belief that a person's consciousness or identity continues to exist after their death. Different belief systems attribute varying degrees of importance to the surviving aspect, which can range from partial elements to the entire soul or spirit, carrying one's personal identity. This belief contradicts the idea of complete oblivion after death.

Soul: The soul is the spiritual essence of a person, encompassing their identity, personality, and memories. It is believed to be immaterial and able to survive physical death. While primarily associated with humans, the concept of the soul can also be extended to other living or non-living entities.

Atheism: Atheism refers to the lack of belief in the existence of deities. It can also encompass the rejection of belief in any deities or the specific position that no deities exist. Atheism contrasts with theism, which is the belief in the existence of at least one deity.

Secularism: Secularism is the principle of conducting human affairs based solely on naturalistic considerations, without involvement of religion. It seeks to separate government and religion, emphasizing a non-religious approach to governance.

Judaism: Judaism is the oldest Abrahamic religion, originating in the Middle East during the Bronze Age. It is a monotheistic religion and an ethnic identity for the Jewish people. Derived from Yahwism, a religious movement of ancient Israel and Judah, it is considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions. It comprises spiritual, cultural, and legal traditions and is guided by the Mosaic covenant between God and the Israelites. Jewish doctrine includes a variety of texts, practices, theological beliefs, and forms of organization.

Christianity: Christianity is a global monotheistic religion centered on Jesus' teachings. With 2.4 billion followers, it's the world's largest religion, representing about 31.2% of the population. Christians, found in 157 countries, believe Jesus is the Son of God and the prophesied Messiah mentioned in both the Hebrew Bible and New Testament.

Islam: Islam is a monotheistic religion founded by Muhammad and centered on the Quran. Muslims, its followers, number around 1.9 billion globally, making it the second-largest religious group worldwide, after Christians.

Bible: The Bible is a sacred collection of religious texts held important in various religions, including Christianity, Judaism, Islam, and others. It is an anthology of diverse texts written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Koine Greek, encompassing instructions, stories, poetry, prophecies, and more. The specific materials accepted as part of the Bible differ among religious traditions, forming a biblical canon. While believers consider it divinely inspired, interpretations of the text vary.

Catholic Church: The Catholic Church, also called the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian denomination with 1.378 billion baptized members worldwide. It is an ancient and influential institution, shaping Western civilization. Comprising 24 churches, including the Latin Church and 23 Eastern Catholic Churches, it spans over 3,500 dioceses globally. The pope, based in Rome, leads the church as the bishop of Rome and heads the Holy See, the central governing authority. The Holy See's administrative body, the Roman Curia, operates from Vatican City, a small independent enclave within Rome.

Eastern Orthodox Church: The Eastern Orthodox Church, also known as the Orthodox Church, is the second-largest Christian church, with about 220 million members. It is made up of independent churches led by bishops. It does not have a central authority like the Pope in the Catholic Church, but the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople is recognized as first among equals. The Eastern Orthodox Church has a rich history and strong cultural influence in Eastern and Southeastern Europe.

Protestantism: Protestantism is a Christian branch that emerged from the 16th century Protestant Reformation. It aimed to reform perceived errors and abuses within the Catholic Church.

Talmud: The Talmud is a key text in Rabbinic Judaism, serving as the main source for Jewish religious law and theology. It was central to Jewish cultural life and had a profound influence on Jewish thought and daily life in traditional Jewish communities.

Quran: The Quran, also known as Qur'an or Koran, is Islam's central religious text, believed to be a divine revelation. It comprises 114 chapters with verses and holds immense religious and literary significance. Renowned for its influence on the Arabic language, it is considered one of the finest works in Arabic literature.

Sunni Islam: Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam, followed by 85–90% of Muslims worldwide. Its name is derived from the tradition of Muhammad, known as Sunnah. The primary distinction between Sunni and Shia Muslims originated from a disagreement over Muhammad's succession. Sunnis believe that Abu Bakr was appointed as the next leader, while Shia Muslims maintain that Muhammad appointed Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor.

Shia Islam: Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam, believing that the Prophet Muhammad named ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor, which was disputed by other companions. This contrasts with Sunnī Islam, which believes that no successor was appointed and considers Abū Bakr as the first caliph after Muhammad. Shia Muslims are the followers of Shia Islam.

Hinduism: Hinduism, an ancient Indian religion, is both a religious and universal way of life. It is believed to be the oldest religion in the world, known as sanātana dharma, with origins beyond human history as revealed in Hindu texts. The term 'Hindu' is an exonym, while 'Vaidika dharma' is another endonym for Hinduism.

Buddhism: Buddhism is an Indian religion based on the teachings attributed to the Buddha. It began in the 5th century BCE and spread across Asia. With over 520 million followers, it is the fourth-largest religion worldwide, representing seven percent of the global population.

Jainism: Jainism, an Indian religion known as Jain Dharma, is guided by twenty-four tirthankaras, with the first being Rishabhadeva. It is considered eternal and is based on three main pillars: non-violence, non-absolutism, and asceticism. Jainism's history dates back millions of years, with significant figures like Parshvanatha in the 9th century BCE and Mahavira around 600 BCE.

Sikhism: Sikhism, also called Sikhi, is a religion and philosophy from Punjab, India, founded in the late 15th century CE. It is one of the newest and largest religions globally, with 25-30 million followers.

Taoism: Taoism, an indigenous Chinese tradition, is both a philosophy and a religion that emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao, an enigmatic process underlying reality. It includes various practices like meditation, astrology, and internal alchemy. The goal is self-cultivation and a deeper appreciation of the Tao, leading to a more harmonious existence. Taoist ethics emphasize virtues such as effortless action, naturalness, simplicity, and compassion. Taoist terms may lack easy definitions, often having multiple translations.

Shinto: Shinto is an indigenous East Asian religion from Japan, often seen as a nature religion. It lacks a central authority and its practitioners are diverse in belief and practice.

Vedas: The Vedas are ancient religious texts from India, written in Vedic Sanskrit. They are the oldest scriptures in Hinduism and form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature.

Bhagavad Gita: The Bhagavad Gita is a Hindu scripture consisting of 700 verses. It is part of the Mahabharata, specifically chapters 23-40 of book 6 known as the Bhishma Parva. The scripture is believed to date back to the second half of the first millennium BCE.

Mahayana: Mahāyāna is a broad group of Buddhist traditions and practices originating in ancient India. It is one of the three main branches of Buddhism, alongside Theravāda and Vajrayāna. Mahāyāna incorporates early Buddhist teachings while also recognizing additional texts and doctrines not accepted by Theravāda. These include the Mahāyāna sūtras, which emphasize the bodhisattva path and Prajñāpāramitā. Vajrayāna, a subset of Mahāyāna, uses tantric methods to aid in achieving Buddhahood.

Theravada: Theravada is the oldest school of Buddhism, widely accepted and practiced. Its followers, called Theravādins, have meticulously preserved Gautama Buddha's teachings for more than 2,000 years in the Pāli Canon.

Chinese folk religion: Chinese folk religion, also known as Chinese popular religion, encompasses a wide range of traditional practices followed by Han Chinese and the Chinese diaspora. It involves the worship of spirits and ancestors, exorcism rituals, and a belief in the order of nature and balance in the universe. Deities and immortals are revered, representing various aspects of life, and their stories form Chinese mythology. This religious system emerged during the Song dynasty, blending Buddhist and Taoist teachings. While the Chinese government currently tolerates popular religious organizations that promote social stability, it suppresses or persecutes those that could potentially undermine it.

Shamanism: Shamanism is a religious practice where practitioners connect with the spirit world through altered states of consciousness. They aim to bring spiritual energies into the physical world to assist with healing, divination, and helping humans.

Traditional African religions: Summary: Traditional African religions encompass the diverse beliefs and practices of African people, which are primarily oral and passed down through generations via folk tales, songs, and festivals. These religions involve the worship of spirits, gods (both higher and lower, and sometimes a supreme being), and the veneration of the dead. They also incorporate the use of magic, traditional African medicine, and have animistic, polytheistic, and pantheistic elements. The objective of humanity in these religions is to maintain harmony between nature and the supernatural.

New religious movement: A new religious movement (NRM) is a modern spiritual group that is separate from the dominant religion in its society. It can be a unique religion or part of a larger one. Some NRMs emphasize individualism, while others emphasize strong community bonds. There are thousands of NRMs worldwide, ranging from small groups to those with millions of followers.

Folklore: Folklore is a collection of oral traditions, tales, myths, legends, proverbs, poems, and jokes shared by a specific group of people or culture. It also encompasses material culture, like traditional building styles.

Myth: A myth is a type of folklore or theology that includes important narratives in a society, like origin myths or foundational tales. It is different from the common usage of "myth" as something untrue. The truth value of a myth is not a defining factor, making it distinct from other types of storytelling.

Greek mythology: Greek mythology is a collection of stories from ancient Greece that explain the origin of the world, the lives of gods and heroes, and the rituals of the ancient Greeks. It is intertwined with Roman mythology and is studied by scholars to gain insights into ancient Greek religion and society.

Abraham: Abraham, a prominent figure in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, is regarded as the common patriarch of these Abrahamic religions. He established a significant bond between Jews and God in Judaism, served as the spiritual ancestor for all believers in Christianity, and holds a crucial position in the lineage of Islamic prophets.

Moses: Moses, revered in multiple religions, is a highly significant figure known as the key prophet in Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Druze faith, Baháʼí Faith, and other Abrahamic religions. He led the Israelites and is credited with receiving the divine Torah, which holds immense importance in religious teachings.

Home: A home is a permanent or semi-permanent residence for humans and sometimes animals. It provides shelter and is used for various activities like sleeping, eating, hygiene, work, and leisure.

Clothing: Clothing refers to items worn on the body, typically made of fabrics or textiles, but historically including garments from animal skin and natural materials. It is primarily worn by human beings and varies based on factors such as gender, body type, social influences, and geographic location. Different clothing items cover specific body parts, including garments for the body, footwear for the feet, gloves for the hands, hats for the head, and underwear for the private parts.

Jewellery: Jewellery is decorative items worn for personal adornment, including brooches, rings, necklaces, earrings, pendants, bracelets, and cufflinks. It can be attached to the body or clothes. Traditionally, jewellery consists of durable ornaments made of metals like gold and gemstones, but other materials like glass, shells, and plant materials can be used.

Food: Food is a substance consumed by organisms to support nutrition. It can be of plant, animal, or fungal origin and provides essential nutrients like carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Organisms ingest and assimilate food to obtain energy, maintain life, and promote growth. Various species have different feeding behaviors that are adapted to their metabolic needs and specific ecological niches in specific geographical contexts.

Drink: A drink is a liquid for humans that quenches thirst and has cultural significance. Common types include water, milk, juice, smoothies, soft drinks, coffee, tea, and hot chocolate. Caffeinated drinks with caffeine are also popular throughout history.

Vegetable: Vegetables encompass various plant parts consumed as food by humans and animals. This term includes all edible plant matter like flowers, fruits, stems, leaves, roots, and seeds. However, its definition may vary based on culinary and cultural traditions. Certain foods like fruits, flowers, nuts, and cereals might be excluded, while savory fruits like tomatoes and courgettes, flowers like broccoli, and seeds like pulses could be included.

Food preservation: Food preservation is the practice of making food more resistant to microorganism growth and slowing down fat oxidation. It includes methods to inhibit decomposition, rancidification, and visual deterioration. Preservation reduces food waste, decreases production costs, improves efficiency, enhances food security and nutrition, and contributes to environmental sustainability by reducing the environmental impact of food production.

Cooking: Cooking is the art, science, and craft of using heat to make food tastier, easier to digest, more nutritious, and safe. It encompasses a wide range of techniques and ingredients, from grilling over fire to baking in ovens, adapting to local conditions.

Bread: Bread is a widely consumed food made by baking a dough of flour and water. It has a significant history, being one of the oldest human-made foods and a vital part of various cultures' diets worldwide. Additionally, bread holds a crucial role in religious practices and secular traditions.

Cereal: Cereal refers to grasses grown for their edible grains, which consist of an endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grains like rice, wheat, oats, barley, rye, millet, and maize are staple crops worldwide, providing significant food energy. Pseudocereals like buckwheat, quinoa, and chia, from different plant families, also yield edible grains.

Meat: Meat is animal flesh consumed as food. Throughout history, humans have obtained meat by hunting, farming, and scavenging. The Neolithic Revolution enabled domestication of various animals like chickens, sheep, rabbits, pigs, and cattle, paving the way for large-scale meat production in slaughterhouses.

Milk: Milk is a white liquid food from mammals' mammary glands, providing vital nutrition for young mammals until they can eat solids. It enhances immunity with antibodies in early lactation milk known as colostrum, reducing disease risks. Milk is nutrient-rich with protein and lactose.

Cheese: Cheese is a versatile dairy product made by curdling milk protein using enzymes like rennet. It comes in various flavors, textures, and forms. The curds are separated from the liquid whey, pressed, and often develop aromatic molds.

Spice: Spices are plant substances used for flavoring or coloring food, distinct from herbs. They can also be used in medicine, religious rituals, cosmetics, or perfume production. Plant-based sweeteners like sugar are not classified as spices.

Salt: Salt is a mineral primarily made of sodium chloride. It is also known as table salt or rock salt. Salt is vital for life and contributes to the basic taste of saltiness. It has been used for thousands of years to enhance the taste of food and preserve it through salting, brining, and pickling.

Sugar: Sugar refers to sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates used in food. It includes simple sugars like glucose, fructose, and galactose, as well as compound sugars like sucrose, lactose, and maltose. White sugar is a refined form of sucrose. Compound sugars are broken down into simple sugars in the body.

Drinking water: Drinking water, or potable water, is safe for ingestion either in liquid form or indirectly through food preparation. It is often provided through taps as tap water, which generally meets quality standards in developed countries. Additionally, tap water is commonly used for washing, toilets, and irrigation. Greywater may also be used for toilets or irrigation, but there are associated risks.

Coffee: Coffee is a popular drink made from roasted beans known for its bitter taste, dark color, and slight acidity. Its caffeine content provides a stimulating effect on humans, making it highly consumed worldwide, particularly in hot drink markets.

Tea: Tea is an aromatic beverage made from the leaves of the Camellia sinensis plant. It is widely consumed worldwide after water. Different types of tea have varying flavors, ranging from cooling and bitter to sweet, nutty, floral, or grassy. Tea is known for its stimulating effect, largely due to its caffeine content.

Alcoholic beverage: An alcoholic beverage is a drink with ethanol, produced through fermenting grains, fruits, or sugar sources. It is consumed for social reasons in various cultures. These beverages are categorized as beers, wines, or spirits and have alcohol content ranging from 3% to 50%.

Family: The term 'Family' refers to a group of people connected through blood or marriage. It serves as the foundation for social stability and promotes the welfare of its members and society. Families ideally provide stability, organization, and security for individuals as they grow and integrate into the community. Throughout history, families have been crucial for fostering attachment, care, and socialization in most human societies.

Friendship: Friendship is a bond of mutual affection between people that surpasses mere acquaintances or associations, like classmates or coworkers, forming a stronger interpersonal relationship.

Marriage: Marriage is a recognized union between spouses that establishes rights and obligations. It varies across cultures and religions, acting as a social construct to manage conflicts and fulfill personal needs. It involves interpersonal relationships, often sexual, and can be recommended or compulsory before engaging in sexual activity. The ceremony is called a wedding, while a private marriage is known as an elopement.

Parenting: Parenting encompasses the nurturing and guidance provided to a child, facilitating their overall growth and well-being. It involves fostering physical, emotional, social, spiritual, and cognitive development from infancy through adulthood. Parenting goes beyond biological ties, emphasizing the intricate process of raising a child.

Furniture: Furniture encompasses objects designed to support various human activities such as seating, eating, storage, working, and sleeping. It serves functional, decorative, and symbolic purposes, offering convenient height for work and storage. Furniture is crafted from materials like metal, plastic, and wood, often showcasing intricate woodworking joints that reflect local culture.

Human sexuality: Human sexuality refers to the diverse ways people express themselves sexually, including biologically, psychologically, physically, emotionally, socially, and spiritually. There is no exact definition due to historical variations, but it includes aspects of reproduction and the human sexual response cycle.

Gender: Gender refers to the social, psychological, cultural, and behavioral aspects of being male, female, or another gender identity. It encompasses sex-based social structures, gender expression, and is often viewed in a binary way. However, some individuals identify as non-binary, outside these categories. Certain societies recognize additional genders, like the hijras of South Asia, referred to as third genders. Scholars emphasize gender's importance in social organization.

Man: A man is an adult male human, while a male human before adulthood is called a boy.

Woman: A woman is an adult female human, with the term "girl" referring to a female before adulthood.

Sexual orientation: Sexual orientation refers to an individual's long-term romantic or sexual attraction towards the opposite gender, same gender, or both, with heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality, and asexuality being common categories.

Birth control: Birth control, also known as contraception, is the use of methods or devices to prevent unintended pregnancy. It has been used since ancient times, but effective and safe options emerged in the 20th century. The process of planning, providing, and utilizing birth control is called family planning. However, access to birth control can be limited or discouraged in certain cultures due to moral, religious, or political reasons.

Sexual intercourse: Sexual intercourse, also called vaginal sex, involves the insertion and thrusting of the male penis inside the female vagina for pleasure and reproduction. It can also involve anal or oral sex, fingering, dildo, and vibrator use. These activities foster physical intimacy, emotional pleasure, and human bonding.

Child: A child is a human being from birth to puberty, possibly including the developmental period of infancy. It can also refer to an unborn human. Legally, a child is a minor, typically under the age of majority, with fewer rights and responsibilities compared to adults. They are often considered incapable of making significant decisions.

Infant: An infant or baby is a young human offspring. It is a formal synonym for the term baby and can also be used to refer to young organisms. A newborn is colloquially used to describe an infant who is only hours, days, or up to one month old. In medical contexts, a newborn or neonate is an infant in the first 28 days after birth, including premature, full term, and postmature infants.

Adolescence: Adolescence is a period of development between puberty and adulthood. It involves both physical and psychological changes, often associated with the teenage years. However, it can start earlier or end later. Puberty typically begins in preadolescence, primarily in females. Adolescence encompasses physical growth, cognitive development, and varies in duration. While age is an unreliable marker, a commonly accepted definition is someone between the ages of 10 and 19, according to the World Health Organization.

Adult: An adult refers to a fully mature human or animal capable of reproduction. In humans, it signifies social and legal independence, responsibility, and self-sufficiency. It is contrasted with minors or non-adults. Legal adulthood is typically reached at age 18, but this can vary based on legal rights, country, and psychological development.

Old age: Old age encompasses the later years of life when individuals surpass life expectancy. It includes various terms like elderly, seniors, and older adults. The definition of old age differs culturally and historically. Different disciplines study the aging process, diseases in older adults, technology for support, and activities tailored to older people.

Entertainment: Entertainment is an engaging activity that captivates and brings pleasure to an audience. It can take various forms such as events or activities, all designed for the purpose of entertaining and holding the attention of the audience.

Tourism: Tourism is the act of traveling for pleasure and the business that supports it. It includes activities beyond traditional holidays and involves people staying outside their usual environment for at least 24 hours, for leisure, business, or other purposes, not exceeding one consecutive year. It can be domestic or international, impacting a country's balance of payments with both incoming and outgoing implications.

Play (activity): Play refers to activities pursued for pleasure and entertainment, driven by internal motivation. It is often associated with children but can be enjoyed at any age. Play is seen in various animals, including mammals and birds.

Toy: A toy is an object designed for entertainment, often used by children but also enjoyed by adults and pets. It can include items like blocks, board games, and dolls. Toys can provide exercise, cultural awareness, and educational benefits. Additionally, objects not intended as toys can be repurposed as playful tools. The term "toy" can also refer to enjoyable purchases or luxury items that provide pleasure, like high-end cars or flagship smartphones.

Game: A game is a structured activity for entertainment and education, often considered as work or art.

Board game: Board games are tabletop games with pieces that are moved or placed on a marked board. They incorporate elements of table, card, role-playing, and miniatures games.

Card game: A card game is any game using playing cards as the main tool. They can be traditional or game-specific and there are countless variations and families of related games. Some card games have standardized rules and international tournaments, while others are folk games with flexible rules that vary by region or culture.

Video game: A video game is an electronic game that allows players to interact through a user interface, generating visual feedback on a display device like a TV, computer monitor, or handheld touchscreen. It usually includes audio and other sensory feedback, and can support microphone and webcam inputs for in-game communication and livestreaming.

Gambling: Gambling is the act of betting something valuable on a random event to win something else valuable. It involves consideration, chance, and a prize. The outcome can be immediate or take a longer time, such as predicting the outcome of a sports contest or season. Instances of strategy are not typically considered in gambling.

Sport: Sport refers to physical activities or games that are competitive and organized, aiming to enhance physical abilities while providing enjoyment for participants and entertainment for spectators. It improves physical health and offers a wide range of options with different numbers of participants, either as individuals or teams. Sports can involve races with one winner, contests between two sides, or even ties, with tie-breaking methods if necessary. Tournaments and leagues contribute to determining champions through regular seasons and playoffs.

Olympic Games: The Olympic Games are leading international sporting events that feature thousands of athletes from around the world competing in summer and winter sports. They are considered the world's foremost sports competition and often substitute for World Championships. The Games are held every four years, alternating between summer and winter Olympics.

Association football: Association football, also known as soccer, is a team sport played with 11 players on each side. The game is played on a rectangular pitch, and the objective is to score more goals than the opposing team by kicking the ball into the opponent's net. Matches consist of two halves of 45 minutes each, totaling 90 minutes. With around 250 million active players in over 200 countries and territories, football is the most popular sport worldwide.

Sport of athletics: Athletics is a competitive sport encompassing running, jumping, throwing, and walking. It includes track and field, road running, cross-country running, and racewalking.

Martial arts: Martial arts are combat systems practiced for self-defense, military uses, competition, and personal development. They encompass physical, mental, and spiritual aspects while serving as entertainment and preserving cultural heritage.

Swimming: Swimming is the act of propelling oneself through water for various purposes such as recreation, exercise, sport, or survival. It involves coordinated movements of the limbs and body to generate hydrodynamic thrust, resulting in directional motion. Humans possess the ability to hold their breath and start swimming shortly after birth as a survival instinct.

Social science: Social science is a branch of science that studies societies and the relationships among individuals. Originally focused on sociology, it now includes various disciplines like anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, linguistics, management, communication, and political science.

Psychology: Psychology is the study of mind and behavior, including conscious and unconscious phenomena, thoughts, feelings, and motives. It is an academic discipline that spans natural and social sciences, aiming to understand human and nonhuman behavior. Biological psychologists link psychology to neuroscience by studying the properties of brains, while psychologists as social scientists strive to understand behavior in individuals and groups.

Consciousness: Consciousness is the awareness of internal and external existence. It has been extensively studied and debated by philosophers, theologians, and scientists. Its nature is complex and opinions vary on what aspects should be considered. In the past, it encompassed introspection and private thoughts, while today it includes cognition, experience, feelings, and perception. Consciousness can involve awareness, self-awareness, or awareness of awareness. The diverse research and speculations in this field raise questions about the right approach to understanding it.

Dream: A dream is a series of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that arise involuntarily during sleep stages. We typically spend about two hours dreaming each night, with individual dreams lasting 5 to 20 minutes. Though the dreamer may perceive the experience as longer, this summary highlights the essential aspects of dreaming.

Human behavior: Human behavior refers to the way individuals or groups respond to internal and external stimuli throughout their lives. It is influenced by a combination of genetic, environmental, and psychological factors. Thoughts and feelings play a role in shaping behavior, providing insight into attitudes and values. Personality traits vary between individuals and contribute to different actions and behavior.

Memory: Memory is the mental ability to encode, store, and retrieve information when necessary. It enables us to retain information over time, influencing our future actions. Without memory, language, relationships, and personal identity would not develop. Memory loss, often called forgetfulness or amnesia, refers to the inability to recall past events.

Mind: The mind refers to the faculties responsible for thinking, imagining, remembering, willing, and sensing. It encompasses perception, pleasure, pain, belief, desire, intention, and emotion. The mind encompasses both conscious and non-conscious states, as well as sensory and non-sensory experiences.

Personality: Personality refers to the unique combination of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions that shape an individual's way of adapting to life. These patterns are relatively consistent but can evolve gradually over time.

Thought: Thought refers to conscious cognitive processes, including judging, reasoning, concept formation, problem solving, and deliberation. It can occur independently of sensory stimulation and encompasses considering ideas, memory, and imagination. Thought can also include perception and unconscious mental processes. Additionally, thought can refer to mental states or systems of ideas resulting from these cognitive processes.

Emotion: Emotions are mental states triggered by changes in the body and mind, linked to thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and varying degrees of pleasure or displeasure. While a clear definition lacks consensus in science, emotions are intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and creativity.

Anger: Anger, or wrath, is an intense emotional state triggered by a perception of provocation, hurt, or threat. It involves a strong and non-cooperative response.

Fear: Fear is a strong and unpleasant emotion triggered by perceiving a danger or threat. It leads to psychological changes and can cause aggressive actions or avoidance. Fear can be in response to a current stimulus or anticipated future danger. It prompts us to confront or escape from the threat, sometimes resulting in freezing.

Happiness: Happiness is a positive emotion, ranging from contentment to intense joy, triggered by positive experiences or thoughts. It can also arise with no obvious cause. The level of happiness for longer periods is strongly correlated with life satisfaction, well-being, flourishing, and eudaimonia. The word happy is often used to appraise these measures or as a shorthand for a source of happiness. Defining happiness precisely has been an ongoing debate in philosophy.

Humour: Humour is a quality that stimulates laughter and amusement. It originates from ancient Greek humoral medicine, which believed that bodily fluids, known as humours, influenced human well-being and emotions.

Love: Love refers to a variety of strong and positive emotions, from deep affection to simple pleasure. It encompasses different meanings, such as the love of a mother, spouse, or even for food. Primarily, it is a powerful attraction and emotional attachment.

Privacy: 'Privacy' refers to an individual or group's capacity to hide personal information and decide when and how to reveal it, allowing for selective self-expression and seclusion.

Society: A society is a collection of individuals who interact socially within a shared territory under the same political authority. It is defined by the relationships, culture, and institutions that exist among its members.

Community: A community is a social unit characterized by shared characteristics like place, norms, culture, religion, values, or identity. They can exist in physical or virtual spaces. Communities are defined by strong relationships beyond family ties, influencing their identity and roles in social institutions. They can be small or large, including national, international, and virtual groups.

Trade union: A trade union, also known as a labor union or simply a union, is an organization of workers aiming to enhance their employment conditions. This includes improving wages, benefits, working conditions, and safety standards. Additionally, trade unions establish procedures to address grievances, create rules regarding employee status, and protect and strengthen workers' bargaining power.

Abortion: Abortion is the deliberate ending of a pregnancy by removing the embryo or fetus. Miscarriage, or spontaneous abortion, occurs naturally in about 30% to 40% of pregnancies. When steps are taken to end a pregnancy, it is called induced abortion. The most common reasons for having an abortion are birth-timing and limiting family size. Other reasons include maternal health, financial constraints, domestic violence, lack of support, young age, education or career plans, and unwanted pregnancies resulting from rape or incest.

Disability: Disability refers to any condition that hinders a person's ability to perform certain activities or have equal access in society. It can be cognitive, developmental, intellectual, mental, physical, sensory, or a combination of factors, and can be present from birth or acquired later in life. Disabilities are not binary and can vary in unique characteristics for each individual. They can be visible or invisible in nature.

Environmentalism: Environmentalism is a philosophy and movement that supports the protection of life and habitats. It focuses on nature-related aspects of green ideology and politics. Ecologism, a term more used in continental Europe, combines social ecology and environmentalism. While environmentalism is more common in English, both words have slightly different connotations.

Famine: A famine is a severe shortage of food due to reasons like war, natural disasters, or government policies. It leads to malnutrition, starvation, epidemics, and higher mortality rates. Famine has occurred on every inhabited continent throughout history. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Southeast and South Asia, Eastern and Central Europe suffered the most fatalities. However, famine deaths have decreased significantly since the 1970s. Africa has been the most affected continent by famine since 2010.

Human migration: Human migration involves the movement of people to new places, whether for permanent or temporary settlement.

Peace: 'Peace' refers to societal friendship and harmony, characterized by the absence of hostility and violence. It signifies a state of societal tranquility, absence of conflict, and freedom from fear of violence among individuals or groups.

Pollution: Pollution occurs when contaminants are introduced into nature, resulting in harmful alterations. It can involve various substances or energy sources, including both artificial and natural pollutants.

Poverty: Poverty is a state of lacking financial resources and essentials for a particular standard of living. It can result from various social, economic, and political factors. Absolute poverty measures income against basic needs, while relative poverty compares living standards among individuals in a specific time and place. Variations in the definition of relative poverty exist among countries and societies.

Violence: Violence is the application of physical force to cause harm to individuals, animals, or property, resulting in pain, injury, death, damage, or destruction. It involves the intentional use of force or power, whether threatened or actual, against oneself, others, or a group/community, with a high likelihood of resulting in various forms of harm such as injury, death, psychological damage, maldevelopment, or deprivation.

Feminism: Feminism is a movement aiming to establish gender equality in politics, economics, and society. It recognizes that societies favor men and seeks to challenge gender stereotypes, improve education and professional opportunities, and address unjust treatment of women.

Human rights: Human rights are moral principles protected by laws that apply universally to all people, regardless of their characteristics. They encompass fundamental rights inherent to all individuals, emphasizing equality and empathy. Upheld by the rule of law, they should only be infringed upon through a fair legal process.

Liberty: Liberty is the freedom individuals enjoy in society, where they are not burdened by authoritarian rules that limit their way of life, actions, or political opinions.

Social equality: Social equality refers to a societal condition where all individuals enjoy equal rights, freedoms, and status. This encompasses civil rights, freedom of expression, autonomy, and fair access to public goods and social services.

Slavery: Slavery is the ownership of a person as property for labor, with the slave's work and living arrangements controlled by the owner. Enslavement refers to the act of placing an individual into slavery, making them a slave or an enslaved person.

Social class: Social class refers to the division of people into hierarchical categories such as upper, middle, and lower classes. It is determined based on factors like education, wealth, occupation, income, and affiliation with specific subcultures or social networks.

Discrimination: Discrimination refers to the unfair treatment of individuals based on their group membership or perceived characteristics, such as race, gender, age, religion, appearance, or sexual orientation. This prejudice often results in depriving one group of opportunities and privileges enjoyed by another group.

Racism: Racism is discrimination and prejudice against people based on their race or ethnicity. It can be found in social actions, practices, or political systems that support discrimination. Racist ideology assumes distinct groups that can be ranked as superior or inferior. It can manifest in various aspects of social life, including nativism, xenophobia, segregation, and supremacism.

Sexism: Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on sex/gender, primarily affecting women/girls. It involves beliefs in superiority, fosters sexual violence, and leads to workplace inequality. It stems from societal customs/norms.

Sociology: Sociology is the scientific study of human society, focusing on social behavior, relationships, interaction, and culture. It is a part of social sciences and humanities, using empirical investigation and critical analysis to understand social order and change. It analyzes individual interactions and societal structures and can be applied to social policy and welfare. Moreover, sociological research examines social processes and uses phenomenological methods to gain a deep understanding.

Power (social and political): Power, in social science and politics, refers to the ability to influence and control the capacities, actions, beliefs, or conduct of individuals. It goes beyond force and coercion and can be exerted through various means, including social structures and discursive elements.

Money: Money is a widely accepted means of payment and debt repayment. It serves as a medium of exchange, unit of account, store of value, and occasionally as a standard for delayed payments.

Bank: A bank is a financial institution that accepts public deposits, creates demand deposits, and grants loans directly or indirectly through capital markets.

Finance: Finance is the discipline that studies money, currency, and capital assets. It is distinct from economics but connected through financial economics. The field encompasses personal, corporate, and public finance within financial systems.

Insurance: Insurance is a financial safeguard where one party compensates another party for specific losses, damages, or injuries in exchange for a fee. It is a risk management tool that provides protection against uncertain or contingent losses.

Business: Business is the act of earning a living or generating profit through the production and sale of goods or services. It encompasses any profit-driven activity or venture.

Management: Management is the administration of organizations, including businesses, nonprofits, and government bodies. It involves overseeing resources and applying business, nonprofit, or public administration principles to ensure effective operations.

Property: Property refers to a system of rights granting legal control over valuable things. Owners have the freedom to use, alter, share, rent, sell, or destroy their property, or to exclude others from doing so. These rights are granted by law and enable owners to properly utilize their property.

Trade: Trade is the exchange of goods and services between individuals or entities, commonly involving money. Economists define trade as a market system or network that facilitates this exchange.

Corporation: A corporation is a legal entity authorized by the state that acts as a single organization. It can be created through registration and is classified based on its ability to issue stock and make a profit. Corporations can have multiple owners or be owned by a single person.

Agriculture: Agriculture comprises crop and livestock production, aquaculture, fisheries, and forestry for food and non-food products. It played a vital role in the development of settled human societies by creating food surpluses through farming domesticated species. Grain gathering began 105,000 years ago, while farming started around 11,500 years ago. Domestication of animals like sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle occurred 10,000 years ago. Cultivation of plants took place independently in at least 11 regions. Industrial agriculture with large-scale monocultures became dominant in the 20th century.

Construction: Construction is the process of creating objects, systems, or organizations. It involves building and the structure of something. The term comes from Latin and Old French, and refers to the art and science of forming.

Hunting: Hunting is the practice of pursuing and capturing wildlife for various reasons. It is commonly done for obtaining food and useful animal products, as well as for recreational purposes like taxidermy. Hunting can also serve non-exploitative purposes such as eliminating dangerous predators, controlling pests that harm crops and spread diseases, and contributing to ecological conservation against overpopulation and invasive species.

Fishing: Fishing is the act of catching fish, either from natural habitats or stocked waters. It involves various techniques like hand-gathering, spearing, netting, angling, shooting, and trapping. While some methods are destructive and illegal, such as electrocution, blasting, and poisoning, fishing is generally a wildlife activity enjoyed in different environments.

Manufacturing: Manufacturing is the process of producing goods using equipment, machines, labor, and chemical or biological processes. It is a vital part of the secondary sector of the economy and involves the transformation of raw materials into finished goods on a large scale. These goods can be sold to other manufacturers or distributed to end users and consumers through the tertiary industry.

Mining: Mining is the process of extracting valuable materials from the Earth's surface, including metals, coal, gemstones, and more. It is necessary for obtaining materials that cannot be grown or created in other ways. Mining also includes extracting non-renewable resources like petroleum, natural gas, and water.

Employment: Employment is a paid labor relationship between two parties, the employer and the employee. It is often based on a contract and involves the employer compensating the employee for assigned work. The employee receives wages, which can be hourly, piecework-based, or annual salary, depending on the job, sector conditions, and negotiation power. Additional benefits like health insurance, housing, and disability insurance may be provided. Employment is regulated by employment laws, organizations, or legal contracts.

Marketing: Marketing is the core business activity that involves finding customers and providing them with desired goods and services. It encompasses creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging products to satisfy and keep customers.

Retail: Retail refers to the sale of goods and services directly to consumers, as opposed to selling to businesses or institutions. Retailers obtain products in bulk from manufacturers or wholesalers and sell them in smaller quantities to make a profit. They are the last step in the supply chain, connecting producers to consumers.

Tax: Tax is a mandatory charge imposed by governments on taxpayers to collectively fund public spending, regulate negative externalities, and reduce them. Tax compliance ensures correct payment, allowances, and relief. Taxation dates back to Ancient Egypt. Taxes can be direct or indirect and can be paid in money or labor.

Economics: Economics studies how goods and services are created, shared, and used in society.

Supply and demand: Supply and demand is an economic model that explains how prices are determined in a market. It states that in a competitive market, the price of a good will adjust until the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied, leading to an equilibrium. This concept is the foundation of modern economics.

Economy: An economy encompasses the production, distribution, and trade of goods and services. It is a social domain involving the use and management of scarce resources. Factors such as culture, education, technology, history, and natural resources shape an economy. It is a network of human practices and transactions that cannot exist independently.

Law: Law is a set of enforceable rules created by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. It can be described as a science and an art of justice, its definition has been debated. Laws can be made by legislatures, executives, or established by judges through precedent. Individuals can create legally binding contracts and alternative dispute resolution methods. Laws are influenced by constitutions and shape politics, economics, history and society while mediating relations between people.

Justice: Justice refers to treating individuals fairly and equitably. It encompasses the idea that everyone should receive fair treatment.

Constitution: A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or precedents that establish the legal foundation of a polity, organization, or entity. It outlines the governance structure and methods of the said entity.

Suffrage: Suffrage, also known as franchise, is the right to vote in public elections and referendums. It encompasses active suffrage (voting) and passive suffrage (running for office), and the combination of both is called full suffrage.

Police: The police are a state-sanctioned body that enforces laws, protects citizens and their belongings, prevents crime and disorder, and maintains safety and health. They possess the authority to make arrests and use force as allowed by the state. Police forces operate within defined legal boundaries and are distinct from the military. They are typically funded through taxes and provide public sector services.

Crime: A crime is an unlawful act that can be punished by the government or other authority. There is no universal definition, but it is generally considered as an act that harms individuals, communities, societies, or the state, and is forbidden and punishable by law.

European Union: The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 27 member states in Europe, covering an area of 4,233,255 km2 and with over 448 million people. It is considered a unique entity, blending federation and confederation characteristics.

NATO: NATO is an intergovernmental military alliance formed after WWII with 31 member states. Its purpose is collective security, with members committed to defending each other against third-party attacks. Initially created to counter the Soviet Union during the Cold War, it has continued to exist and engage in military operations worldwide. NATO operates under the North Atlantic Treaty and has played a significant role in conflicts in the Balkans, Middle East, South Asia, and Africa. Its motto is "animus in consulendo liber."

United Nations: The United Nations (UN) is the largest international organization, with the goal of maintaining global peace, promoting friendly relations among nations, fostering international cooperation, and providing a platform for harmonizing national actions. Its headquarters are in New York City, and it has offices in Geneva, Nairobi, Vienna, and The Hague. The International Court of Justice is based in The Hague.

International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement: The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement is a global humanitarian organization with 16 million volunteers, members, and staff. Its purpose is to protect human life and health, promote respect for all individuals, and alleviate human suffering. It consists of three independent organizations unified by common basic principles, objectives, symbols, statutes, and governing bodies.

Politics: Politics refers to the activities involved in decision-making and power dynamics within groups. It encompasses the distribution of resources and status among individuals. The study of politics and government is undertaken in the field of political science.

Political science: Political science is the study of politics, governance systems, power, and political activities, behavior, thought, and laws.

Diplomacy: Diplomacy is the art of influencing international events through spoken or written communication by representatives of states or organizations, with the aim of achieving desired outcomes in the global system.

Imperialism: Imperialism is the act of exerting and expanding power over foreign nations through various means, including military force and cultural influence. It aims to establish dominance, often in the form of a formal empire, and differs from colonialism.

Colonialism: Colonialism refers to the dominance of one group over others, typically for imperial control and exploitation. It involves the establishment of colonies and the implementation of various practices and relationships to maintain this dominance. However, the definition of colonialism may vary depending on the context and how the term is used.

Globalization: Globalization refers to the worldwide interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments. It emerged in the 20th century and gained popularity in the 1990s, characterizing the unprecedented global connectivity after the Cold War. This process originated in the 18th and 19th centuries with advancements in transportation and communication technology. It has led to increased international trade, exchange of ideas, beliefs, and culture. Globalization primarily pertains to economic interaction but also encompasses social, cultural, and diplomatic aspects in its history.

Political party: A political party is an organization that coordinates candidates in elections. Members share similar political ideas and may promote specific goals or ideology.

Government: A government is a system or group that governs a community or state. It provides organization and leadership for society.

Dictatorship: A dictatorship is an autocratic government where a leader or a group holds unlimited power. Political control is maintained through an inner circle of elites, including advisers and high-ranking officials. The dictator suppresses opposition by appeasing the inner circle and repressing rival parties or armed resistance. Dictatorships can arise from military coups or when elected leaders solidify their rule. They are authoritarian or totalitarian and can take the form of military, one-party, personalist, or absolute monarchies.

Democracy: Democracy is a government system where the power lies with the people. It ensures human rights and freedoms are respected, allowing people to freely express their will.

Monarchy: A monarchy is a governmental system where a monarch, the head of state, serves for life or until they step down. The authority of the monarch can range from symbolic to autocratic, and their power extends across all branches of government.

State (polity): A state is a centralized political organization that imposes and enforces rules over a population within a territory. It is a polity that maintains a monopoly on the legitimate use of violence. The absence of a state does not eliminate the existence of a society. The level of governance determines whether a state has failed.

Welfare: Welfare, also known as social welfare, is a form of government aid aimed at ensuring people in a society can fulfill basic human needs like food and shelter. It can encompass social security, which includes support for the elderly and children, medical treatment, leave for parents and the sick, unemployment and disability benefits, and assistance for those injured at work.

Ideology: Ideology is a set of beliefs or philosophies held for non-epistemic reasons, where practical elements are important. Initially used for economic, political, or religious theories, it now carries a condemnatory connotation.

Anarchism: Anarchism is a political philosophy that questions authority and aims to eradicate coercive institutions, such as nation-states and capitalism. It advocates for stateless societies and voluntary associations. Anarchism is commonly associated with the far-left or libertarian socialist movement.

Capitalism: Capitalism is an economic system where private individuals own and operate businesses to make a profit. Key characteristics include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price systems, private property, property rights recognition, voluntary exchange, and wage labor. Owners of wealth determine decision-making and investments, while competition in markets determines prices and distribution of goods and services.

Socialism: Socialism is a political philosophy advocating social ownership instead of private ownership of the means of production. It encompasses diverse economic, political, and social systems, with social ownership being the common element. Socialism is typically associated with the left-wing and can take various forms, such as public, community, collective, cooperative, or employee-owned. Different approaches exist regarding the role of markets, resource allocation, organizational management, and the need for government intervention.

Communism: Communism is a left-wing ideology aiming to establish a communist society where common ownership of means of production, distribution, and exchange exists. It seeks to eliminate private property, social classes, money, and the state.

Fascism: Fascism is an extreme, right-wing ideology led by a dictator, emphasizing militant nationalism, rigid hierarchy, and the suppression of opposition through force. It champions the nation or race above individual interests, tightly controlling society and the economy.

Liberalism: Liberalism is a political philosophy centered on individual rights, liberty, equality before the law, and consent of the governed. It supports private property, market economies, liberal democracy, and the rule of law. Liberals value freedom of speech, press, assembly, and religion. With roots in modern history, liberalism is often considered a dominant ideology.

Conservatism: Conservatism is a philosophy focused on preserving traditional institutions, customs, and values. It varies based on culture and seeks to promote institutions like the nuclear family, organized religion, the military, the nation-state, property rights, rule of law, aristocracy, and monarchy. Conservatives prioritize social order and historical continuity.

Nationalism: Nationalism is a movement that aims to align the nation with the state, advocating for self-governance and sovereignty. It emphasizes a nation's right to govern itself and rejects external interference. Nationalism seeks to establish a unified national identity based on shared characteristics and history, fostering national unity. It can be classified into ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism.

War: War is a violent conflict between nations, governments, societies, or groups, involving intense fighting and death. It can involve regular or irregular forces and leads to widespread destruction. Warfare encompasses the activities and characteristics of different types of wars. Total war causes significant harm to civilians and non-combatants, going beyond legitimate military targets, resulting in extensive suffering and casualties.

Genocide: Genocide is deliberate and systematic extermination of a people, targeting their entire population or a significant part.

Terrorism: Terrorism is the deliberate use of violence and fear to accomplish political or ideological goals. It involves intentional violence against civilians during times of peace or in war. There are many definitions of terrorism, and a consensus on its exact meaning has not been reached.

Military: A military, or armed forces, is a well-equipped and structured force primarily for warfare. It is authorized by a state, with members identifiable by a uniform. Militaries can have multiple branches like army, navy, air force, etc. Their main purpose is to defend the state and its interests against external threats.

Communication: Communication is the transmission of information and its definition is debated. Unintentional or failed transmissions may or may not be included. Communication can both transmit and create meaning. Models simplify communication into main components such as a source, coding system, message, channel, and receiver. Communication studies is the main field of inquiry for understanding communication.

Culture: Culture refers to the social behavior, institutions, and norms in society, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of individuals. It is often associated with specific regions or locations.

Popular culture: Popular culture is the prevailing practices, beliefs, artistic expressions, and objects in a society. It influences the activities and emotions resulting from interaction with these dominant elements. Media, mass appeal, marketing, and capitalism drive popular culture, particularly in Western societies, and it is produced by the "culture industry" as coined by philosopher Theodor Adorno.

Oral tradition: Oral tradition is a method of communication where knowledge, art, ideas, and cultural material are shared orally across generations. This includes folktales, ballads, chants, and more. It allows societies to transmit history, literature, law, and other knowledge without a writing system or alongside it. Religions like Buddhism, Hinduism, Catholicism, and Jainism have utilized oral tradition to pass down their scriptures, rituals, hymns, and myths.

Festival: A festival is a special event celebrated by a community, focusing on their religion or culture. It is often a local or national holiday and can show the interconnection between high and low cultures. Festivals have diverse origins, including agriculture, and many are associated with harvest time. They blend religious commemoration and gratitude for good harvests, often taking place in autumn. Examples include Halloween in the northern hemisphere and Easter in the southern.

Education: Education is the transfer of knowledge, skills, and values, occurring in various forms. It encompasses formal education within institutions like schools, non-formal education outside schools, and informal learning through everyday experiences. Education is classified into levels such as early childhood, primary, secondary, and tertiary education. It can be teacher-centered or student-centered, and focused on specific subjects like science, language, or physical education. The term "education" can also refer to the traits and mental states of educated individuals, and the field that studies educational phenomena.

Learning: Learning is the acquisition of new understanding, knowledge, skills, and behaviors. Humans, animals, and some machines possess the ability to learn, while certain plants also show evidence of learning. It can be immediate or accumulate through repeated experiences. Learning often has long-lasting effects and differentiating between forgotten and unretrievable knowledge is difficult.

Library: A library is a collection of books and other materials accessible to members and allied institutions. It provides physical and digital resources, often including printed materials for borrowing and reference materials for in-house use. Libraries may also offer a variety of media formats, such as films, television programs, music recordings, etc. in DVDs, Blu-rays, CDs, cassettes, or microformats. Additionally, they provide access to information and content stored in bibliographic databases.

School: A school is an educational institution providing learning spaces for students under the guidance of teachers. It can be government or privately operated, with primary schools for young children and secondary schools for teenagers. Higher education is typically offered in university colleges or universities. Schooling is often compulsory in many countries.

University: A university is a research-based institution that grants academic degrees in multiple disciplines, including undergraduate and postgraduate programs.

Anthropology: Anthropology is the scientific study of humans, encompassing behavior, biology, cultures, societies, and languages, both present and past. It includes social anthropology, which examines behavioral patterns, cultural anthropology, which explores cultural meaning and values, and linguistic anthropology, which studies the influence of language on social life. Additionally, biological anthropology analyzes the development of humans.

Ethnicity: Ethnicity refers to a group of people who share distinctive characteristics, such as nationality, ancestry, traditions, language, history, society, religion, or social treatment. It is often used interchangeably with the term nation, particularly in cases of ethnic nationalism.

Indigenous peoples: Indigenous peoples are culturally distinct groups with a special connection to their traditional lands. They have experienced subjugation and discrimination under the dominant cultural model and commonly self-identify as Indigenous.

Language: Language is a structured system of communication with grammar and vocabulary. It allows humans to convey meaning through spoken, written, and sign forms. Most languages have writing systems. Language varies across cultures and time. It is productive and allows the creation of limitless sentences and referencing absent things. Language is acquired through learning and relies on social convention.

Speech: Speech is the vocal communication of humans using language, which involves using phonetic combinations of vowel and consonant sounds to form words. Speakers perform intentional speech acts like informing, declaring, asking, persuading, and directing, using various vocal aspects to convey meaning. Additionally, unintentionally, speakers communicate their social position through aspects like sex, age, origin, physical and psychological states, education, and experience.

Writing: Writing is a cognitive and social activity that uses writing systems to create lasting records of human language. It relies on semantic structures like lexicon and syntax, using symbols to represent phonology and morphology. Written language can have unique characteristics compared to spoken language.

Alphabet: An alphabet is a set of letters that represent spoken sounds in a language. It enables the distinction of words based on phonemes. Unlike other writing systems that use symbols for syllables or words, an alphabet uses letters for precise linguistic representation.

Grammar: Grammar refers to the rules that govern how speakers or writers use and create clauses, phrases, and words in a natural language. It involves the study of phonology, morphology, syntax, phonetics, semantics, and pragmatics. There are two main approaches to studying grammar: traditional and theoretical.

Linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language, encompassing theoretical and descriptive analysis. It is connected to applied language studies and learning specific languages. While historically linked to literary study, linguistics now employs scientific methods.

Word: A word is a fundamental part of language that carries meaning and can stand alone. Linguists have not agreed on a precise definition, leading to controversy. Various criteria based on phonology, grammar, and orthography have been proposed. Some argue that the concept of a word is merely a convention in everyday situations.

Personal name: A personal name refers to the set of names by which an individual is known. It can be the person's birth name or legal name. Linguistically, personal names are studied under the discipline of anthroponymy.

Indo-European languages: The Indo-European languages are spoken across Europe, the Iranian plateau, and the northern Indian subcontinent. They include popular languages like English, French, Portuguese, Russian, Dutch, and Spanish that have spread globally through colonialism. The family is divided into branches, with eight still alive today, such as Albanian, Armenian, Balto-Slavic, Celtic, Germanic, Hellenic, Indo-Iranian, and Italic/Romance. There are also nine extinct subdivisions within this language family.

Arabic script: Arabic script is a widely used writing system primarily for Arabic, Asian and African languages. It is the second-most used alphabetic writing system globally and the third-most used writing system by number of users and countries.

Brahmic scripts: Brahmic scripts, also called Indic scripts, are a group of abugida writing systems. Originating from ancient India's Brahmi script, they are widely used across the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and parts of East Asia. These scripts are employed by various languages in South, East, and Southeast Asia, including Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman, Mongolic, Austroasiatic, Austronesian, and Tai language families. Additionally, Brahmic scripts played a crucial role in developing the dictionary order (gojūon) of Japanese kana.

Chinese characters: Chinese characters are logographs used for writing Chinese languages and other cultures influenced by Chinese. They have a documented history spanning over three millennia and are considered one of the four independent inventions of writing. Chinese characters are the only writing system continuously used since their invention. The function, style, and means of writing characters have evolved over time. Simplified characters are used in mainland China, Singapore, and Malaysia, while traditional characters are used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau.

Cyrillic script: The Cyrillic script, also known as the Slavic script, is a writing system used for multiple languages in Eurasia. It is the official script in countries across Southeastern Europe, Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and East Asia.

Greek alphabet: The Greek alphabet is a writing system that has been used since the 8th century BC. Derived from the Phoenician alphabet, it was the first alphabetic script to have separate letters for both vowels and consonants. Initially, it had various local variations, but by the 4th century BC, the standardized Euclidean alphabet with 24 letters from alpha to omega became the norm and is still used for Greek writing today.

Latin script: The Latin script, also known as the Roman script, is an alphabetic writing system based on the letters of the classical Latin alphabet. It originated from a modified version of the Greek alphabet used in Cumae, Italy. The Etruscans further altered the Greek alphabet, and then the Romans modified it again. There are multiple variations of the Latin script, with different letters, arrangement, and pronunciation compared to the classical Latin alphabet.

Japanese language: The Japanese language is the main language of the Japonic language family, spoken by the Japanese people. With approximately 128 million speakers, it is primarily spoken in Japan, the only country where it is the national language. It is also spoken by the Japanese diaspora across the globe.

Arabic: Arabic is a Semitic language spoken in the Arab world, originating in the first millennium BC. It is named after the Arab people, initially used to describe those in the Arabian Peninsula, according to ancient Greek geographers.

Malay language: Malay is an Austronesian language spoken by 290 million people in Southeast Asia. It is an official language in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore, and is also spoken in parts of Thailand and East Timor.

Greek language: Greek language is an independent branch of Indo-European languages spoken in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, southern Albania, and other regions. It boasts the longest recorded history among Indo-European languages, with written records spanning over 3,400 years. Greek uses the Greek alphabet, which has been in use for around 2,800 years and has influenced various other writing systems.

Bengali language: Bengali, also known as Bangla, is a widely spoken Indo-Aryan language in South Asia. It is native to the Bengal region and has around 234 million native speakers and 39 million second language speakers. Bengali ranks sixth in terms of native speakers and seventh in total number of speakers worldwide. It is also the fifth most spoken Indo-European language.

Hindustani language: Hindustani language is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in Northern India, Pakistan, and the Deccan region. It serves as a lingua franca in both countries. Hindustani has two standard registers, Hindi and Urdu, making it a pluricentric language. It is commonly referred to as Hindi-Urdu. The language encompasses a range of speech styles, from informal to formal, falling between these two standards. Additionally, a hybrid variety called Hinglish, influenced by English, has emerged in modern times.

French language: French is a Romance language derived from Vulgar Latin and evolved from Gallo-Romance in Northern Gaul. It supplanted other langues d'oïl spoken in northern France and southern Belgium. French was influenced by Celtic and Frankish languages. The French colonial empire led to the development of French-based creole languages, like Haitian Creole. Francophone refers to a French-speaking person or nation in both English and French.

Latin: Latin is a classical language that was spoken in Latium, the lower Tiber area around Rome. It became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and the Roman Empire through the expansion of the Roman Republic. It remained the common language of international communication, academia, and scholarship in Europe until the 18th century. Despite being extensively used, Latin lacked native speakers and is considered a dead language.

Portuguese language: The Portuguese language is a Western Romance language originating from the Iberian Peninsula. It is the official language of Portugal, Brazil, and several other countries. Portuguese-speaking individuals are referred to as "Lusophones." The language has spread globally due to historical colonial expansion. Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group influenced by Celtic phonology.

Spanish language: Spanish, or Castilian, is a global Romance language with about 500 million native speakers in the Americas and Spain. It evolved from Vulgar Latin and is the official language of 20 countries. Spanish is the world's second-most spoken native language, fourth-most spoken overall, and most widely spoken Romance language. Mexico has the largest population of native speakers.

English language: English language, a West Germanic language, originated in medieval England. It is named after the Angles, an ancient Germanic people who migrated to Great Britain. Today, English is the most spoken language globally and the second-most spoken native language. It is also widely learned as a second language, surpassing its native speakers.

German language: The German language is a widely spoken West Germanic language in Western and Central Europe. It is the most commonly spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and South Tyrol. It is also an official language in Luxembourg and Belgium and a recognized national language in Namibia. German is spoken by German communities in Alsace, Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia, and Sopron, Hungary.

Russian language: Russian is an East Slavic language spoken in Russia. It is the native language of Russians and belongs to the Indo-European language family. Russian is one of four living East Slavic languages and part of the Balto-Slavic group. It was the official language of the former Soviet Union and remains official in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. It is widely used as a lingua franca in Ukraine, Moldova, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and to a lesser extent in the Baltic states and Israel. Russian is also an official language of the United Nations.

Swahili language: Swahili, or Kiswahili, is a Bantu language spoken primarily by the Swahili people in Tanzania, Kenya, and Mozambique. It is widely spoken by over 200 million people as either a first or second language.

Chinese language: Chinese language is spoken by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and minority ethnic groups in China. It is the first language for around 1.3 billion people, accounting for 16% of the global population.

News: News is current event information conveyed through various media like word of mouth, print, broadcast, electronic communication, and eyewitness accounts. It is commonly described as "hard news" to distinguish it from softer media.

Mass media: Mass media refers to various forms of communication that target and connect with a wide audience through different media channels. It encompasses a broad range of media platforms used for mass communication purposes.

Publishing: Publishing involves making various forms of content available to the public, either for sale or for free. This encompasses printed works like books, newspapers, and magazines, as well as digital media such as ebooks, websites, and social media. The evolution of digital information systems has broadened the scope to include music and video game publishing.

Life: Life is the characteristic that distinguishes living matter from non-living matter. It involves biological processes, such as self-sustaining activities and signaling. Life is defined by its ability to maintain homeostasis, organize itself, metabolize, grow, adapt, respond to stimuli, and reproduce. Defining living systems, like viruses, can be challenging as they can only reproduce within host cells. Life exists all over Earth in air, water, and soil, with diverse ecosystems forming the biosphere. Some of these environments are extreme, hosting only extremophiles.

Death: Death is the end of all biological functions in an organism, including the brain, and decomposition follows shortly thereafter. It is an inevitable process that occurs in all organisms, but a few exceptions exist. Turritopsis dohrnii is biologically immortal but can still die from causes other than aging.

Suicide: Suicide is the intentional act of causing one's own death. Risk factors include mental disorders, physical disorders, and substance abuse. It can result from impulsivity due to stress, relationship problems, or harassment. Prior suicide attempts increase the likelihood of future attempts. Prevention efforts involve restricting access to lethal means, treating mental disorders and substance abuse, improving economic conditions, and using dialectical behaviour therapy. The effectiveness of crisis hotlines remains understudied.

Abiogenesis: Abiogenesis is the natural process where life originates from non-living materials. It involves the formation of a habitable planet, the synthesis of organic molecules, molecular self-replication, self-assembly, and the emergence of cell membranes. However, the transition from non-life to life has not been observed experimentally.

Organism: An organism is a living system composed of cells and functions as an individual life form. It is the minimal functional unit of life and possesses traits such as noncompartmentability, individuality, and distinctness. These traits involve the organism's structure, genetic uniqueness, autonomy, and open-system genetic information.

Biology: Biology is the study of life, encompassing the understanding of cells, genetics, evolution, energy processing, and organism regulation. It explores the unity and diversity of living organisms, highlighting their interconnectedness and ability to transmit hereditary information across generations.

Evolution: Evolution is the process of heritable changes in biological populations over time. It is driven by factors like natural selection and genetic drift, which act on genetic variations. As a result, certain traits become more or less common in a population over generations. This process has led to the diversity of life at all levels of biological organization.

Sense: A sense is a biological system that helps organisms gather information about the world through the detection of stimuli. While traditionally five human senses were identified, more senses are now recognized. Non-human organisms have even greater variety of senses. Sense organs collect stimuli and transform them into a form that can be understood by the brain. Sensation and perception are vital for an organism's cognition, behavior, and thought.

Paleontology: Paleontology is the scientific study of life before and during the Holocene epoch. It involves classifying organisms based on fossils and understanding their interactions in past environments. The term originated in 1822 from the Greek words for "old," "being," and "study." The field traces its history back to ancient times and gained prominence in the 18th and 19th centuries thanks to Georges Cuvier's work on comparative anatomy.

Taxonomy (biology): Taxonomy is the scientific study of naming and classifying living organisms based on their shared characteristics. It involves grouping organisms into categories called taxa and organizing them in a hierarchical manner. Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist, is considered the founder of modern taxonomy, developing a system known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorizing and naming organisms using a binomial nomenclature.

Species: A species is the largest group of organisms that can successfully reproduce and produce fertile offspring. It is an essential unit for classification, biodiversity, and understanding an organism. Species can be defined by various factors such as genetics, physical traits, behavior, or ecological role. Paleontologists rely on the concept of chronospecies when studying fossils.

Anatomy: Anatomy is the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. It is an old science with roots in prehistoric times. This branch of natural science is closely tied to developmental biology, embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology, and phylogeny. Anatomy and physiology are related disciplines that explore the structure and function of organisms and their parts. Human anatomy is a fundamental science used in medicine.

Circulatory system: The circulatory system, also known as the cardiovascular system or vascular system, is a network of organs, including the heart, blood vessels, and blood, that circulates throughout the body. It consists of two circuits: the systemic circulation, responsible for supplying oxygen and nutrients to all tissues, and the pulmonary circulation, which transports oxygen-depleted blood to the lungs for oxygenation. The terms cardiovascular and vascular systems are often used interchangeably with the circulatory system.

Blood: Blood is a crucial body fluid in humans and other vertebrates that carries nutrients and oxygen to cells and removes waste products. It is referred to as peripheral blood and contains peripheral blood cells.

Heart: The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood through blood vessels, supplying oxygen and nutrients to the body and removing metabolic waste. It is roughly the size of a closed fist and is located in the middle compartment of the chest, known as the mediastinum.

Liver: The liver is a vital organ found in vertebrate animals, including humans. It plays a crucial role in detoxification, protein synthesis, and digestion. It is located in the upper right abdomen, protected by the ribs. The liver also manages carbohydrate metabolism, hormone production, nutrient storage, and the breakdown of red blood cells.

Immune system: The immune system is a biological network that protects organisms from diseases by detecting and responding to a range of pathogens. It also recognizes and eliminates abnormal cells and objects. It has two major subsystems: the innate immune system, which has a preconfigured response to general situations, and the adaptive immune system, which learns to recognize specific molecules encountered before. Both subsystems use molecules and cells to carry out their functions.

Skin: Skin is a vital layer of tissue that covers the body of vertebrate animals. It serves three main purposes: safeguarding, regulating, and enabling sensation.

Skeletal muscle: Skeletal muscles, organs of the vertebrate muscular system, are attached to bones by tendons. They consist of long muscle cells known as fibers and have a striated appearance due to the arrangement of sarcomeres.

Nervous system: The nervous system is a complex part of an animal that coordinates actions and senses environmental changes. It consists of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (nerves). The peripheral nervous system has somatic, autonomic, and enteric subsystems. The autonomic system has sympathetic and parasympathetic branches, while the enteric system controls the gastrointestinal system. The nervous system arose about 550 to 600 million years ago in wormlike organisms. It uses motor and sensory nerves to transmit signals and is divided into cranial and spinal nerves.

Brain: The brain is a central organ in the nervous system that controls various bodily functions. It is the largest cluster of neurons in the body and is typically located in the head. The brain regulates endocrine systems, processes sensory information, controls movement, and contributes to intelligence development.

Ear: The ear is the organ responsible for hearing and body balance. It consists of three parts: the outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear. The outer ear includes the pinna and ear canal. The middle ear contains the tympanic cavity and ossicles. The inner ear contains structures like the semicircular canals, utricle, saccule, and cochlea, which enable balance, eye tracking, and hearing. The ear is self-cleaning through the production of earwax. Ears are placed symmetrically on each side of the head, aiding sound localization.

Eye: Eyes are organs that provide living organisms with vision and the ability to process visual detail. They detect and convert light into electro-chemical impulses in neurons. In higher organisms, eyes are complex systems that collect and regulate light, focus it through lenses to create images, convert images into electrical signals, and transmit these signals to the brain. Different species have various types of eyes, with image-resolving eyes found in molluscs, chordates, and arthropods.

Lung: The lungs are vital organs in the respiratory system that extract oxygen from the air and release carbon dioxide. They are located near the backbone and work to facilitate gas exchange in humans and most animals. The pleurae reduce friction during breathing, enabling effortless movement of the lungs.

Skeleton: A skeleton is a structural frame that supports the body of animals. It can be classified into three types: exoskeleton, which is a rigid outer shell; endoskeleton, a rigid internal frame; and hydroskeleton, a flexible internal structure supported by body fluids.

Bone: Bones are rigid organs found in vertebrate animals, serving to protect organs, produce blood cells, store minerals, provide support and structure, enable movement, and possess complex internal and external structures. They are lightweight, strong, and versatile, fulfilling multiple essential functions.

Flower: A flower is the reproductive structure in flowering plants. It consists of sepals to protect the flower, petals to attract pollinators, and reproductive organs that produce gametophytes. Male gametophytes produce sperm in pollen grains, while female gametophytes are contained in ovules produced in the carpels.

Fruit: A fruit is a structure in flowering plants that develops from the ovary after flowering and contains seeds.

Seed: A seed is a plant embryo and food reserve enclosed in a protective outer covering called a seed coat. It is the product of a fertilized ovule, and grows within the mother plant before growth is halted. The term "seed" can also refer to anything that can be sown, such as seed and husk or tuber.

Tree: A tree is a perennial plant with an elongated trunk that supports branches and leaves. It includes woody plants with secondary growth and those usable as lumber. Taller palm trees, tree ferns, bananas, and bamboos are also considered trees.

Physiology: Physiology is the study of how living systems function and their mechanisms. It explores the chemical and physical processes carried out by organisms, organs, cells, and biomolecules. This field can be divided into medical, animal, plant, cell, and comparative physiology based on classes of organisms.

Digestion: Digestion is the process of breaking down large food compounds into smaller, water-soluble components that can be absorbed into the bloodstream. It involves two main processes: mechanical digestion, which physically breaks down food, and chemical digestion, where enzymes break down food into usable compounds. Absorption of these smaller substances occurs primarily in the small intestine.

Metabolism: Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions in organisms that converts food into energy for cellular processes, builds proteins and other molecules, and eliminates waste. It allows organisms to grow, reproduce, and respond to their environment. This term can also encompass all the chemical reactions in living organisms, including digestion and transportation between cells.

Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is a process used by organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy stored in organic compounds. It produces oxygen and stores energy in carbohydrate molecules. Most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis and are called photoautotrophs. This process is responsible for maintaining Earth's oxygen levels and providing energy for complex life.

Reproduction: Reproduction is the process of creating new organisms from existing ones. It can be either asexual or sexual.

Sex: Sex is the trait that determines whether an organism produces male or female reproductive cells. Through sexual reproduction, these cells fuse to form an offspring that inherits traits from both parents. Organisms producing small, mobile gametes are called male, while those producing larger, non-mobile gametes are called female. Some organisms, like certain plants, can produce both types of gametes and are called hermaphrodites.

Pregnancy: Pregnancy is when offspring develop inside a woman's uterus. It can involve multiple offspring, like twins.

Biochemistry: Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes in living organisms, involving the fields of structural biology, enzymology, and metabolism. It explains living processes and contributes to understanding tissues, organs, and organism structure and function. It is closely connected to molecular biology and uses biochemical methods to uncover and develop all areas of life sciences.

Carbohydrate: Carbohydrates are biomolecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, with an empirical formula of Cm(H2O)n. They have a hydrogen-oxygen atom ratio of 2:1. However, some carbohydrates may not strictly follow this stoichiometric definition, and not all chemicals that do are classified as carbohydrates.

Hormone: Hormones are signaling molecules that regulate physiology and behavior in multicellular organisms. They are crucial for the proper development of animals, plants, and fungi. Various molecules, including eicosanoids, steroids, amino acid derivatives, proteins or peptides, and gases, can be classified as hormones.

Lipid: Lipids are diverse organic compounds, including fats, waxes, and sterols. They serve as energy stores, cell membrane components, and signaling molecules. Lipids find applications in cosmetics, food, and nanotechnology.

DNA: DNA is a double helix polymer that carries genetic instructions for organisms and viruses. It is one of the four major macromolecules crucial for all life, along with proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.

RNA: RNA is a vital molecule involved in various biological functions. It serves as a template for protein production and is crucial for all forms of life. It consists of nucleotides linked together, and messenger RNA conveys genetic information for protein synthesis. Additionally, some viruses utilize RNA as their genetic material.

Protein: Proteins are large biomolecules made up of amino acids. They have diverse functions, including catalyzing reactions, replicating DNA, responding to stimuli, providing structure, and transporting molecules. Each protein has a unique sequence of amino acids determined by its genes, and this sequence shapes its 3D structure and activity.

Molecular biology: Molecular biology is a field of biology studying the molecular foundation of biological processes within and between cells. It investigates vital aspects such as biomolecule synthesis, modification, mechanisms, and interactions.

Zoology: Zoology, derived from Ancient Greek, is the scientific study of animals. It encompasses the examination of animal structure, embryology, classification, habits, and distribution, including both living and extinct species. Zoology explores animal interactions within their ecosystems and is a significant branch of biology.

Animal: Animals are multicellular organisms in the Animalia kingdom. They breathe oxygen, consume organic material, have myocytes for movement, reproduce sexually, and develop from a blastula during embryonic growth.

Intelligence: Intelligence is the multifaceted ability to understand, learn, reason, solve problems, and apply knowledge creatively. It involves perceiving and retaining information for adaptive behavior within a given context.

Sleep: Sleep is a altered state of reduced activity where consciousness and sensory activity are hindered. It involves decreased muscle activity and interaction with the environment. While less responsive than wakefulness, sleep still exhibits active brain patterns, setting it apart from coma or disorders of consciousness.

Botany: Botany, also known as plant science, is the scientific study of plant life and is a branch of biology. It involves the examination of various plant species by experts called botanists or plant scientists. The term "botany" comes from an Ancient Greek word meaning pasture, herbs, grass, or fodder, which is derived from a word meaning to feed or graze. While traditionally including fungi and algae, botany now mainly focuses on around 410,000 species of land plants, including vascular plants and bryophytes.

Plant: Plants are eukaryotes in the kingdom Plantae, primarily photosynthetic. They derive energy from sunlight using chloroplasts and chlorophyll. However, parasitic plants lack chlorophyll and photosynthesis genes, obtaining energy from other plants or fungi.

Cell (biology): A cell is the fundamental unit of life, comprising of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane. It contains macromolecules like proteins, DNA, RNA, and various small molecules. The term originates from the Latin word cellula meaning 'small room'.

Ecology: Ecology is the study of living organisms and their relationship with the environment. It explores individuals, populations, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere. Ecology is closely related to biogeography, evolutionary biology, genetics, ethology, and natural history.

Biodiversity: Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth, encompassing genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity. It is not evenly distributed, with higher levels found in the tropics and marine ecosystems along coasts in the Western Pacific. Biodiversity tends to cluster in hotspots and has been increasing historically, but deforestation poses a threat to its future. It encompasses the processes that sustain life, including evolution, ecology, and culture.

Ecosystem: An ecosystem is a system where environments and organisms interact. Biotic and abiotic components are connected through nutrient cycles and energy flows.

Extinction: Extinction refers to the complete extinction of a group of organisms when its last member dies. In some cases, a group may become functionally extinct if it loses the ability to reproduce and recover. Determining the exact moment of extinction is challenging and often done retrospectively. This difficulty has led to instances like Lazarus taxa, where a species reappears unexpectedly after being presumed extinct.

Genetics: Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms. It explores how traits are inherited and passed down from parents to offspring. Gregor Mendel, a 19th-century friar, was the first to scientifically study genetics. He discovered that traits are inherited through discrete units called genes, which remain a fundamental concept in genetics today.

Gene: In biology, a gene is both a basic unit of heredity and a sequence of nucleotides in DNA. Genes can be categorized into two types: protein-coding genes and non-coding genes.

Heredity: Heredity refers to the transfer of traits from parents to offspring through asexual or sexual reproduction, whereby offspring acquire genetic information from their parents. This process leads to genetic variations that can accumulate and drive species evolution through natural selection. The field of genetics studies heredity in biology.

Natural selection: Natural selection is the process by which individuals with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, resulting in the genetic characteristics of a population changing over time. It is a fundamental part of evolution and was first introduced by Charles Darwin. Unlike artificial selection, natural selection occurs without intentional human intervention.

Human evolution: Human evolution is the process that led to Homo sapiens, a distinct species within the hominid family. It involved the development of traits like bipedalism, dexterity, and complex language. Human evolution was not linear but involved interbreeding with other hominins. The study of human origins, called anthropogeny, involves disciplines like physical anthropology, evolutionary anthropology, paleontology, and genetics.

Arthropod: Arthropods are invertebrates with an exoskeleton made of chitin. They have a segmented body and jointed appendages. The process of moulting allows them to grow. With over 10 million species, they are a highly diverse group.

Mammal: Mammals are vertebrate animals with milk-producing mammary glands, a neocortex in the brain, fur or hair, and three middle ear bones. They differ from reptiles and birds and have over 6,400 described species divided into 29 orders. Mammals evolved over 300 million years ago from ancestors in the Carboniferous Period.

Dog: The dog is a domesticated mammal descended from the wolf. It was the first species to be domesticated over 15,000 years ago by hunter-gatherers in Oberkassel, Bonn. Dogs have a close relationship with humans and have adapted to thrive on a starch-rich diet.

Cat: The cat, a domesticated species in the Felidae family, originated in the Near East around 7500 BC. It is commonly kept as a house pet or farm cat, but can also live as a feral cat. Valued for companionship and hunting vermin, it has retractable claws and is skilled at killing small prey. With a strong body, quick reflexes, sharp teeth, and enhanced night vision and smell, cats are solitary hunters and active during dusk and dawn. They communicate through various vocalizations and body language, and possess exceptional hearing and the ability to sense pheromones.

Cattle: Cattle are domesticated, large ungulates that belong to the subfamily Bovinae. They are widespread and prominent members of the genus Bos. Bulls are mature males, cows are mature females, and young cattle are often colloquially referred to as cows, including heifers, bullocks, and steers.

Sheep: Sheep are domesticated ruminant mammals commonly kept as livestock. They belong to the order Artiodactyla and are the most numerous species of sheep, with over one billion individuals. In everyday usage, the term sheep usually refers to domesticated sheep, although it can also include other species in the genus Ovis. They have different names depending on their gender and age: adult females are called ewes, intact males are rams or occasionally tups, castrated males are wethers, and young sheep are lambs.

Pig: The pig, also known as swine or hog, is a domesticated mammal that belongs to the genus Sus. It is an omnivore and has a long, pointed head. Adult pigs can weigh between 50 and 350 kg, but some well-fed individuals can exceed this range. They are distinct from other even-toed ungulates because of their omnivorous diet. Pigs make grunting and snorting sounds.

Horse: The horse is a domesticated mammal belonging to the Equidae family. It has one toe and has evolved over millions of years into the large, single-toed animal we know today. Humans began domesticating horses around 4000 BCE, and by 3000 BCE, it was widespread. While some domesticated horses live in the wild, true wild horses have never been domesticated. The equine world has a specialized vocabulary to describe various aspects of horses, including their anatomy, life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior.

Primate: Primates are a diverse order of mammals, divided into strepsirrhines (lemurs, galagos, and lorisids) and haplorhines (tarsiers and simians). They arose 85–55 million years ago from small terrestrial mammals, adapting to life in tropical forests. Key primate characteristics include large brains, sharp vision, color perception, flexible shoulder joints, and dexterous hands. They vary greatly in size, from a 30g mouse lemur to a 200kg eastern gorilla. There are currently 376–524 known primate species, with new discoveries continuing into the present day.

Human: Humans, or modern humans, are bipedal primates with large brains and advanced cognitive skills. They thrive and adapt in diverse environments, using complex tools and forming intricate social structures. Humans are highly social, belonging to various cooperating or competing groups, from families to political states. They possess a strong curiosity, driving advancements in science, technology, philosophy, and religion. With more than 8 billion currently alive, humans are the most widespread and common species.

Rodent: Rodents, members of the order Rodentia, are mammals with continuously growing incisors in their upper and lower jaws. They make up about 40% of all mammal species and are found on all major land masses, except New Zealand, Antarctica, and some oceanic islands. Humans have introduced rodents to most of these areas.

Bird: Birds are warm-blooded vertebrates with feathers, toothless beaked jaws, and the ability to lay hard-shelled eggs. They have a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a lightweight yet strong skeleton. Birds can be found worldwide, varying in size from the tiny bee hummingbird to the large common ostrich. There are over 11,000 living species, with more than half being perching birds. Wings, developed from forelimbs, enable most birds to fly, although flight is lost in certain species. Digestive and respiratory systems of birds are adapted for flight, and some species have further adapted for swimming in aquatic environments. The study of birds is known as ornithology.

Chicken: Chickens are a domesticated species descended from red junglefowl in Southeast Asia. They hybridize with other junglefowl species. Adult males are called roosters or cocks, while younger males are cockerels and castrated males are capons. Adult females are hens and immature females are pullets. Humans keep chickens for food or as pets. They were historically bred for cockfighting and are still used in some areas. Chickens bred for meat are broilers, while those bred for eggs are layers.

Reptile: Reptiles are tetrapods with cold-blooded metabolism and amniotic development. They include turtles, crocodilians, squamates, and rhynchocephalians. The Reptile Database lists around 12,000 living species. The study of reptiles, along with amphibians, is known as herpetology.

Dinosaur: Dinosaurs are a reptile group that appeared over 200 million years ago and became the main land-dwelling animals after a major extinction event. Birds are considered feathered dinosaurs, evolving from theropods in the Late Jurassic. This makes birds the only surviving dinosaur lineage, while all other dinosaurs are now extinct.

Amphibian: Amphibians are a class of vertebrate animals that are ectothermic and have four limbs. They are a diverse group, excluding amniotes, and are mostly found in freshwater, wetland, or terrestrial habitats. They belong to the subclass Lissamphibia, consisting of three orders: frogs, salamanders, and caecilians. Amphibians undergo a life cycle that starts as aquatic larvae called tadpoles, although some species have adapted to skip this stage.

Fish: A fish is an aquatic animal with gills, lacking limbs with digits. This includes various species such as hagfish, lampreys, cartilaginous and bony fish, as well as extinct related groups. Most fish species (95%) are ray-finned and belong to the class Actinopterygii, with teleosts accounting for the majority (99%) of these.

Insect: Insects, part of class Insecta, are the largest group in the phylum Arthropoda. They have a chitinous exoskeleton, three-part body, three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and a pair of antennae. Insects are incredibly diverse, with over a million described species, making up more than half of all animal species.

Mollusca: Mollusca is the second-largest phylum in the animal kingdom, comprising mollusks. There are around 76,000 known living species and an estimated 60,000 to 100,000 fossil species. The proportion of undescribed species is considerably high, leaving many taxa poorly studied.

Maize: Maize, commonly known as corn, is a tall grass that produces cereal grain. It was domesticated in southern Mexico 9,000 years ago. Native Americans cultivated it in the Three Sisters polyculture with beans and squashes. Maize has male tassels that produce pollen and female ears that yield kernels. Modern varieties are usually yellow or white, but other colors exist.

Rice: Rice is a cereal grain that is the main food source for over half of the world's population, predominantly in Asia and Africa. It originated in China and Africa thousands of years ago. In 2021, 787 million tons of rice were produced, making it the fourth most cultivated crop globally. China, India, and Indonesia are the largest rice consumers. Losses occur after harvest due to poor transportation and storage. Pests, diseases, and weeds can harm rice yields, but sustainable practices like rice-duck farming and integrated pest management help manage these issues.

Wheat: Wheat is a widely cultivated grass known for its cereal grain, which is a common staple food worldwide. It belongs to the genus Triticum, with common wheat being the most popular species. Archaeological evidence points to its cultivation beginning around 9600 BC in the Fertile Crescent region. Botanically, the wheat kernel is classified as a caryopsis, a type of fruit.

Soybean: The soybean, also known as soy or soya, is a legume native to East Asia. It is extensively cultivated for its versatile and edible beans that serve various purposes.

Potato: The potato is a starchy vegetable consumed worldwide as a staple food. It is a tuber of the Solanum tuberosum plant, belonging to the Solanaceae family.

Fungus: Fungi are eukaryotic microorganisms found in the same kingdom as animals, plants, and some other microorganisms. They include yeasts, molds, and mushrooms.

Archaea: Archaea is a domain of single-celled microorganisms that lack cell nuclei, making them prokaryotes. Initially considered bacteria, they were called archaebacteria but this term is no longer used.

Bacteria: Bacteria are single-celled organisms that are found everywhere on Earth. They were among the first life forms and can survive in various environments. Bacteria play a vital role in recycling nutrients and fixing nitrogen. They decompose dead bodies and provide nutrients in extreme environments. Bacteria can live in relationships with plants and animals. Many species of bacteria remain uncharacterized and cannot be grown in a lab. Bacteriology is the study of bacteria.

Eukaryote: Eukaryotes are organisms with cells that contain a nucleus surrounded by a membrane. They include animals, plants, fungi, and many unicellular organisms. Eukaryotes are a major group of life forms, outnumbered by prokaryotes but having a larger global biomass due to their larger size.

Algae: Algae refers to a diverse group of photosynthetic organisms that range from unicellular microalgae to large multicellular forms like seaweeds. They can be found in various aquatic habitats and do not possess some specialized structures present in land plants. Phytoplankton, including microalgae, are considered as waterborne algae.

Medicine: Medicine is a science and practice that cares for patients by diagnosing, treating, preventing, and managing diseases and injuries. It encompasses various healthcare practices, including biomedical research and technology. These methods utilize pharmaceuticals, surgery, psychotherapy, medical devices, and radiation, among others, to restore and maintain health.

Nursing: Nursing is a healthcare profession dedicated to helping individuals, families, and communities achieve and maintain optimal health. Nurses have a unique approach to patient care and receive specialized training. They work in various specialties and often collaborate with other healthcare providers. Nurse practitioners, who have advanced degrees, can prescribe medication and practice independently in some parts of the US. The field of nursing has evolved to include advanced credentials and roles, reflecting changing healthcare needs.

Hospital: A hospital is a healthcare institution that provides specialized treatment with medical staff, equipment, and auxiliary healthcare. General hospitals have emergency departments for urgent health problems while district hospitals are major healthcare facilities with intensive care beds. Specialized hospitals include trauma centers, rehabilitation hospitals, children's hospitals, geriatric hospitals, and those treating specific medical needs. They can help reduce healthcare costs. Hospitals are classified as general, specialty, or government based on income sources.

Anesthesia: Anesthesia is a controlled, temporary loss of sensation or awareness induced for medical purposes. It involves analgesia, paralysis, amnesia, and unconsciousness. Those under its effects are referred to as anesthetized.

Surgery: Surgery is a medical practice that involves using manual or instrumental techniques to investigate and treat diseases, injuries, or alter bodily functions. It can also enhance appearance and remove unwanted tissues or foreign bodies. It is typically performed on humans but can include non-human animals.

Human body: The human body is made up of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to maintain a stable internal environment (homeostasis). These systems ensure the body's overall well-being and functionality.

Dentistry: Dentistry is a medical field that focuses on the study, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases and conditions of the teeth, gums, and mouth. It also includes the management of the oral mucosa and the temporomandibular joint. Dentists are the practitioners in this field.

Drug: A drug is a chemical substance that alters an organism's physiology, including psychology. It differs from food and other substances that provide nutrition. Drugs can be consumed through various methods such as inhalation, injection, smoking, ingestion, absorption, suppository, or dissolution under the tongue.

Medication: Medication is a drug that diagnoses, cures, treats, or prevents disease. It plays a pivotal role in medicine, specifically in drug therapy, where pharmacology and pharmacy drive advancements and ensure proper management.

Antibiotic: Antibiotics are antimicrobial substances used to fight bacterial infections. They either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria, making them important in treatment and prevention. However, they are ineffective against viruses and fungi, which require specific antiviral and antifungal drugs.

Vaccine: A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides immunity to specific infectious or malignant diseases. It contains a harmless version of the disease-causing agent, which triggers the immune system to recognize and destroy the real agent and any related microorganisms encountered in the future. Vaccines' safety and effectiveness have been extensively researched and confirmed.

Disease: A disease is an abnormal condition that negatively impacts an organism's structure or function. It is not caused by external injury but can be due to factors like pathogens or internal dysfunctions. Diseases are medical conditions with specific signs and symptoms. Internal dysfunctions of the immune system can lead to different diseases, including immunodeficiency, allergies, and autoimmune disorders.

Allergy: Allergies are hypersensitivity conditions caused by the immune system reacting to harmless substances. They include hay fever, food allergies, skin conditions, asthma, and severe reactions. Symptoms can include red eyes, rash, sneezing, coughing, runny nose, difficulty breathing, or swelling. Food intolerances and food poisoning are separate conditions.

Asthma: Asthma is a chronic lung disease characterized by inflammation and obstruction of the airways. Symptoms include wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and shortness of breath, which can occur frequently or intermittently. It may worsen at night or during exercise.

Cardiovascular disease: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) refers to a broad range of conditions affecting the heart and blood vessels. It includes diseases like coronary artery disease, heart failure, hypertension, rheumatic heart disease, and more. CVDs can encompass conditions related to the heart, blood vessels, and various heart abnormalities.

Diabetes: Diabetes, or diabetes mellitus, is a group of endocrine diseases causing high blood sugar levels. It is caused by insufficient insulin production or cells not responding to insulin. Common symptoms include thirst, frequent urination, weight loss, and blurred vision. If untreated, it can lead to various health complications, including cardiovascular disorders, eye and kidney problems, and nerve damage. Untreated or poorly treated diabetes causes around 1.5 million deaths annually.

Injury: Injury refers to physiological damage in living organisms, across humans, animals, and plants.

Stroke: A stroke is a serious medical condition where lack of blood flow to the brain causes cell death, leading to impaired brain function. It can be classified into two main types: ischemic (caused by insufficient blood flow) and hemorrhagic (caused by bleeding). Both types result in specific areas of the brain failing to work properly.

Cancer: Cancer is a disease characterized by abnormal cell growth that can invade and spread in the body. Unlike benign tumors, cancer spreads. Signs may include lumps, abnormal bleeding, prolonged cough, weight loss, and changes in bowel movements. These symptoms can indicate cancer or other causes. Humans can be affected by over 100 types of cancer.

Infection: An infection is when harmful pathogens invade and multiply in tissues, leading to a reaction by the host's tissues to the infectious agent and its toxins. It can cause an infectious disease, which is a communicable illness resulting from an infection.

Virus: A virus is a tiny infectious agent that can only reproduce within living cells. They infect all forms of life, including animals, plants, and microorganisms. Viruses are abundant in all ecosystems and are the most prevalent biological entity. Over 11,000 virus species have been extensively studied since their initial discovery in the late 19th century. The study of viruses is known as virology, a specialized field within microbiology.

Sexually transmitted infection: A Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI), also known as a Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) or venereal disease (VD), is an infection spread through sexual activity. Common forms of transmission include vaginal, anal, oral, or manual sex. STIs often don't show symptoms initially, making it easy to spread the infection unknowingly. Symptoms can include vaginal or penile discharge, genital ulcers, and pelvic pain. Infertility can occur with certain STIs.

Gastroenteritis: Gastroenteritis, also known as infectious diarrhea or gastro, is inflammation of the stomach and intestines. It causes symptoms such as diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and can also lead to fever, fatigue, and dehydration. The condition typically lasts less than two weeks and is sometimes referred to as "stomach flu" in the U.S.

Pneumonia: Pneumonia is an inflammatory lung condition impacting small air sacs called alveoli. It causes symptoms like cough, chest pain, fever, and breathing difficulties. The severity of pneumonia varies.

Tuberculosis: Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria. It primarily affects the lungs but can also target other parts of the body. Many infections have no symptoms, called latent TB, but about 10% progress to active disease. Symptoms of active TB include chronic cough with bloody phlegm, fever, night sweats, and weight loss. Infection in other organs may cause various symptoms. Left untreated, TB can be fatal for about half of those affected.

Common cold: The common cold is a viral infection that primarily affects the upper respiratory tract. Symptoms, which can appear within two days of exposure, include coughing, sore throat, runny nose, sneezing, headache, and fever. Recovery usually takes about 7-10 days, but some symptoms may last up to three weeks. Pneumonia may develop in individuals with pre-existing health conditions.

HIV/AIDS: HIV is a retrovirus that can cause AIDS. Treatment can manage HIV, but without it, a range of conditions can develop, including AIDS.

Influenza: Influenza, also known as the flu, is an infectious disease caused by flu viruses. Symptoms range from mild to severe, including fever, runny nose, sore throat, muscle pain, headache, coughing, and fatigue. These symptoms usually appear 1-4 days after exposure and last around 2-8 days. In children, diarrhea and vomiting may occur. Influenza can lead to pneumonia or worsen pre-existing health problems like asthma and cardiovascular disease. Other complications may include acute respiratory distress syndrome, meningitis, and encephalitis.

Smallpox: Smallpox was caused by the variola virus and belonged to the Orthopoxvirus genus. It was eradicated in 1980 after the last known case in October 1977, making it the only human disease to be globally eradicated.

Malaria: Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease that affects humans and other vertebrates. It causes symptoms like fever, fatigue, vomiting, and headaches. Severe cases can lead to jaundice, seizures, coma, or death. Symptoms usually appear 10-15 days after a mosquito bite and recurrence is possible if not properly treated. Recent survivors usually experience milder symptoms upon reinfection, but partial resistance fades without ongoing exposure.

Mental disorder: A mental disorder, also known as a mental illness or psychiatric disorder, is a behavioral or mental pattern that causes distress and impairs personal functioning. It is characterized by significant disturbances in cognition, emotional regulation, or behavior, occurring as single episodes or persistently. There are various types of mental disorders with unique signs and symptoms, all of which are part of mental health.

Health: Health refers to the state of well-being, with various definitions used for different purposes. It can be enhanced by promoting healthy habits like exercise and quality sleep while avoiding unhealthy behaviors like smoking and excessive stress. Some health factors stem from personal choices, while others are influenced by societal structures and access to healthcare services. Genetic disorders also play a role in individual and collective health.

Mental health: Mental health refers to the overall well-being of an individual, encompassing emotional, psychological, and social aspects. It affects cognition, perception, behavior, and the ability to cope with stress and maintain relationships. It involves subjective well-being, self-efficacy, autonomy, competence, and the realization of one's potential. Mental health also includes the ability to enjoy life and achieve psychological resilience. Cultural differences, personal philosophy, and subjective assessments impact how it is defined. Early signs of mental health difficulties include sleep problems, lack of energy, appetite changes, thoughts of self-harm or harm to others, social withdrawal, and zoning out frequently.

Exercise: Exercise is intentional physical activity for improving or maintaining fitness and overall health.

Obesity: Obesity is a medical condition where excessive body fat accumulates, potentially harming health. It is determined by a body mass index (BMI) over 30 kg/m2, with a range of 25-30 kg/m2 considered overweight. Obesity is associated with various health issues, including cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, sleep apnea, cancer, and osteoarthritis.

Ageing: Ageing, the process of becoming older, primarily affects humans, animals, and fungi. Some organisms like bacteria, perennial plants, and certain simple animals may be biologically immortal. Ageing can also refer to individual cells that have stopped dividing or to the entire population of a species.

Nutrition: Nutrition is the process of using food to sustain life, providing organisms with nutrients for energy and chemical structures. Lack of adequate nutrients leads to malnutrition. Nutritional science focuses on studying nutrition, primarily human nutrition.

Addiction: Addiction is a disorder characterized by a strong desire to use drugs or engage in rewarding behavior, despite harmful consequences. Continued drug use can alter brain function and weaken self-control. Addiction is considered a brain disorder with various psychological and biological factors involved. Common signs include compulsive behavior, preoccupation, and continued use despite negative outcomes. Addictive habits often bring immediate pleasure but can have delayed negative effects.

Alcoholism: Alcoholism, or the problematic use of alcohol, refers to the persistent consumption of alcohol despite negative consequences. It has been recognized throughout history and continues to affect a significant number of people worldwide. The term "alcoholism" was coined in 1852, but alternative clinical terms like "alcohol use disorder" are now preferred to reduce stigma and encourage treatment-seeking behavior.

Smoking: Smoking is the act of inhaling combusted substances, mainly tobacco leaves rolled into cigarettes, to introduce the smoke into the bloodstream. Other methods involve smoking pipes and bongs.

Hygiene: Hygiene is a practice aimed at safeguarding health and preventing diseases. It encompasses various types, such as personal, medical, sleep, and food hygiene. Personal hygiene includes maintaining body cleanliness, while medical hygiene is practiced at home. Home and everyday hygiene involve tasks like hand washing, respiratory hygiene, and maintaining cleanliness in the kitchen and bathroom. Additionally, food hygiene at home and laundry hygiene are essential for maintaining health.

Science: Science is a rigorous endeavor that organizes knowledge through testable explanations and predictions about the world. It is divided into natural sciences (physical world), social sciences (individuals and societies), and formal sciences (formal systems). Some debate exists about whether formal sciences are scientific disciplines, as they lack empirical evidence. Applied sciences, such as engineering and medicine, utilize scientific knowledge for practical purposes.

Nature: Nature is the fundamental character of the ecosphere and the universe. It encompasses the laws, elements, and phenomena of the physical world, including life. While humans are part of nature, their activities can sometimes conflict with or be seen as separate from nature.

Scientific method: The scientific method is a systematic way of acquiring knowledge through careful observation, skepticism, hypothesis formulation, testability, experimentation, and refinement. It has been crucial in the development of science since the 17th century, allowing for unbiased interpretation of observations.

Measurement: Measurement is the quantification of attributes for comparison with other objects or events. It determines the size of a physical quantity using a reference point. Its scope varies depending on the context and discipline. In natural sciences and engineering, measurements don't apply to nominal properties. However, in fields like statistics and social sciences, measurements can have different levels, including nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales.

International System of Units: The International System of Units (SI) is a widely used system of measurement, coordinated by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. It is the modern form of the metric system and has official status in nearly every country worldwide. SI is employed in science, technology, industry, and everyday commerce.

Day: A day is the 24-hour period corresponding to a complete rotation of the Earth around the Sun. It includes morning, noon, afternoon, evening, and night, shaping the circadian rhythms in various organisms and impacting essential life processes.

Year: A year represents the duration needed for celestial objects to complete an orbit. On Earth, it corresponds to the time taken for Earth to revolve around the Sun. Besides referring to a calendar year, the term encompasses various periods related to the calendar or astronomy, like seasonal, fiscal, and academic years. Additionally, it can denote any lengthy cycle, such as the Great Year.

Astronomy: Astronomy is a natural science that explores celestial objects and phenomena in the cosmos. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry to study the origin and evolution of planets, stars, galaxies, and more. This includes supernovas, gamma ray bursts, quasars, and cosmic microwave background radiation. Cosmology, a subset of astronomy, studies the entire universe.

Solar System: The Solar System is composed of the Sun and its orbiting objects, including eight planets categorized into four terrestrial planets, two gas giants, and two ice giants. It originated 4.6 billion years ago from the collapse of a dense molecular cloud, resulting in the formation of the Sun and a protoplanetary disc.

Sun: The Sun is a massive hot star at the center of the Solar System. It produces energy through fusion reactions at its core and emits light, ultraviolet, and infrared radiation. This radiation provides the majority of Earth's energy for life. The Sun functions as a magneto-alternator.

Mercury (planet): Mercury is the smallest planet closest to the Sun. It has a heavily cratered surface with no geological activity. Despite its small size, it has a similar surface gravity to Mars. Mercury has a thin atmosphere called an exosphere and a weak magnetic field. It also lacks any natural satellites.

Venus: Venus, the second planet from the Sun, is known for its dense atmosphere and volcanic surface. With a diameter similar to Earth's, this terrestrial planet boasts 167 volcanoes over 100 km wide. Its atmosphere is so dense that it becomes a supercritical fluid at surface level and 92 atmospheres.

Earth: Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only one known to have life. It is a water world, with a global ocean covering 70.8% of its surface. The remaining 29.2% is land, mostly in the form of continental landmasses. Earth's land is humid and covered in vegetation, while polar ice sheets hold more water than all other sources combined. Tectonic plates create mountains, volcanoes, and earthquakes. Earth has a liquid outer core that produces a protective magnetosphere against solar winds and cosmic radiation.

Moon: The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite, orbiting at an average distance of 384,400 km. Its rotation is locked to Earth, resulting in a lunar day matching the lunar month of 29.5 Earth days. The Moon's gravitational pull, along with the Sun's, drives the tides.

Mars: Mars, the fourth planet from the Sun, is known as the Red Planet due to its orange-red surface covered in iron(III) oxide dust. It boasts massive extinct volcanoes and one of the largest canyons in the Solar System. With a diameter of 6,779 km (4,212 mi), Mars is the second smallest terrestrial planet in our Solar System.

Jupiter: Jupiter is the largest planet in our Solar System and orbits the Sun at a distance of 5.20 AU. It has a mass greater than all the planets combined and is about one one-thousandth the mass of the Sun. Jupiter is the third brightest object in the night sky and has been observed since ancient times. It was named after the chief Roman god, Jupiter.

Saturn: Saturn, the second-largest planet in our Solar System, is a gas giant located sixth from the Sun. With an average radius almost 9.5 times that of Earth, it's significantly less dense but over 95 times more massive.

Uranus: Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun, known for its gaseous composition and cyan color. It is primarily made up of water, ammonia, and methane in an ice-like state. The planet has a complex cloud structure and the coldest minimum temperature among all Solar System planets. With its unique axial tilt of 82.23° and retrograde rotation rate of 17 hours, Uranus experiences extreme seasons where its poles go through 42 years of continuous sunlight followed by 42 years of darkness during its 84-year orbit around the Sun.

Neptune: Neptune is the eighth and farthest planet from the Sun. It is the fourth-largest and third-most-massive planet in the Solar System. Being denser and smaller than its near-twin Uranus, Neptune has no well-defined solid surface. It orbits the Sun every 164.8 years at a distance of 30.1 astronomical units. Named after the Roman god of the sea, Neptune's symbol is a trident.

Milky Way: The Milky Way is our galaxy, visible as a hazy band of light in the night sky. Its name is a translation of Latin and Greek terms meaning "milky circle." Galileo first saw individual stars within this band in 1610. Before the 1920s, people believed that the Milky Way contained all the stars in the Universe, but Edwin Hubble proved that it is just one of many galaxies.

Orbit: An orbit is the curved path an object follows around another object in space. This can include planets orbiting a star, satellites orbiting a planet or moon, or artificial satellites orbiting any celestial body. Orbits can be regular or irregular, but most planets and satellites follow elliptical orbits around a focal point determined by the center of mass. Kepler's laws explain their motion.

Planet: A planet is a large astronomical body that forms from interstellar clouds and grows through material accumulation. The Solar System has eight planets, including terrestrial and giant ones. Planets rotate around an axis and possess atmospheres, ice caps, seasons, and natural satellites. They also have magnetic fields, except for Venus and Mercury. The giant planets have planetary rings, with Saturn's rings being the most prominent.

Asteroid: An asteroid is a minor planet without an atmosphere that orbits the inner Solar System. They come in various sizes, from meter-sized rocks to dwarf planets nearly 1000 km wide. Asteroids can be rocky, metallic, or icy in composition.

Natural satellite: A natural satellite is an astronomical body that orbits a planet or other celestial object. They are commonly known as moons, like the Moon of Earth.

Comet: A comet is a small Solar System body that warms and releases gases when it approaches the Sun, creating an extended atmosphere called a coma and sometimes a tail of gas and dust. These effects are caused by solar radiation and the solar wind acting upon the comet's icy nucleus composed of ice, dust, and rocks. Comets can be seen from Earth without a telescope if they are close and bright enough, and they have been observed and recorded since ancient times.

Star: A star is a self-gravitating luminous object made of plasma. The Sun is the closest star to Earth. While many stars can be seen with the naked eye, their distance makes them appear as fixed points of light. Prominent stars are categorized into constellations and asterisms and often have proper names. Astronomers create star catalogues to identify and classify known stars. The observable universe contains an estimated 1-10 trillion trillion stars, with only about 4,000 visible to the naked eye within the Milky Way galaxy.

Supernova: A supernova is a massive explosion that occurs when a star collapses or undergoes runaway nuclear fusion. It results in the formation of a neutron star or black hole, or the complete destruction of the star. Supernovae exhibit extremely bright optical luminosity, comparable to entire galaxies, before gradually fading over weeks or months.

Outer space: Outer space is the vast expanse beyond celestial bodies and their atmosphere. It is not empty, but instead contains a low density of particles such as hydrogen, helium, electromagnetic radiation, magnetic fields, neutrinos, dust, and cosmic rays. Its baseline temperature, set by the background radiation from the Big Bang, is 2.7 kelvins.

Galaxy: A galaxy is a system of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter held together by gravity. The term comes from the Greek word for "milky," referring to our own Milky Way galaxy. Galaxies vary greatly in size, from dwarfs to supergiants with trillions of stars. Most of a galaxy's mass is in the form of invisible dark matter. Supermassive black holes are frequently found at galaxy centers.

Black hole: A black hole is a region in space where gravity is incredibly strong, not allowing anything, including light, to escape. It forms when a mass becomes compact enough, deforming spacetime. The boundary where nothing can escape is called the event horizon. Black holes have no detectable features and act like ideal black bodies, reflecting no light. Additionally, they emit Hawking radiation with a temperature inversely proportional to their mass, making direct observation practically impossible.

Physical cosmology: Physical cosmology is a branch of science that studies cosmological models to understand the structure, dynamics, origin, evolution, and fate of the universe. It emerged from the Copernican principle and Newtonian mechanics, which helped understand the laws governing celestial bodies.

Universe: The universe is all of space and time, including everything that exists from sub-atomic particles to galaxies. It emerged from the Big Bang about 13.787 billion years ago and has been expanding ever since. The observable universe is about 93 billion light-years in diameter, but the size of the entire universe is unknown.

Big Bang: The Big Bang is a theory that explains the expansion of the universe from a dense and hot initial state. Proposed by Georges Lemaître in 1927, it offers comprehensive explanations for various observed phenomena. These include the abundance of light elements, the cosmic microwave background radiation, and the large-scale structure of the universe. Cosmic inflation helps explain the overall uniformity of the universe. However, the earliest conditions of the Big Bang lack a widely accepted theory of quantum gravity.

Chemistry: Chemistry is the study of matter, its properties, behavior, composition, and changes during reactions. It explores elements, compounds, atoms, molecules, ions, and chemical bonds.

Inorganic chemistry: Inorganic chemistry focuses on the behavior and synthesis of compounds that are not carbon-based. While it overlaps with organic chemistry in organometallic chemistry, it has diverse applications in areas like catalysis, materials science, pigments, medications, fuels, and agriculture.

Organic chemistry: Organic chemistry is a branch of chemistry that studies the structure, properties, and reactions of compounds containing carbon atoms. It includes analyzing their structural formula, physical and chemical properties, and behavior. This field involves synthesizing natural products, drugs, and polymers, as well as studying individual organic molecules in labs and through theoretical research.

Physical chemistry: Physical chemistry is the branch of science that investigates chemical systems using the principles of physics. It analyzes both large and small-scale phenomena, exploring motion, energy, force, time, thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics, dynamics, and chemical equilibria.

Chemical bond: A chemical bond is a lasting attraction between atoms or ions that enables the formation of molecules and other structures. It can be formed through the electrostatic force between oppositely charged ions (ionic bond) or the sharing of electrons (covalent bond). Chemical bonds can be strong (covalent, ionic, metallic) or weak (dipole-dipole, London dispersion, hydrogen bonding).

Periodic table: The Periodic Table is a fundamental tool in chemistry, used in various sciences, that organizes the chemical elements into rows and columns. It represents the periodic law, showing that elements' properties recur as atomic numbers increase. The table is divided into four blocks, and elements within the same group exhibit similar chemical characteristics.

Metal: Metal is a lustrous material that conducts electricity and heat well. It is also ductile and malleable due to the metallic bond between its atoms or molecules.

Chemical reaction: A chemical reaction is a process that transforms one set of substances into another. It typically involves changes in electron positions, forming and breaking chemical bonds. Nuclear chemistry deals with reactions of unstable and radioactive elements, where both electronic and nuclear changes happen.

Catalysis: Catalysis is when a substance called a catalyst increases the speed of a chemical reaction. The catalyst is not used up in the reaction and remains unchanged. Even small amounts of catalyst can be effective if it recycles quickly. Factors such as mixing, surface area, and temperature influence the rate of the reaction. Catalysts react with reactants to form intermediates and regenerate the catalyst in the process.

Chemical element: A chemical element is a substance that cannot be broken down into other substances. It consists of atoms, with the number of protons in an atom's nucleus determining the element's atomic number. Elements can combine to form molecules, while nuclear reactions can transform atoms into different elements.

Chemical compound: A chemical compound is composed of identical molecules containing atoms from different elements. It is held together by chemical bonds and can undergo a chemical reaction to transform into a different substance by breaking and forming new bonds. Molecules consisting of only one element are not compounds.

Molecule: A molecule is formed when two or more atoms are bonded together by attractive forces called chemical bonds. It can include ions but is often used to refer to polyatomic ions in quantum physics, organic chemistry, and biochemistry.

Hydrogen: Hydrogen is the lightest chemical element, a colorless, odorless, and highly combustible gas. It is the most abundant substance in the universe, constituting approximately 75% of all matter. Stars like the Sun primarily consist of hydrogen in its plasma state. On Earth, hydrogen exists in molecular forms like water and organic compounds. Its most common isotope has one proton, one electron, and no neutrons.

Aluminium: Aluminium (symbol Al, atomic number 13) is a chemical element with lower density than other common metals, like steel. It forms a protective oxide layer when exposed to air and visually resembles silver. Aluminium is soft, nonmagnetic, and has a stable isotope (27Al) that is highly abundant. Additionally, it is the twelfth-most common element in the universe and is used in radiometric dating due to the radioactivity of 26Al.

Carbon: Carbon (C) is a chemical element found in Earth's crust, comprising around 0.025 percent of it. It belongs to group 14 of the periodic table and has atomic number 6. Carbon is nonmetallic and tetravalent, allowing it to form up to four covalent bonds. It occurs naturally in three isotopes, with 12C and 13C being stable and 14C being a radioactive isotope. Carbon, one of the oldest known elements, has been used since antiquity.

Silicon: Silicon is a chemical element with symbol Si and atomic number 14. It is a hard, brittle crystalline solid with a blue-grey metallic luster. Being a metalloid and semiconductor, it is a member of group 14 in the periodic table. Silicon is relatively unreactive and finds its place in the middle, with carbon above it and germanium, tin, lead, and flerovium below it.

Nitrogen: Nitrogen (N) is a nonmetal with atomic number 7 and symbol N. It is the lightest member of group 15, known as the pnictogens. Nitrogen is highly abundant in the universe, ranking seventh in total abundance in the Milky Way and the Solar System. In its diatomic form, as N2, it is a colorless and odorless gas that constitutes approximately 78% of Earth's atmosphere, making it the most abundant uncombined element in the air. However, nitrogen is relatively scarce in solid parts of the Earth due to its volatility.

Phosphorus: Phosphorus (P) is a chemical element with atomic number 15. It exists in two main forms, white phosphorus and red phosphorus. Being highly reactive, it is not found freely in nature. Phosphorus is only present in the Earth's crust in small concentrations, around one gram per kilogram. In minerals, it typically appears as phosphate.

Oxygen: Oxygen, symbol O, is a chemical element found abundantly in Earth's crust and is the third-most abundant element in the universe. It is a highly reactive nonmetal that readily forms oxides with other elements and compounds. Oxygen exists as diatomic gas, O2, in the Earth's atmosphere, accounting for 20.95% of it. It is a colorless, odorless gas that plays a vital role in supporting life.

Sulfur: Sulfur, symbol S and atomic number 16, is a chemical element. It is abundant, nonmetallic, and forms cyclic octatomic molecules with the formula S8 under normal conditions. Elemental sulfur is a bright yellow solid at room temperature.

Iron: Iron is a common chemical element (symbol Fe, atomic number 26) and a metal from the first transition series and group 8 on the periodic table. It is the most abundant element on Earth, found in the core and crust, often in its metallic form. Its ores can also be found in meteorites.

Copper: Copper (Cu) is a soft, malleable metal with high thermal and electrical conductivity. It is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, as a building material, and in various alloys like sterling silver, cupronickel, and constantan. It has a pinkish-orange color and is often utilized in jewelry, marine hardware, coins, and temperature measurement devices.

Silver: Silver is a chemical element with symbol Ag and atomic number 47. It is a soft, white, lustrous metal known for its high electrical and thermal conductivity, as well as reflectivity. Silver is found in its pure form, as well as in alloys with gold and other metals, and in minerals like argentite and chlorargyrite. It is mainly produced as a byproduct in the refining of copper, gold, lead, and zinc.

Gold: Gold is a dense and soft metal with atomic number 79. It is a transition metal, one of the noble metals, and has low reactivity.

Alloy: An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements, with at least one being a metal. It retains the properties of a metal, such as electrical conductivity and luster, but can also have different properties like increased strength. Alloys can reduce material costs while maintaining important characteristics, and they can also enhance properties like corrosion resistance or mechanical strength.

Bronze: Bronze is a copper-based alloy commonly made with around 12-12.5% tin and other metals. It can also contain non-metals like phosphorus or metalloids such as arsenic or silicon. These additions create a variety of alloys with helpful properties like hardness, strength, ductility, and machinability.

Steel: Steel is a strong and resilient alloy made of iron and carbon. It possesses enhanced strength and fracture resistance compared to other forms of iron. Steel can be further improved by adding various elements. Stainless steel, for example, requires 11% chromium to resist corrosion and oxidation. Due to its low cost and high tensile strength, steel finds utility in buildings, infrastructure, tools, transportation, machinery, appliances, furniture, and weaponry.

Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a chemical compound that consists of one carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is a gas at room temperature and serves as the primary carbon source for life on Earth through the carbon cycle. Carbon dioxide is transparent to visible light but absorbs infrared radiation, making it a greenhouse gas. It is soluble in water and found in various sources such as groundwater, lakes, ice caps, and seawater. When dissolved in water, it forms carbonate and bicarbonate, contributing to ocean acidification.

Water: Water (H2O) is an essential and abundant inorganic compound found on Earth. It is a colorless, tasteless, and odorless substance that makes up a significant part of our planet's hydrosphere and all living organisms. With a unique chemical structure, each water molecule contains one oxygen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms. Despite not providing food energy or organic nutrients, water is vital for all forms of life. At standard conditions, "water" refers to its liquid state.

Petroleum: Petroleum, also called crude oil or simply oil, is a natural liquid composed mostly of hydrocarbons. It is found in geological formations and includes both unprocessed crude oil and refined petroleum products.

Redox: Redox refers to a chemical reaction where the oxidation states of a substance change. Oxidation involves losing electrons or increasing the oxidation state, while reduction involves gaining electrons or decreasing the oxidation state.

Acid–base reaction: An acid-base reaction is a chemical reaction between an acid and a base. It can be used to determine pH through titration. Various acid-base theories, such as Brønsted-Lowry theory, offer alternative perspectives on the reaction mechanisms.

Earth science: Earth science, also known as geoscience, studies the Earth's complex constitution of its four spheres: biosphere, hydrosphere/cryosphere, atmosphere, and geosphere. It includes the physical, chemical, and biological aspects of the planet. Earth science is a branch of planetary science with a long history.

History of Earth: The Earth's history spans from formation to present day, with constant geological changes and biological evolution. Contributions from various branches of natural science have helped to understand significant events.

Desert: A desert is a barren area with minimal precipitation, making it difficult for plant and animal life to survive. This exposes the ground to erosion. Approximately one-third of Earth's land surface is arid or semi-arid, including polar regions. Deserts can be classified based on precipitation, temperature, causes of desertification, or geographical location.

Forest: A forest is a land area with dominant tree presence. Definitions of forests vary worldwide, considering factors such as tree density, height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), a forest is land covering over 0.5 hectares, with trees higher than 5 meters and canopy cover exceeding 10 percent, excluding agricultural or urban land. In 2020, forests covered approximately 31 percent of the world's land, covering 4.06 billion hectares.

Grassland: Grasslands are areas dominated by grasses, but also include sedges, rushes, and other plants. They exist on all continents except Antarctica, covering a significant portion of the Earth's land. Grasslands come in various types, including natural, semi-natural, and agricultural. They are among the largest biomes globally, making up 31-69% of the world's land area.

Climate: Climate is the long-term weather pattern, encompassing mean and variability of meteorological factors such as temperature, humidity, pressure, wind, and precipitation. It is influenced by geographic factors like latitude, longitude, altitude, terrain, water bodies, and their currents. Climate integrates the components of the climate system, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere.

Climate change: Climate change refers to the ongoing global warming and its impact on Earth's climate system. This includes previous long-term changes to the climate. Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, contribute to the rapid increase in global temperatures. This is primarily due to the release of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane, which trap heat in Earth's atmosphere, resulting in global warming.

Season: A season is a period of the year characterized by changes in weather, daylight hours, and ecological patterns. These changes occur due to the Earth's tilted orbit around the Sun. The varying intensity of sunlight affects animal behavior and plant growth. Different cultures have different definitions of seasons, leading to variations in their number and nature.

Atmosphere of Earth: The Earth's atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the planet, kept in place by gravity. It creates pressure, shields us from meteoroids and harmful solar radiation, regulates temperature, and enables the existence of life and liquid water on the planet's surface.

Weather: Weather is the condition of the atmosphere, encompassing temperature, precipitation, and other elements. It determines whether it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, and clear or cloudy. Weather pertains to day-to-day atmospheric conditions, mainly occurring in the troposphere. Climate refers to longer-term averages of these conditions. "Weather" typically refers to Earth's atmospheric conditions.

Cloud: A cloud is a visible mass of tiny liquid droplets, frozen crystals, or particles suspended in the atmosphere. It can form when air is cooled to its dew point or gains enough moisture to reach the ambient temperature. Water and other chemicals can make up the droplets and crystals.

Rain: Rain is condensed water vapor that falls to the ground due to gravity. It plays a vital role in the water cycle by providing most of Earth's fresh water and supporting hydroelectric power, crop irrigation, and various ecosystems.

Snow: Snow is formed by ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere that grow and fall to the ground, undergoing changes. It is composed of frozen crystalline water throughout its life cycle, starting as ice crystals in the atmosphere, falling and accumulating on surfaces, transforming in place, and eventually melting or disappearing.

Tornado: A tornado is a violently rotating column of air that connects the Earth's surface with a cumulonimbus cloud. It is commonly called a twister or whirlwind. Tornadoes vary in size and shape, often appearing as a funnel-shaped cloud with debris below. Most tornadoes have wind speeds under 180 km/h, but the most extreme ones can exceed 480 km/h. They typically travel several kilometers before dissipating but can persist over 100 km.

Tropical cyclone: A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, strong winds, and heavy rain. It has a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms and can be called different names depending on its location and strength, such as hurricane, typhoon, or tropical storm. It is referred to as a hurricane in the Atlantic and northeastern Pacific Ocean, and a typhoon in the northwestern Pacific Ocean. In the Indian Ocean and South Pacific, it is called a tropical cyclone or severe cyclonic storm.

Wind: Wind is the movement of air or gases on a planet's surface. It occurs on various scales, from short-term thunderstorm flows to longer-lasting local and global winds. These winds are primarily caused by differential heating and the planet's rotation. Factors such as terrain, plateaus, and coastlines can also influence wind patterns.

Geology: Geology is the scientific study of the Earth, rocks, and the processes that shape them over time. It is closely related to other Earth sciences and is connected to Earth system science and planetary science.

Internal structure of Earth: The Earth's internal structure is composed of layers: a solid crust, viscous asthenosphere, solid mantle, liquid outer core, and solid inner core. The flow of the outer core generates the Earth's magnetic field. It excludes the atmosphere and hydrosphere.

Earthquake: Summary: An earthquake, also known as a quake or tremor, occurs when energy is suddenly released in the Earth's lithosphere, causing seismic waves. They vary in intensity, from imperceptible to destructive, damaging infrastructure and propelling objects and people. Seismic activity refers to the frequency, type, and size of earthquakes in a specific area over time. Seismicity is the average rate of energy release in a particular location. The term tremor can also describe non-earthquake seismic rumbling.

Mineral: A mineral is a naturally occurring solid substance with a distinct chemical composition and crystal structure. It is found in its pure form and is studied in geology and mineralogy.

Rock (geology): Rocks are naturally occurring solid masses or aggregates made up of minerals or mineraloid matter. They vary in composition, formation, and mineral content. Rocks make up the Earth's crust and most of its interior, excluding the liquid outer core and pockets of magma. Studying rocks involves various aspects of geology, such as petrology and mineralogy. This field can encompass rocks found on Earth or include planetary geology, examining rocks from other celestial objects.

Soil: Soil, often called earth or dirt, is a complex mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms. It provides essential support for plants and soil organisms, distinguishing it from displaced soil, known as dirt.

Plate tectonics: Plate tectonics is a scientific theory stating that Earth's lithosphere consists of large moving plates. This concept developed from the idea of continental drift in the early 20th century and gained acceptance after the validation of seafloor spreading in the mid-to-late 1960s.

Continent: A continent is a large geographical region conventionally identified, which may be a single landmass or part of a larger one. The number of continents can vary, with seven commonly recognized: Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia. Some variations merge these regions, such as combining North and South America into America or Africa, Asia, and Europe into Afro-Eurasia.

Volcano: A volcano is a rupture in the Earth's crust, through which hot lava, ash, and gases escape from a magma chamber below the surface.

Erosion: Erosion is the process of removing and transporting soil, rock, or dissolved material from one place to another on Earth's crust. It is different from weathering as it involves movement. Physical erosion refers to the removal of rock or soil as sediment, while chemical erosion dissolves soil or rock. Eroded material can be transported over short distances or for long distances, ranging from millimeters to thousands of kilometers.

Land: Land, also called dry land or ground, is the solid surface of Earth not covered by water. It represents 29.2% of the planet's surface and includes continents and islands. Covered mostly by regolith, a layer of rock, soil, and minerals, land influences Earth's climate through its involvement in the carbon, nitrogen, and water cycles. A third is forested, another third is used for agriculture, and a tenth is made up of permanent snow and glaciers. The rest comprises desert, savannah, and prairie.

Mountain: A mountain is a raised part of the Earth's crust with steep sides, often showing exposed bedrock. It is usually higher than a hill, rises at least 300 metres above surrounding land, and has a limited summit area. Mountains can be found either as isolated summits or within mountain ranges.

Island: An island is a piece of land surrounded by water. Small islands are called islets, and those in rivers or lakes may be called eyots or aits. Other names for small islands off the coast include holms, cays, skerries, and keys. Sedimentary islands in the Ganges Delta are called chars. A collection of islands, such as the Philippines, is known as an archipelago.

Flood: A flood is the overflow of water onto usually dry land. It can also refer to the incoming tide. Floods are studied in hydrology and are significant concerns for agriculture, civil engineering, and public health. Man-made environmental changes, like deforestation and removal of wetlands, increase the frequency and intensity of floods. Climate change exacerbates flooding through increased rainfall and extreme weather events, leading to more severe and frequent floods with higher risk.

Sea: A sea is a large body of salty water. It can refer to specific seas or the ocean, which is a wider body of seawater. Specific seas can be marginal seas, sections of the ocean, or large, nearly landlocked bodies of water.

Glacier: A glacier is a dense, moving body of ice that forms when snow accumulation exceeds melting over many years. It creates distinct features such as crevasses and moraines, as it flows and shapes the land. Glaciers only form on land and are different from sea ice and lake ice.

Lake: A lake is a large body of water on the earth's surface, separate from the ocean. It is surrounded by land and serves as a storage for freshwater, forming part of the Earth's water cycle. While most lakes are freshwater and account for the majority of the world's surface freshwater, some are salt lakes with higher salinity than seawater. Lakes vary in size and volume.

River: A river is a natural freshwater stream that flows on the earth's land surface towards another larger body of water. It can also end by flowing into the ground or drying up. Small rivers have different names depending on the region. The term river doesn't have an official definition, and its size can vary.

Physics: Physics is the study of matter, its motion, behavior, and the concepts of energy and force. It aims to comprehend the behavior of the universe. Physicists are the scientists who specialize in this field.

Energy: Energy is a fundamental property in physics that can be transferred to a system and is observed through work, heat, and light. It cannot be created or destroyed, only converted. The joule (J) is the unit used to measure energy in the SI system.

Matter: Matter refers to substances that have mass and occupy space. It consists of atoms and particles that possess both rest mass and volume. Matter encompasses solids, liquids, and gases like water. It does not include massless particles, energy phenomena, or waves such as light or heat. Additionally, matter can exist in other states like plasma, Bose–Einstein condensates, fermionic condensates, and quark–gluon plasma.

Vacuum: A vacuum is an empty space devoid of matter. It is derived from the Latin word vacuus, meaning "vacant" or "void". Physicists refer to a perfect vacuum as a space without any matter or pressure, while a partial vacuum is an imperfect vacuum with reduced pressure. In engineering and applied physics, vacuum refers to a space with lower pressure than the atmosphere. The term in vacuo is used to describe an object surrounded by a vacuum.

Gravity: Gravity is a fundamental interaction that causes attraction between objects with mass. It is the weakest of the four fundamental interactions and has no significant influence on subatomic particles. However, gravity plays a crucial role in determining the motion of macroscopic objects such as planets, stars, galaxies, and light.

Electromagnetism: Electromagnetism is a fundamental force in nature, involving interactions between charged particles through electromagnetic fields. It combines electrostatics and magnetism, resulting in attractive or repulsive forces between charged particles. This force dominates atomic and molecular interactions. Electromagnetism also creates electromagnetic fields that accelerate particles via the Lorentz force. At high energy, electromagnetism is unified with the weak force to form the electroweak force.

Strong interaction: The strong interaction, also known as the strong force or strong nuclear force, is a fundamental interaction in nuclear and particle physics. It confines quarks into hadron particles like protons and neutrons, and binds these particles to form atomic nuclei. It is essential for the stability and structure of matter.

Weak interaction: The weak interaction, a fundamental force in nuclear and particle physics, is responsible for radioactive decay and nuclear reactions. It is one of the four known fundamental interactions, along with electromagnetism, the strong interaction, and gravity. Its behavior is described by electroweak theory, also known as quantum flavor dynamics.

Space: Space is a three-dimensional continuum of positions and directions that is crucial to understanding the physical universe. It is usually seen as a three-dimensional concept in classical physics, but modern physicists view it as part of a four-dimensional spacetime framework. Philosophical debate exists on whether space is an entity, a relationship between entities, or a conceptual framework.

Time: Time is the ongoing sequence of events that occurs in a forward direction from the past to the future. It is used to measure durations, intervals, and rates of change. Time is commonly considered a fourth dimension alongside three spatial dimensions.

Speed of light: The speed of light (c) is a universal physical constant of 299,792,458 m/s in vacuum. In line with the special theory of relativity, it serves as the maximum speed at which conventional matter or energy can move through space.

Atom: An atom is the basic particle of the chemical elements, composed of a nucleus with protons and often neutrons, surrounded by electrons. The number of protons in an atom determines its identity as a particular element. Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes.

Optics: Optics is the study of light and its interaction with matter. It encompasses visible, ultraviolet, and infrared light, as well as other forms of electromagnetic radiation like X-rays and microwaves. This field also investigates the construction of devices that utilize or detect light.

Color: Color or colour is the perception of light based on the electromagnetic spectrum. It is not an inherent property of matter, but rather linked to an object's light absorption, reflection, emission, and interference. Humans perceive colors in the visible light spectrum using three types of cone cells. However, other animals may have different numbers and types of cone cells, allowing them to perceive different wavelengths, like bees distinguishing ultraviolet. Animal color perception is determined by the brain's processing of light wavelengths detected by their cone cell types.

State of matter: States of matter are distinct forms in which matter can exist. The four observable states in everyday life are solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Other intermediate and exotic states, like liquid crystal and Bose-Einstein condensates, exist under extreme conditions. Neutron-degenerate matter and quark-gluon plasma are also examples of unique states. For more details, refer to the Wikipedia article List of states of matter.

Electricity: Electricity is the physical phenomenon linked to the presence and movement of charged matter. It is closely connected to magnetism and falls under the umbrella of electromagnetism. Notable examples of electricity include lightning, static electricity, and electric heating.

Magnetism: Summary: Magnetism refers to the physical properties related to a magnetic field, enabling objects to attract or repel each other. It is a fundamental aspect of electromagnetism, arising from the magnetic fields generated by both electric currents and magnetic moments of elementary particles.

Electromagnetic radiation: Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is the propagation of waves in the electromagnetic field, carrying both momentum and electromagnetic radiant energy. It encompasses various types such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays, forming the electromagnetic spectrum.

Light: Light is electromagnetic radiation detected by the human eye. It falls within the 400–700 nm wavelength range, equivalent to frequencies of 750–420 THz. It encompasses the visible spectrum between infrared and ultraviolet.

Classical mechanics: Classical mechanics is a physical theory that explains the movement of large objects like projectiles, machinery parts, and celestial bodies. It differs from modern physics and was a significant shift in the field's methods and philosophy.

Quantum mechanics: Quantum mechanics is a physics theory that explains natural behavior at atomic and smaller scales. It forms the basis of various quantum fields like chemistry, technology, and information science.

Mass: Mass is an intrinsic property of a body, not solely determined by the quantity of matter. Different atoms and particles can have the same amount of matter but different masses. In modern physics, mass has multiple definitions but is experimentally measured as a body's inertia and determines its gravitational attraction to other bodies.

Momentum: Momentum is a vector quantity in Newtonian mechanics calculated as the product of an object's mass and velocity. It represents the object's magnitude and direction. The formula for momentum is represented as p = mv.

Force: Force is a physical influence that can alter an object's velocity, causing it to accelerate. It is mathematically defined and includes the notions of pushing, pulling, and counteractions. Force is a vector quantity, with magnitude and direction being significant. The unit of force is the newton (N) and it is denoted by the symbol F.

Motion: Motion is the change in position of an object over time. It can be described using various measurements such as displacement, distance, velocity, acceleration, and speed. The field of kinematics studies motion without considering its cause, while dynamics explores the impact of forces on motion.

Newton's laws of motion: Newton's laws of motion are three fundamental laws that define the relationship between an object's motion and the forces acting upon it. These laws explain that an object will remain at rest or move in a straight line at a constant speed unless acted upon by a force. The net force on an object is equal to its mass multiplied by its acceleration, or the rate of change in momentum with time. Additionally, if two bodies interact, the forces they exert on each other have equal magnitudes but opposite directions.

Radioactive decay: Radioactive decay is the emission of radiation energy from an unstable atomic nucleus. Materials with unstable nuclei are considered radioactive. It involves three common types of decay: alpha, beta, and gamma, with beta decay governed by the weak force, and the others by electromagnetism and nuclear force.

Particle physics: Particle physics (or high-energy physics) is the exploration of the fundamental particles and forces that make up matter and radiation. It investigates the combinations of elementary particles, including protons and neutrons, with a distinct focus on nuclear physics for protons and neutrons.

Standard Model: The Standard Model is a theory in particle physics that explains three of the four fundamental forces and categorizes all known elementary particles. It was developed by scientists over several decades and was further validated by the discovery of quarks, top quarks, tau neutrinos, and the Higgs boson. Additionally, the Standard Model accurately predicts specific properties of weak neutral currents, W and Z bosons.

Subatomic particle: A subatomic particle is a smaller particle than an atom, which can be composite or elementary. It is studied in physics, particularly in particle and nuclear physics. Bosons, like photons or gluons, are force carriers without rest mass or discrete diameter, while fermions cannot overlap or combine and have rest mass.

Electron: An electron is a subatomic particle with a negative electric charge. It is considered elementary because it has no known components or substructure. It is part of the lepton particle family and has a mass of about 1/1836 that of a proton. Electrons have an intrinsic angular momentum and are fermions, meaning two electrons cannot occupy the same quantum state. They display both particle and wave-like behavior, being able to collide with other particles and diffract like light. The wave properties of electrons are easier to observe than those of other particles due to their lower mass and longer de Broglie wavelength.

Neutron: A neutron is a subatomic particle with no charge and a slightly greater mass than a proton. It, along with protons, makes up the nuclei of atoms. Neutrons and protons behave similarly and are collectively called nucleons. They have a mass of approximately one atomic mass unit. Neutrons are not elementary particles; they consist of three quarks.

Proton: A proton is a stable subatomic particle with a positive charge of +1 e and is symbolized as p or H+. It has a slightly smaller mass than a neutron and is approximately 1,836 times more massive than an electron. Protons, along with neutrons, are called nucleons and are present in atomic nuclei.

Photon: A photon is an elementary particle and the fundamental unit of light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation. It is a force carrier for the electromagnetic force and travels at the speed of light in a vacuum. Photons are massless and belong to the boson particle class.

Theory of relativity: The theory of relativity, developed by Albert Einstein, comprises special relativity (1905) and general relativity (1915). Special relativity applies to all physical phenomena without gravity, while general relativity explains the law of gravitation in relation to the forces of nature. It applies to the cosmological and astrophysical realm, including astronomy.

Thermodynamics: Thermodynamics is a physics branch that studies heat, work, and temperature and their relationship to energy, entropy, and matter/radiation properties. It is governed by four laws that describe these quantities using measurable macroscopic properties but can also be understood through statistical mechanics. It finds applications in various scientific and engineering fields, including physical chemistry, biochemistry, chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, and meteorology.

Heat: Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between systems caused by temperature differences. It is often used to refer to thermal energy itself, which is the kinetic energy of atoms in a substance vibrating and colliding.

Temperature: Temperature is a measure of hotness or coldness and is determined using a thermometer. It represents the movement and interaction of atoms in a substance.

Wave: A wave is a dynamic disturbance that propagates in physics, mathematics, engineering, and related fields. It can be periodic, oscillating around an equilibrium value at a certain frequency. Waves can be traveling or standing, depending on their direction of movement. Standing waves have nulls where the amplitude becomes zero. They are commonly described by wave equations for single wave propagation in a defined direction.

Sound: Sound is a vibration that travels as an acoustic wave through a gas, liquid, or solid. Humans perceive these waves, within the frequency range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz, as sound. Ultrasound refers to frequencies above 20 kHz, while infrasound represents frequencies below 20 Hz. Animal species have varying hearing ranges.

Technology: Technology is the use of knowledge to achieve practical goals, both in tangible tools like machines and intangible ones like software. It is essential in science, engineering, and everyday life.

Engineering: Engineering is the application of science, math, and design to solve problems, enhance efficiency, and advance various systems. It encompasses diverse subfields like infrastructure, machinery, electronics, and energy systems, aiming to improve them.

Civil engineering: Civil engineering is an engineering field that focuses on designing, constructing, and maintaining infrastructure such as roads, bridges, buildings, and transportation systems. It also includes managing public works projects like dams, airports, sewage systems, and pipelines.

Mechanical engineering: Mechanical engineering is an ancient branch of engineering that deals with designing, analyzing, manufacturing, and maintaining physical machines. It combines principles of engineering physics, mathematics, and materials science to achieve this.

Garden: A garden is a planned outdoor space for cultivating and displaying plants and nature. Control is a defining aspect, even in wild garden designs. It can consist of both natural and artificial elements.

Animal husbandry: Animal husbandry is the agriculture branch dedicated to raising animals for various products like meat, milk, and fiber. It involves the daily care, breeding, and management of livestock. This practice dates back to the Neolithic Revolution, with animals being domesticated before the first crops were farmed. Early civilizations like ancient Egypt raised cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs on farms.

Domestication: Domestication is a long-term mutually beneficial association between humans and other organisms, involving human control and care for a consistent supply of resources, particularly food. This process occurred gradually across different regions and relied on experimentation and learning from mistakes.

Fertilizer: Fertilizers are natural or synthetic substances applied to soil or plants to provide essential nutrients. They differ from soil amendments. Fertilizers can be sourced naturally or industrially. In modern agriculture, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are the primary nutrients, sometimes supplemented by micronutrients. Farmers use different application methods such as dry, pelletized, or liquid forms, employing large equipment or manual tools.

Biotechnology: Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary field that applies natural sciences and engineering to use organisms, cells, and molecular analogues for products and services.

Genetic engineering: Genetic engineering, also known as genetic modification, manipulates an organism's genes using technology. It alters the genetic makeup of cells through gene transfer within and across species to create improved or novel organisms. This is achieved by copying or synthesizing DNA and inserting it into the host organism. Genes can be added or removed, and the process can be random or targeted. The first recombinant DNA molecule was created in 1972.

Computer science: Computer science is the study of computation, information, and automation. It encompasses theoretical and applied disciplines. While primarily an academic discipline, computer science is closely linked to computer programming.

Artificial intelligence: Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence exhibited by machines or software, developed in computer science, that allows them to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence. It is a field of study focused on creating and understanding intelligent machines, also known as AIs.

Cryptography: Cryptography, or cryptology, is the practice of secure communication amidst adversaries. It involves constructing and analyzing protocols to prevent third parties from reading private messages. This field merges mathematics, computer science, and various other disciplines to ensure information security. Cryptography finds applications in electronic commerce, payment cards, digital currencies, passwords, and military communications.

Computer: A computer is a programmable machine capable of carrying out arithmetic and logical operations automatically. It can perform various tasks through programs. The term "computer system" refers to a complete unit with hardware, operating system, software, and peripherals or a group of linked computers, like a network or cluster.

Internet: The Internet is a global network of interconnected computer networks that communicate using the Internet protocol suite. It consists of various networks, including private, public, academic, business, and government networks, linked through different networking technologies. The Internet facilitates the exchange of a wide range of information resources and services, such as the World Wide Web, email, telephony, and file sharing.

Broadcasting: Broadcasting refers to the distribution of audio or video content to a wide audience using electronic mass communication, typically through the electromagnetic spectrum. It began with the popularity of AM radio in the 1920s, enabled by vacuum tube technology. Before this, electronic communication was mostly one-to-one. The term "broadcasting" originated from agricultural practices and was later used to describe widespread distribution of information through printed materials and telegraph. Early examples of "one-to-many" radio transmissions date back to 1898.

Mail: Mail is a system for physically transporting postcards, letters, and parcels. It can be private or public, although governments often impose restrictions on private systems. National postal systems have become government monopolies since the 19th century, with prepaid fees. Adhesive postage stamps or postage meters are used for proof of payment, especially for bulk mailing.

Printing: Printing is the process of mass reproducing text and images through a master form or template. It originated from ink rubbings on paper or cloth, evolving into pressing inked images onto paper. Important advancements include movable type (11th century) and the printing press (15th century), driving the Renaissance and Scientific Revolution. Printing has played a pivotal role in the spread of knowledge and the development of the modern knowledge-based economy.

Book: A book is a medium for recording information through writing or images, typically composed of many pages bound together with a protective cover. It can be fiction or nonfiction, handwritten or printed on paper, and is called a codex when bound. The codex replaced the scroll as a physical support for written compositions, with each page being a leaf.

Radio: Radio is a technology that uses electromagnetic waves to transmit and receive signals. It operates within a frequency range of 3 Hz to 300 GHz. A transmitter connected to an antenna generates the waves, which are then received by another antenna connected to a radio receiver. This versatile technology is commonly used in radio communication, radar, navigation, remote control, sensing, and various other applications in modern times.

Telecommunications: Telecommunications is the transmission of information using different technologies such as wire, radio, or optical systems. It originated from the need for long-distance communication with similar efficiency to the human voice. Slow systems are not included in this field.

Telephone: A telephone is a device that allows people to talk to each other when they are far apart. It converts sound into electronic signals that are sent through cables to another telephone, where the sound is reproduced. The term 'telephone' comes from Greek words meaning distant voice. It is commonly referred to as a phone.

Mobile phone: A mobile phone is a portable telephone that allows calls over radio frequency while moving within a service area. It connects to a mobile phone operator's system and provides access to the telephone network. In North America, mobile phones are called cellphones due to their cellular network architecture. Besides making calls, modern mobile phones support various services like text messaging, email, internet access, and multimedia. They also offer features such as short-range wireless communication, satellite access, business applications, video games, and digital photography. Basic mobile phones are known as feature phones, while those with advanced computing capabilities are called smartphones.

Television: Television (TV) is a medium that transmits moving images and sound. It includes television sets and transmission. It serves as a mass medium for advertising, entertainment, news, and sports.

Electronics: Electronics is a scientific discipline that applies the principles of physics to design and operate devices manipulating electrically charged particles. It involves using active devices to control electric current flow and convert it between different forms. Electronics encompasses various subfields including microelectronics, nanoelectronics, optoelectronics, and quantum electronics, which focus on fabricating and applying electronic devices at different scales.

Semiconductor device: A semiconductor device is an electronic component that uses the properties of a semiconductor material. It has conductivity between conductors and insulators. These devices have replaced vacuum tubes and conduct electric current in the solid state, without the need for a vacuum or ionized gas.

Integrated circuit: An integrated circuit, or microchip, is a device with interconnected electronic components like transistors, resistors, and capacitors. It is made by etching these components onto a small piece of silicon. Integrated circuits are essential in computers, smartphones, and TVs to process and store information. They have revolutionized electronics by enabling smaller devices with enhanced functionality.

Fire: Fire is the result of combustion, causing rapid oxidation of a material. It releases heat, light, and various reaction products. Flames, the visible part of a fire, primarily consist of carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen, and nitrogen. Under certain conditions, the gases may become ionized, forming plasma. The flame's color and intensity depend on the substances burning and any external impurities.

Renewable energy: Renewable energy refers to energy obtained from naturally replenished sources, such as sunlight, wind, water movement, and geothermal heat. While most renewable energy sources are sustainable, some biomass sources may be unsustainable. It is used for electricity generation, heating, and cooling, and is suitable for large-scale projects as well as rural areas and developing countries. Renewable energy plays a crucial role in human development.

Fossil fuel: Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons like coal, oil, and natural gas formed from dead plants and animals in the Earth's crust. They are extracted and burned for heat, power, and electricity generation. Some fuels are refined into kerosene, gasoline, and propane. These fuels originate from anaerobic decomposition of buried organisms over millions of years.

Coal: Coal is a black or brown sedimentary rock composed mainly of carbon. It forms in coal seams from decaying plant matter that is transformed into coal over millions of years. This fossil fuel was created by heat and pressure in wetlands known as coal forests during the late Carboniferous and Permian periods.

Natural gas: Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbons, primarily methane (97%), with small amounts of higher alkanes. It also contains trace gases like carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, and helium. Methane is colorless and odorless, but contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions. To enhance safety, mercaptan odorizers are added to detect leaks easily.

Refrigeration: Refrigeration is the process of cooling a space or substance below the surrounding temperature, using artificial methods.

Electric light: An electric light refers to an electrical component that emits light, commonly used for artificial lighting. It typically consists of a lamp with a base made of ceramic, metal, glass, or plastic, which is secured in a light fixture known as a "lamp." The connection to the fixture can be established through a screw-thread base, metal pins, metal caps, or a bayonet mount.

Hydropower: Hydropower, or water power, harnesses the energy of falling or fast-running water to generate electricity or power machinery. It converts the gravitational potential or kinetic energy of water sources into sustainable power, mainly through hydroelectric power generation. It is also used in pumped-storage hydroelectricity systems for energy storage.

Nuclear power: Nuclear power utilizes nuclear reactions to generate electricity, primarily through nuclear fission of uranium and plutonium in power plants. Additional sources include nuclear decay and the ongoing research on nuclear fusion. It has niche applications like radioisotope thermoelectric generators in space probes. Fusion power remains the subject of international research and focus.

Solar energy: Solar energy is the use of sunlight to create electricity and heat. It is a renewable energy source and can be captured through various technologies. These include solar power, which converts sunlight into electricity, and solar thermal energy, which heats water. The use of solar energy can be categorized as either passive or active, depending on how it is harnessed. Passive techniques involve designing buildings to optimize sunlight and airflow, while active techniques use systems like photovoltaic panels and concentrated solar power.

Wind power: Wind power is the harnessing of wind energy to generate useful work, primarily electricity. It historically powered sails, windmills, and windpumps. Nowadays, wind turbines in wind farms are the main source, connected to the grid for electricity generation.

Electric battery: An electric battery is a power source made up of one or more electrochemical cells, used to power electrical devices. It has a positive terminal known as the cathode, a negative terminal called the anode, and supplies electrons to flow through an external circuit. When connected to an electric load, a redox reaction converts high-energy substances into lower-energy ones, delivering the energy difference to the external circuit. Originally, a battery referred to multiple cells, but now it includes devices with a single cell.

Sanitation: Sanitation refers to efforts to maintain public health by ensuring clean drinking water, proper disposal of human waste, and preventing the spread of disease through feces. Adequate sanitation can help reduce malnutrition, stunted growth in children, and the transmission of various diseases like cholera, hepatitis, and polio.

Pottery: Pottery is the art of creating durable vessels and objects from clay and other materials, through a high-temperature firing process. It encompasses a wide range of uses such as tableware, decorations, and industrial applications like electrical insulators. The term also refers to the place where these items are made. In the context of art history and archaeology, pottery usually refers to vessels while figurines made from the same material are known as terracottas.

Natural rubber: Natural rubber, also known as India rubber or latex, is a polymer made from the organic compound isoprene. It is produced with small amounts of impurities and is mainly cultivated in Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Cambodia.

Paper: Paper is a thin sheet material made from cellulose fibers derived from plants. It is produced through a process involving water, mesh, pressing, and drying. Originally made by hand, it is now manufactured on large machines at high speeds. Paper is versatile, used for printing, packaging, writing, and more. It also has various industrial applications, such as in filtering, construction, and currency production.

Plastic: Plastic is a versatile material made mostly from polymers. It can be easily shaped and has many useful properties, including being lightweight, strong, flexible, and cheap to produce. Plastics are commonly derived from fossil fuels, but can now be made from renewable sources like corn and cotton.

Glass: Glass is a clear, hard substance with no crystal structure. It is chemically stable and commonly used for windows, dishes, and lenses.

Explosive: An explosive is a highly reactive substance with immense potential energy. When released suddenly, it can cause an explosion, generating light, heat, sound, and pressure. It can be either a single ingredient or a mixture of at least two substances.

Metallurgy: Metallurgy is a branch of materials science and engineering that examines the properties and behavior of metals, metal compounds, and alloys through their physical and chemical characteristics.

Textile: Textiles are fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads, and different fabric types. Initially, textiles were limited to woven fabrics, but later, other methods like knitting and non-woven were developed. Textiles now cater to diverse applications, ranging from everyday clothing to specialized items like bulletproof jackets, spacesuits, and doctor's gowns.

Cotton: Cotton is a soft and fluffy fiber that grows around the seeds of cotton plants. It primarily consists of cellulose and may contain small amounts of other substances. Cotton bolls help disperse the seeds naturally.

Infrastructure: Infrastructure refers to the facilities and systems that support a country, city or area. It includes public and private structures like roads, bridges, water supply, electrical grids, and telecommunications. Its main purpose is to enable economic activities and daily living by providing essential services. Infrastructure also plays a crucial role in maintaining the environment.

Concrete: Concrete is a widely used composite material made from aggregate and cement. It cures over time and is the most commonly used building material globally. Its usage ton for ton is double that of steel, wood, plastics, and aluminum combined.

Masonry: Masonry is the art of constructing structures using materials like brick, stone, and mortar. It involves bonding and joining these materials together, and can also refer to the actual building components.

Wood: Wood is a structural tissue found in trees and plants. It consists of strong cellulose fibers embedded in lignin, resisting compression. It supports growth and transfers water and nutrients. Wood can refer to similar tissues in roots and shrubs, as well as engineered materials made from wood and fibers.

Dam: A dam is a barrier that controls water flow, creating reservoirs for various uses like irrigation, drinking water, and power generation. It can also store water for distribution. Dams primarily retain water, while other structures manage water flow in specific areas.

Bridge: A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles, providing passage over difficult or impossible-to-cross terrain. Various designs of bridges exist, tailored to specific functions, terrains, materials, and available funds.

Robotics: Robotics is the study of creating and using robots, encompassing their design, construction, operation, and various applications.

Engine: An engine is a machine that converts energy into mechanical energy.

Electric motor: An electric motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy through the interaction between a magnetic field and electric current in a wire winding, generating torque on the motor's shaft. It is similar to an electric generator, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Internal combustion engine: An internal combustion engine is a heat engine that uses combustion of fuel with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber to produce high-temperature and high-pressure gases. These gases then apply direct force to pistons, turbine blades, a rotor, or a nozzle, converting chemical energy into kinetic energy to power the engine and anything attached to it.

Steam engine: A steam engine is a heat engine that uses steam as its working fluid to perform mechanical work. It utilizes steam pressure to move a piston back and forth in a cylinder, which can then be transformed into rotational force for work. Steam engines are external combustion engines that operate on the Rankine cycle. The term "steam engine" typically refers to reciprocating engines and does not include steam turbines. It can pertain to complete steam plants, such as locomotives and portable engines, or just the piston or turbine machinery alone.

Oven: An oven is a versatile tool that exposes materials to controlled heat. It consists of a hollow chamber and can be used for various tasks since ancient times. There are different types of ovens, each designed for specific purposes and heat generation methods.

Simple machine: A simple machine is a mechanical device that alters force direction or magnitude. They are basic mechanisms that use mechanical advantage to increase force. The term generally includes the six classical machines: lever, wheel and axle, pulley, inclined plane, wedge, and screw.

Wheel: A wheel is a circular component designed to rotate on an axle bearing. It is a crucial part of the wheel and axle, one of the six simple machines. Wheels, in combination with axles, enable effortless movement and transportation of heavy objects, support loads, and aid in machine labor. They serve various purposes, such as steering wheels, ship's wheels, potter's wheels, and flywheels.

Tool: A tool is an object that enhances a person's ability to modify their environment or achieve specific tasks. While some animals use simple tools, humans have been observed using tools for making other tools, dating back hundreds of millennia.

Medical imaging: Medical imaging is the technique of visualizing the inside of the body for clinical analysis and intervention. It helps to diagnose diseases, identify abnormalities, and understand organ function. It creates a database of normal anatomy and physiology by revealing hidden internal structures.

Weapon: A weapon is any tool or device used to harm, kill, or threaten others. It serves various purposes, such as increasing efficiency in hunting or crime, enabling self-defense or law enforcement, engaging in warfare, or even self-inflicted harm. Weapons are broadly defined and can encompass anything used to gain an advantage over an adversary.

Armour: Armour, a protective covering, shields objects, individuals, or vehicles from physical harm caused by direct weapons or projectiles in combat or hazardous environments. Personal armour safeguards soldiers and war animals, whereas vehicle armour is employed in warships, armoured fighting vehicles, and certain ground attack aircraft.

Fortification: A fortification is a military structure built to defend territories during warfare and establish control in peaceful times. Derived from Latin origins, it combines strength and construction.

Knife: A knife is an ancient tool or weapon with a sharp edge, typically held by a handle. It has evolved over time, being made from various materials like wood, bone, stone, copper, bronze, iron, steel, ceramic, and titanium. Knives are versatile and come in fixed or folding blade designs. They boast diverse patterns and styles, influenced by the maker and country of origin.

Bow and arrow: The bow and arrow is a weapon system consisting of a bow and arrows. It was used for hunting and warfare throughout history. However, it became less relevant with the introduction of firearms. Today, it is primarily used for hunting and sports.

Firearm: A firearm is a portable weapon utilizing an explosive charge to be carried and used by individuals. The term's legal definition varies across countries.

Gunpowder: Gunpowder, also known as black powder, is the oldest explosive compound. It is made up of sulfur, carbon, and potassium nitrate. While sulfur and carbon act as fuels, potassium nitrate aids in the process of combustion. This mixture has been extensively used as a propellant in firearms, artillery, rockets, and fireworks. Additionally, gunpowder is employed as a blasting agent for tasks like mining, quarrying, and constructing pipelines, tunnels, and roads.

Nuclear weapon: A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that utilizes nuclear reactions, generating immense destructive force through fission or a combination of fission and fusion reactions. These bombs release significant energy from minimal amounts of matter.

Navigation: Navigation is the practice of overseeing and directing the movement of a craft or vehicle. It encompasses land, marine, aeronautic, and space navigation as its main categories.

Compass: A compass is a navigation device that shows cardinal directions, used for geographic orientation. It typically includes a magnetized needle or card that aligns with magnetic north. It may also use gyroscopes, magnetometers, or GPS receivers for navigation purposes.

Radar: Radar is a radiolocation system that uses radio waves to detect and track objects such as aircraft, ships, and vehicles. It determines the distance, angle, and velocity of these objects relative to the radar station. The system includes a transmitter, antennas, and a receiver with a processor to analyze the reflected waves and provide information about the objects' positions and speeds.

Calendar: A calendar is a system for organizing time, categorizing days, weeks, months, and years. It designates specific days and can be a physical record. Additionally, it can refer to a list of planned events or a chronological list of documents.

Clock: A clock is a centuries-old device that displays time and measures intervals shorter than natural units. It has evolved using various physical processes throughout history.

Lens: A lens is an optical device that uses refraction to focus or disperse light. It can be a simple lens made of transparent material or a compound lens made of multiple simple lenses. Lenses can be made of glass or plastic and are shaped through grinding, polishing, or molding. Unlike prisms, lenses can form images by focusing light. The term "lens" is also used for devices that focus or disperse waves and radiation in various fields such as microwave, electron, acoustic, and explosive lenses.

Microscope: Microscopes are laboratory instruments that enable the examination of objects too small to be seen with the naked eye. They are used in the field of microscopy, which involves investigating tiny objects and structures. Microscopic refers to things that are invisible to the naked eye without the aid of a microscope.

Laser: A laser is a light-emitting device that amplifies light through stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. Originally an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, the first laser was built in 1960 by Theodore Maiman, inspired by the work of Charles H. Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow.

Camera: A camera is an instrument used to capture images and videos digitally or chemically. It has been pivotal in the fields of photography, videography, visual arts, media, entertainment, surveillance, and scientific research. The camera was invented in the 19th century and has evolved through technological advancements, resulting in a wide variety of models today.

Photography: Photography is the creation of images by recording light, using either electronic sensors or light-sensitive materials. It is used in various fields such as science, manufacturing, and business, as well as in art, film, recreational activities, hobbies, and mass communication.

Telescope: A telescope is a device that observes distant objects using electromagnetic radiation. Originally, it used lenses or mirrors, but now it includes a wide range of instruments that detect various regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Spaceflight: Spaceflight is the use of astronautics to fly objects, including spacecraft and satellites, into outer space. It can be manned or unmanned, using either telerobotic or autonomous control. Human spaceflight has achieved significant milestones like reaching the Moon and establishing permanent presence in space through space stations. Prominent programs include Soyuz, Shenzhou, Apollo Moon landing, Space Shuttle, International Space Station, and China's Tiangong Space Station.

Rocket: A rocket is a jet-propelled vehicle that operates in the vacuum of space. It uses an engine that generates thrust by expelling high-speed exhaust. Unlike other vehicles, a rocket carries its own propellant and does not require air for acceleration. Rockets perform more efficiently in a vacuum but experience a loss of thrust in the presence of atmospheric pressure.

Satellite: A satellite is a spacecraft placed in orbit around a celestial body. It serves various purposes including communication, weather forecasting, navigation, broadcasting, scientific research, and Earth observation. Some military applications include reconnaissance, early warning, and signals intelligence. Satellites can also be defunct or used as rocket stages for placing other satellites in orbit.

Space station: A space station is a spacecraft designed for humans to live in space for an extended time. It is an artificial satellite without landing or propulsion systems. Stations need docking ports for crew and supply transfers. They are primarily launched for scientific research but also military purposes.

Transport: Transport refers to the organized movement of people, animals, and goods between different places. It utilizes various modes such as air, land, water, cable, pipelines, and even space. The field encompasses infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. Its crucial role lies in facilitating trade, a vital aspect for societal advancement.

Road: A road is a paved route used by vehicles and pedestrians for transportation purposes. Unlike streets, roads primarily serve as thoroughfares with improved surfaces to convey traffic efficiently.

Car: A car is a motor vehicle with wheels that is primarily used for transporting people. It typically has four wheels, seats one to eight people, and runs on roads. The first steam-powered car was built by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot in 1769, while the first internal combustion-powered car was invented by François Isaac de Rivaz in 1808.

Rail transport: Rail transport is a land transportation system that uses wheeled vehicles on track. It is the second primary means of land transport, used for 8% of global passenger and freight travel due to its energy efficiency and potential for high speed.

Bicycle: A bicycle, also known as a pedal cycle or bike, is a human-powered vehicle with two wheels attached to a frame. It is pedal-driven and has a single-track design, with one wheel behind the other. The rider of a bicycle is called a cyclist or bicyclist.

Ship: A ship is a large vessel that travels on oceans and waterways, carrying cargo, passengers, or supporting specialized missions. It differs from a boat in terms of size, shape, load capacity, and purpose. Ships have played key roles in exploration, trade, warfare, migration, colonization, and scientific research. They are crucial for world commerce.

Canal: Canals are man-made waterways used for drainage management and water transportation. They resemble artificial rivers, providing a calm and unrestricted surface flow under atmospheric pressure.

Aircraft: An aircraft is a flying vehicle that relies on the air to counter gravity. It achieves this through static or dynamic lift from an airfoil or downward thrust from engines. Examples of aircraft include airplanes, helicopters, gliders, airships, paramotors, and hot air balloons.

Mathematics: Mathematics is a field encompassing numbers, formulas, shapes, quantities, and their changes. It comprises subdisciplines like number theory, algebra, geometry, and analysis. A precise definition for the discipline is still debated among mathematicians.

Arithmetic: Arithmetic is a branch of mathematics that studies numerical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It also includes exponentiation, roots, and logarithms. It operates on different types of numbers, such as integers, rational numbers, and real numbers. The numeral system used can be decimal or binary. Some arithmetic systems work with mathematical objects other than numbers.

Fraction: A fraction represents part of a whole or a number of equal parts. It consists of a numerator (above a line) and a denominator (below the line). The numerator indicates the number of equal parts, while the denominator represents how many of those parts make up a whole. A common example is 3/4, where 3 represents 3 equal parts and 4 indicates that 4 parts make up a whole.

Pi: Pi is a mathematical constant (approximately 3.14159) representing the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter. It is irrational, meaning it is not expressible as a ratio of two integers. Pi is transcendental, making it impossible to solve the ancient challenge of squaring the circle. Its decimal digits seem random, though no proof of this has been found.

e(mathematical constant): The constant e, approximately equal to 2.71828, serves as the base for natural logarithms. It can be derived as the limit of (1 + 1/n)n as n approaches infinity and is used in compound interest calculations. Additionally, e can be obtained as the sum of an infinite series.

0: Zero, denoted as '0', is a number that represents an empty quantity. It is the additive identity for various number systems, such as integers, rational numbers, real numbers, and complex numbers. When added to any number, it does not change the value of that number. Multiplying any number by zero results in zero, and division by zero is undefined in arithmetic.

Equation: An equation is a mathematical formula that connects two expressions with an equals sign. Different languages may have varying definitions, such as French considering equations to have variables. In English, any well-formed formula with two related expressions is considered an equation.

Infinity: Infinity refers to something without limits or restrictions, surpassing all natural numbers. Its symbol is the infinity symbol.

Mathematical proof: A mathematical proof is a deductive argument that logically guarantees a mathematical statement. It uses established statements and axioms with rules of inference. Proofs establish logical certainty and must hold true in all cases. Conjectures or hypotheses are statements believed to be true but not proven.

Number: A number is a mathematical concept used for counting, measuring, and labeling. It can be represented by number words or symbols called numerals. Numerals are organized in numeral systems, such as the Hindu-Arabic system, which allows for the representation of any non-negative integer using ten fundamental digits. Numerals are used not only for counting but also for labeling, ordering, and coding. It is important to note that a numeral and the number it represents are often used interchangeably in everyday language.

Natural number: Natural numbers are positive integers used for counting, such as 1, 2, 3, and so on. They can sometimes include zero, and are distinct from negative numbers and fractions. The term 'counting numbers' may be used to distinguish them from other types of numbers.

Integer: An integer is a number that can be zero, positive, or negative. Negative integers are the opposites of positive integers. The entire group of integers is often represented with the symbol Z.

Real number: Real numbers are mathematical entities used for measuring continuous quantities like distance, time, and temperature. They can have infinitely precise decimal representations, allowing for arbitrarily small differences between values.

Complex number: A complex number is an extension of the real numbers that includes an imaginary unit denoted as i. It can be expressed as a sum of a real part and an imaginary part. Complex numbers are considered as fundamental in mathematics and science, despite being termed "imaginary" historically. They play a crucial role in describing the natural world.

Arabic numerals: Arabic numerals (0-9) are widely used for writing numbers in a decimal system. They are also employed in other bases like octal and used for non-numerical purposes such as trademarks or license plates identifiers.

Variable (mathematics): In mathematics, a variable is a symbol representing a mathematical object like a number, function, or set element. It can represent various mathematical entities, such as vectors, matrices, arguments, or sets, for the purpose of mathematical equations and expressions.

Function (mathematics): A mathematical function assigns each element of one set to a unique element of another set. The first set is called the domain, and the second set is called the codomain.

Exponentiation: Exponentiation is a mathematical operation involving a base and an exponent. It is represented as bn, where b is the base and n is the power. When n is a positive integer, exponentiation is equivalent to repeated multiplication of the base.

Logarithm: The logarithm is the inverse of exponentiation in mathematics. It calculates the exponent to which a given base must be raised to achieve a certain number. For example, log10 (1000) equals 3, as 1000 can be expressed as 10 raised to the power of 3. The logarithm is denoted as logb (x), and can also be written as logb x or log x when the base is implied or not important. It is commonly used in big O notation and has various applications in mathematical calculations.

nth root: In mathematics, the nth root is an operation that involves two numbers: the radicand (x) and the index (n). It is written as √x, where x is the radicand and n is the index. The nth root of a number x is a number r that, when raised to the power of n, equals x.

Geometry: Geometry is a mathematical branch exploring space's properties like distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. It is one of the oldest branches and encompasses Euclidean geometry, focusing on fundamental concepts like point, line, plane, angle, surface, and curve.

Line (geometry): A line in geometry is an idealized straight object that extends infinitely in both directions, with no width, depth, or curvature. It can be thought of as a one-dimensional space and may exist within higher-dimensional spaces. In everyday language, the term line can also refer to a part of a line that is bounded by two points, known as a line segment.

Angle: An angle is a figure formed by two rays sharing a common endpoint. It can be formed in a plane or by the intersection of two planes. Angles can also be formed by intersecting curves. They are used to measure the separation or inclination between two lines or surfaces.

Polygon: A polygon is a closed shape formed by connecting line segments together on a plane.

Triangle: A triangle is a three-sided polygon and one of the fundamental shapes in geometry. It consists of three corners (or vertices) and three sides (or edges). The interior of a triangle forms a two-dimensional region. The base, chosen arbitrarily, has an opposite vertex referred to as the apex.

Conic section: A conic section is a curve formed when a plane intersects a cone's surface. The three main types are the hyperbola, parabola, and ellipse, with the circle considered a special case of the ellipse. Ancient Greek mathematicians extensively studied conic sections, with Apollonius of Perga being a significant contributor in understanding their properties.

Circle: A circle is a geometric shape formed by points in a plane equidistant from a center point called the radius.

Three-dimensional space: A three-dimensional space refers to a mathematical space that requires three values to determine the position of a point. It is commonly known as the three-dimensional Euclidean space, which models physical space. It can also refer to a subset of space, a three-dimensional region, or a solid figure.

Trigonometry: Trigonometry is a branch of math that studies the relationships between angles and side lengths of triangles. It emerged during the 3rd century BC from geometry's application in astronomy. Trigonometric functions, like sine, use ratios of side lengths to calculate angles in right triangles. Ancient Greeks calculated chords, while Indian mathematicians developed early trigonometric tables.

Topology: Topology is a branch of mathematics that studies the properties of objects that remain unchanged under continuous deformations like stretching, bending, and twisting. It focuses on preserving shape without tearing, gluing, or passing through itself.

Area: Area is a measure of size on a surface. It can refer to the size of a shape or the boundary of a three-dimensional object. It represents the amount of material or paint needed to cover a surface. Area is the two-dimensional equivalent of length or volume.

Volume: Volume is a numerical measure of three-dimensional space using SI or imperial units. It is related to length cubed and represents the capacity of a container. Additionally, the term "volume" can also refer to the corresponding region.

Algebra: Algebra is the math study of variables and their manipulation in formulas, originating from ancient Babylonian methods. It has become an integral part of various mathematical disciplines.

Linear algebra: Linear algebra is a mathematical branch studying linear equations. It deals with matrices, vectors, and linear transformations.

Statistics: Statistics is the study of collecting, organizing, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting data. It is used to address scientific, industrial, or social issues, and involves studying populations or models. It encompasses all aspects of data, including survey and experiment design.

Probability: Probability is a mathematical concept that measures the likelihood of events occurring. It is represented by a number between 0 and 1, where higher numbers indicate greater chances of an event happening. For example, when tossing a fair coin, the probability of landing on either heads or tails is equal at 1/2.

Set (mathematics): A set in mathematics is a collection of different elements, which can be numbers, symbols, shapes, or even other sets. It can be finite or infinite, and may contain no elements or just one element.

Combinatorics: Combinatorics is a branch of mathematics that deals with counting and understanding properties of finite structures. It has applications in various fields such as logic, statistical physics, evolutionary biology, and computer science.

Calculus: Calculus is the mathematical study of continuous change, similar to how geometry studies shape and algebra studies generalizations of arithmetic operations.

Limit (mathematics): A limit is a value that a function approaches when its input approaches a specific value. It is crucial in calculus and mathematical analysis as it defines continuity, derivatives, and integrals.

Series (mathematics): A series in mathematics involves adding an infinite number of quantities to a starting quantity. It is a significant topic in calculus and mathematical analysis. Series are utilized in various areas of mathematics and are also extensively applied in disciplines like physics, computer science, statistics, and finance.

Mathematical analysis: Mathematical analysis refers to the study of continuous functions and their properties. It encompasses concepts like limits, differentiation, integration, measure, infinite sequences, series, and analytic functions.

Number theory: Number theory is a branch of pure mathematics that focuses on the study of integers and arithmetic functions. It encompasses prime numbers and the properties of mathematical objects built from integers or their generalizations. German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss regarded number theory as the epitome of mathematics.

Prime number: A prime number is a natural number greater than 1 that cannot be divided evenly by any other natural number except 1 and itself. This property makes primes important in number theory. All non-prime numbers are called composite numbers. The fundamental theorem of arithmetic states that every natural number greater than 1 can be written as a unique product of prime numbers.

Algorithm: An algorithm is a set of instructions used in mathematic and computer science to solve specific problems or perform computations. They are used to specify calculations and data processing, and can include conditionals to automate decision making. The term "algorithm" draws on metaphors from human characteristics, as Turing did when using terms like "memory", "search", and "stimulus".